,/REESE LIBRARYOP THEUNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIA.t*ReceivedC^AccessionsNo._^^/_Y&44LShelfNo.THEMODERNGREEK:ITSPRONUNCIATIONANDRELATIONSTOANCIENTGREEK,WITHANAPPENDIXON THE RULES OFACCENTUATION,ETC.BYT. T.TIMAYENIS,OF THE SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATE INSTITUTE.LI B II AKYUNI V KISSITV OF(;ALIFOKNIA.NEWYORK:D.APPLETONANDCOMPANY,549 &551BROADWAY.SPRINGFIELD,MASS. :J. D.GILL,260 MAINSTREET.1877.COPYRIGHT, 1877,BY T. T. TIMAYENIS.UNIVERSITY PRESS:WELCH, BIGELOW,&Co.CAMBRIDGE.TO THEREV. M. C.STEBBINS, A.M.,PRINCIPAL OFTHESPRINGFIELDCOLLEGIATEINSTITUTE,UolumeIS MOST RESPECTFULLYDEDICATED,AS A TOKEN OF ADMIRATIONFOBDISTINGUISHED ABILITIESSUCCESSFULLYDEVOTEDTOTHEPROMOTIONOF CLASSICALLEARNING IN THISCOUNTRY,AND A MEMORIAL OF FRIENDSHIPWHICHHAS EXISTED UNBROKENDURINGMANYYEARSOFALMOSTDAILY INTERCOURSE.THEAUTHOR.PREFACE.INpreparingthisvolume,I have madefrequentuseof the"'IffToptaTI}? 'EXXrjviKfcrXdW^," bythe lateProfessorD.Mavrophredes (Smyrna,1871). ImportantaidhasalsobeenreceivedfromProfessor Geldart'sworkon"The Modern GreekLanguagein its Relation toAncient Greek." Other works which I have advan-tageouslyconsultedare,AnastasiusGeorgiades'"Trac-tatus de Elementorum GraecorumPronunciatione,"Gr.etLat., Paris,1812;"Eclaircissements tires des Lan-gues semitiquessurquelques pointsde la PronunciationGrecque";ProfessorClyde's"Romaic Greek";Sopho-cles'"RomaicGreekGrammar"and"GlossaryofLaterandByzantineGreek."Frequentreferences have beenmade also to the works of ancient and modern Greekauthors, especiallyto those that have toucheduponthesubjectof Greekpronunciation.Butmy obligationsare muchgreaterto KonstantinusOekonomos,whosework,"IJepJ irpofopasTI}? 'J^XXipwd}? .TXwcrcrT??,"St.Petersburg, 1829,has beenconstantly byme.Thesubjectof Greekpronunciationhas been oftendiscussedbyscholars since the time ofErasmus,whowas the first topropagatethat newsystemofpronun-ciationknownastheErasmiansystem.Scholarsto-day,viPREFACE.generally speaking, althoughmore or less convinced ofthe fact that the Erasmiansystemof Greekpronuncia-tion isquiteat variance with the nature of Grecianphraseology,with thetestimonyof ancientauthors,andestablishedprinciplesofhistoryandlogic, yettoleratethispronunciationbecause"theydo not see thatanygoodwill result to studentsby adoptingthepronun-ciation nowprevalentin Greece."They say,"WestudyGreek for the culture itimparts;wedo not carewhich is the truepronunciation"!Now,westudythe"queenoflanguages,"thelanguageof infiniteflexibilityand ofunequalled vigor,thelanguagewhichspeakstothe ear likeFrench,to the mind likeEnglish,thelanguagewhichpossessesa literatureenshriningworks"notonlyofimperishableinterest,but also ofimperish-ableimportanceforthedevelopmentofhumanthought";westudythelanguagewithoutwhich humanknowledgewouldappearlike theyearwithoutspring,or like thedaywithoutitsbrightsun;andyetwesay,"Wedonotcarehowwepronouncesuchalanguage"!Now,we believe with the Rev. F. W.Farrar,thatthereasonswhywespendsolongatimeinacquiringthemasteryof the Greekare,because the Greek is one ofthemostdelicateandperfectinstruments for theexpres-sion ofthoughtwhichwas ever elaboratedbythe mindofman,and because it is thereforeadmirably adapted,bothbyitspointsof resemblance to our ownand othermodernlanguages,andbyitspointsof difference fromthem,togiveus the idea or fundamentalconceptionofallGrammar;thatis,of those lawswhichregulatetheuse of the formsbywhich weexpressourthoughts.Again,theGreekbeinga"syntheticlanguage,"manyofitsadvantageslie in itscompactness, precision,andPREFACE.viibeautyof form.Now,supposewegrantthattheadvan-tageswe seek to obtain from thestudyof the Greekcannotbe increasedbyachangeofpronunciation;yet,weclaim,thatbyadoptingthepronunciationprevalentinGreece,Grecianphilologywould receive a newimpetus.Scholars in thiscountryandelsewhere,would be betterable tojudgeof theliterary productionsof the modernGreeks;theywouldbetter observehowmanyidiomsandpeculiaritiesoflanguage prevalent amongthe ancientauthors,still remainunchangedin thelanguageof themodern Greeks; and,finally,thestudyof modern lan-guagewould become easier to theyoungstudent,be-cause theeuphony, grace,andvarietyof sound andharmonyof thepronunciationof the modernGreeks,have in agreateror lessdegreebeenwroughtinto allthe modernlanguages.Hence,theirpronunciationiscomparativelyaneasymatter toattain,if one is thor-oughlydrilled in the sounds which the modern Greeksgiveto the vocal elements of theirlanguage.On theotherhand,the Erasmiansystem,an authorremarks,"causes its adherents tolo.sealldelicacy,euphony,andaccuracyofexpressionorsound."Theappendix"onaccentuation," althoughitmayseemforeignto awork of thiskind,has been added attherequestofmanyinstructors. It is to behopedthatbymeans of the ruleswhich are theregiven,thestudyof this difficult branch ofknowledgewill become easierandmoreinterestingtotheyoungstudent. Afewothergrammaticalrules have beenadded,which seem to meare notgiven fully,either in Professor Goodwin's orHadley'sGrammar. Professor Zelf's and ProfessorGennadius'Grammarshave been consulted in theprep-aration of these rules. Scholars are wont to confoundviii PREFACE.RomaicwithModernGreek,andthissadmistake,itseemstome,ismainlyto be attributed to that statement ofProfessorSophocles,who in theprefaceof his RomaicGrammarsays,"Romaic,or,as it is oftencalled,ModernGreek."Now,ProfessorClydeasserts that"thisglar-ingmistakehasinfluenced theopinionsofmanyBritishscholars,andprovesmostconclusivelythat"ProfessorSophocleshas confoundedthingswhich differ." ButnotonlyProfessorClyde,but Professor Geldart alsoremarks,"Sophocles' works, especiallyhisGrammar,requireto beusedwith caution. Fortheheadings'An-cient'and'Modern'which heplacesover his variousparadigms,should beread,innearly every case,'Lan-guageof PoliteSociety'and'Languageof the CommonPeople'or'Cultivated'and*Vernacular';for the so-calledancientformsneverdiedout,butmaynearlyallbefound inthemorecultivatedmodernGreek . . .Again,in otherwaystruth is sacrificedbyProfessorSophoclestosystem,aswhenhegivesrovrrarepa,rovavopa,asthemodern Greek forrovirarpds,rovdvSpos.Theseformsoccurnodoubt,butthe classical formsaremorecommoneveninthevernacular." . . .ButthereasonwhyProfessorSophocles,aGreek him-self,and a scholar of sodistinguishedareputation,hascommitted so seriousamistake is to beattributed tothefact that he left Greecemany years ago,whenquiteayoung man,andwheneducation in Greecewasin a sadcondition.Hence,ProfessorSophoclesis familiar withthevernacularGreekof histimes,whichinfactmightbe called "RomaicGreek,"but since theemancipa-tion of Greece and the establishment of theUniversityand other schools oflearning"RomaicGreek"has en-tirely disappeared,and in its stead the modernGreek,PREFACE.IXwhichis thenewestphaseof the oldGreek,hasresumeditsplace.It is notmypurposenow,noris thistheplace,to statefully thedistinctionthereexistsbetweenRomaicandMod-ernGreek. Suffice it tosay,that this difference cannotbe better indicated inbrief,thanbythat which existsbetween"broadScotch "and"goodEnglish."ProfessorClyde says"there arephrasesin one unknown to theother,like the famous'neffow o'glawr,'which all theEnglishofGeorgeIV. and his boastedknowledgeofScotch toboot,were not able toexplain."Thereremains for me thepleasant dutyoftenderingmywarmestthanks,first ofall,to the Rev.M.C. Steb-bins, principalof theSpringfield Collegiate Institute,withoutwhose valuable assistance I doubt muchif thisvolumewouldhaveeverseenthelight.Notonlyhashiskindandvaluable service aidedmuchintheconstructionoftheplanandthedevelopmentof thework,butalso alltheproofshavepassedunder his criticaleye.Shouldthis work everaccomplishthe mission for which theauthorsendsit outintotheworld,its successwillmainlybeduetohisbroadandthoughtfulscholarship.To ProfessorW.S.Tyler,D.D.,of AmherstCollege,to Professor E.AnagnosofBoston,and to all otherswhohavehonored this workwith their favorablenotice,Ibegto returnmythanks.Last,butnotleast,Imusttendermythanks toapersonaland esteemedfriend,S.HolmanEsq.,for theverykindencouragementI havereceived while this work wasyetinembryo.With the valuableassistanceof sucha scholar as theRev.M.C.Stebbiris,mytaskmightwell have been exe-cutedfarbetterthan it is. Butsuchas itis,Icommititveryhumblyto thejudgmentof thepublic;but with aXPREFACE.comfortabledegreeof confidence thatits deficiencies willbecharitablyregardedbythosewho are bestqualifiedtoappreciatethe difficultiesnecessarilyattendantuponthediscussionofthetopicshereintreated.T. T. TIMAYENIS.SPRINGFIELD COLLEGIATEINSTITUTE,SPRINGFIELD, MASS., September 1,1877.CONTENTS.PART I.CHAP.PAGEI. PRONUNCIATION OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE . 1II. THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM .... 6III. LOCAL PECULIARITIES ..... 9IV. MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MOD-ERN GREEKPRONUNCIATION ... 15V. NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEKPRONUN-CIATION23VI. PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE . . 25VII. MODERN GREEK LITERATURE .... 39VIII. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE OLD ATTIC ANDTHE MODERN GREEK . . . . 94IX. ACCENT ANDQUANTITY99X. THE ASPIRATE . . . . . 139PART II.I. THEALPHABET 143II. SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS ....144III. DIGRAPHS . 153xii CONTENTS.IV. SOUNDS OF THE DIPHTHONGS . . . 155V. THE CONSONANTS167VI. COMBINATIONS OF CONSONANTS . . . 192VII. EXAMPLES OF MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIA-TION....194APPENDIX.RULES OF ACCENTUATION201PART I.CHAPTERI.ONTHEPRONUNCIATIONOFTHEGREEKLANGUAGE.'EAXas/xVlore/a'a,iroA-ets 8eavroi)TIV',ot 8'""EAAr/ve?6KtopiKosTrapaAtKatdp^w,anotnr.26.)THEpronunciationof theGreeklanguagethatisprevalentinGreece,bids fair to find itswayinto the schools and universities of the OldWorldandthe New. Scholarseverywhere,aftermuchdiscussion,arecomingto the conclusion"that thepronunciationof the modernGreeks,even if it is not identical with theancient,musthaveacloserresemblanceto theold than thatoftheWestern nations." It ishightime, therefore,thatscholars shouldadoptinthiscountry,andinfactwherevertheGreeklanguageisstudied,thepronunciation prevalentinGreece, which,aswewill endeavor toprove,must have a closer re-semblance to the old thananyotherpronuncia-tionnowin use.Whyit is that so little attention2ON THE PRONUNCIATION,ispaidin thiscountryto thewaythe modernGreekspronouncetheirlanguagewe will noticehereafter. Butit is worth whileto considerhoweagerwe are toacquirea correctpronunciationwhenwestudyaforeignlanguage,andhowcare-less inpronouncing"thelanguage"inwhich tlieloftiestanddeepestthoughtswereexpressed.Perhapsthe ideaprevailsthat after the fall ofGreece,which dates from the war of the Pelo-ponnesus,"Greece notonlysaw hergreatnessfall,but herspoken languagealsopassinto ob-livion." Howmistaken, indeed,hemustbe,whosupposesthat the traditionallanguageof theGreeks is athingof thepast,is evident fromwhat follows. Itmaybetrue,that after Greecehad become a Romanprovinceshesaw,withliberty,thearts, sciences,and literature fall intodecadence. Itmaybe true that there were nomore such statesmen andgreat captainsasThemistocles, Miltiades, Leonidas, Pausanias,Aristides,andCimon;nomoregreatorators likePericles, Isocrates, Demosthenes,and .ZEschines;no morepoetslikeSophocles, Euripides,andPindar;no more historians likeHerodotus,Thucydides, Xenophon,Ctesias,andPolybius;no morephilosopherslikePythagoras,Socrates,Plato,and Aristotle;no moresculptorslikePhidias and Praxiteles;no morepainterslikeApelles,andZeuxis,andParrhasius,yettheOF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.3Greeksneverlosttheirlanguage.Inspiteof theinvasions of theGoths,of theBulgarians,of theArabs,and of theTurks,the Greeklanguage,Irepeat,neverceasedtobespokenbythedescend-ants of the ancient Hellenes.Now,let not thereader do metheinjusticetosupposethat Iamundulyinfluencedbypatriotisminmystate-ments.Myobjectis topresentfacts,to dealwithfacts,andtopresentthemintheirtruelight.If thereareanydefects in thepronunciationofthe modernGreeks,Iwill not hesitate topointthemout.Thereisperhapsnonationinthehistoryoftheworldwhichhassuffered somanyinvasions,fromsomanydifferent races;yet,farfromyieldingtothe direful influencesbearing uponher,she hassucceeded inpreserving manyof the virtuesof herillustriousancestors,togetherwiththe lan-guage,with so littlechange,achangelessthan\that between theEnglishof Chaucer and theEnglishofto-day.It is wonderful that the Greeks were able topreservetheirlanguageunder themanyvicissi-tudes which the nation had topass through,especiallywhile under the Turkishyoke.It isperhapsthis that causesmanyto disbelieve thefactthattheGreek is asreallyalivinglanguageas it was in thedaysof Homer.Tobearinmind the various means the Turksadoptedto4ON THE PRONUNCIATIONkill,sotospeak,theGreeklanguage,thecrueltyandbarbaritytheyexercised over theconqueredpeople, might perhaps prepareone to believethat"itwasburiedinaquietgraveandhadgivenplacetoadegeneratescion,or had at best sunkinto thedotageof asecondchildhood."Andyet, nothingis more true than the state-ment,that the Greek is astrulyalivinglan-guageas it was in thedaysof Homer. Toexpressmysentiments,I candonobetterthantousethewords of anEnglishwriter,whosaysonthissubject,"That it is astrangeandunparal-leledfactthatoneof the oldestknownlanguagesintheworld,alanguagein whichthe loftiestanddeepest thoughtsof thegreatest poets,thewisestthinkers,thenoblest, holiest,andbestofteachers,have,directlyorindirectly,found their utterancein^thefar-offagesof ahoarantiquity,shouldatthisdaybethelivingspeechofmillionsthrough-outtheEastofEurope,andvariouspartsofAsiaMinor andAfrica;that it should have survivedthe fall ofempires,and risenagainandagainfromtheruins ofbeleagueredcities,deluged,butneverdrowned,byfloodsofinvading barbarians,Romans, Celts, Slaves,Goths andVandals,Avars, Huns, Franks,and Turks;oftenthelan-guageof thevanquished, yetnever of thedead;with features searedby yearsandservice,yetstillessentiallythesain^,instinct withthe fireOF THE GREEK LANGUAGE.5oflife,and beautiful with thememoryof thepast."ProfessorA.N.Arnoldsays,"Thelanguageof Greece hasundergoneno revolutionsince thetimeof theAttichistorians,philosophers, orators,andpoets.Throughallthe successive invasionsandconquestsof thecountry, bytheRomans,theGoths,theHuns,theSclavonians,the Cru-saders,theVenetians,and theTurks,the basisof thepopulationand the substance of the lan-guagehave survivedunchanged.There hasnever been aperiodwhen there were not somewho wrote Greek with a fairapproachto AtticparitySince the time ofHomer,theGreekhasneverbeenadeadlanguage.WesternEurope bythat libelonly proclaimedher ownignoranceand shame. If there has beenatimewhen even Atheniansspokea wretchedpatois,there were even at that time educated men andwomen inConstantinoplewhospokeand wrotethelanguageinastylewhich would have beenquite intelligible,notonlyto Plutarch and Pau-sanias,butalsoto PericlesandPlato."LIr,HAUYOKCHAPTER II.THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM.ATthe firstappearanceof theTurkishsuprem-acyinGreece,hundreds of families fled to theWest ofEurope, bearingwith them thatverysystemofpronunciationwhich notonlytheGreeks stilluse,butwhich learnedEuropeuni-versallyalloweduntilthetimeof Erasmus.The Erasmiansystemof Greekpronunciationwasproposedaboutthebeginningofthe sixteenthcentury.Humeinforms us that thenewsystemwasvigorously opposed;it also divided theGreciansthemselves(at Oxford)intoparties.Thepenaltiesinflicted foradoptingthe newpronun-ciation were no less thanwhipping, degradation,andexpulsion;and theBishopdeclaredthat,rather thanpermitthe newpronunciationof theGreek,itwerebetterthatthelanguageitself weretotallybanished the universities.(HistorvofEngland,Ch.XXXIIL,A. D.1547.)Atpresent manyseemto be satisfied that it isbest foreveryonetopronounceGreek after theanalogyof his own vernaculartongue.ThisTHE ERASMIAN SYSTEM.7of coursegivesrise to asmanymodesofreadingGreekas there are modernlanguagesinEurope.And it isworthyof notice that"nosystemofGreekpronunciationconflicts oftener with thedirecttestimonyof the ancientgrammarians,aswell as with the establishedprinciplesof theGreeklanguage,thanthatwhich takes theEng-lish for its basis." ProfessorSophoclesattributesit to thefactthatinnootherEuropean languageis thesameletterorcombinationof lettersofteneremployedto denote more than one soundornosound at all.However,some maintain that anEnglishman,forinstance,learns Greek moreeasilybyattemptingtopronounceit as if it wereEnglish.This cannot betrue,for"Englishorthoepyisconfessedlycomplicatedanddiscour-^aging,even when it confines itself to its ownlanguage."Now,thegeneral uniformityof modernGreekpronunciation,wherever thelanguageisspoken,isvery strong argumentfor itsantiquity,andagainstitsbeingacorruption resultingfromcon-tact with otherlanguages.In theSpanishdia-lectweclearlytrace the influence ofArabic,inItalian ofTeutonic,in Frenchof Celtic sounds;inGreek,ontheotherhand,thoughthe countrieswhere it isspokenare aswidelydistant and theforeigninfluences to whichit hasbeensubjectasdiverse,we findgenerallythe same traditional8 THE ERASMIAN SYSTEM.pronunciationamonglearnedandunlearnedalike.InEgypt,in AsiaMinor,on the shores of' theEuxine,inConstantinople,inAthens,inCrete,inthe^Egean,thepronunciationpresentsthegreat-estharmonyinrespectto those letters onwhichthewholecontroversyturns.CHAPTER III.LOCAL PECULIARITIES.THE same localpeculiaritieswhich existed inthe different sectionsofancientGreece arepreva-lentin those sectionsto-day.TheSpartanof to-day,liketheSpartanofold,usesthe sameshort,cutting,laconicexpressions.Heis inclinedtoanactive life ofwarfare,differingin thisrespectfrom the modernAthenian,whopossessesthesameelegancein hisbearingandexpressionasthe Athenianof old. Itmaynotbeoutofplacetoremark thatmanyof thesuperstitiousnotionsof the ancients are stillprevalent, especiallyamongthe commonpeopleof Asia Minor. Forinstance,accordingtoHerodotus,when Xerxeswasmarchingto invadeGreece. ....evpttVe/caScopTycra/xe^o?a) aOavara)avopieTTLTpeifjasNow,it is curious to notice that this customofhangingtrinkets to"Orientalplanes" (plata-ni)is stillprevalentinAsiaMinor. Thepeoplehangtrinketsto suchoftheplane-treesashappento strike theirfancy.It is a custom with the10 LOCAL PECULIARITIES.peopleof thatcountry,forwhichI doubtwhethertheythemselvescan account. It issimplyacus-tomhanded down fromgenerationtogeneration,and from whicn neither time noranyother in-fluencehasbeenableto dissuadethem.Again,the samestrongholdreligionhaduponthegreatmass of thepeopleis stillprevalent,especiallyin some of the islands of the Archi-pelago,such asIcaria, Rhodes,and the interiorof Asia Minor. Mr.Alexander S.Murrayin hismanual ofmythologyenumeratesmanyof thesuperstitiousnotions of the ancientGreeks, and,infact,it isastonishingto consider that neithertime norChristianityitself could dissuade thepeoplefrommanyof thosereligiousnotions.Now,it is awell-knownfact,that it was in thefirm belief of his interestsbeingthespecialcareof adeity,that the husbandman sowed his seedandwatched the vicissitudes of itsgrowth;thatthe sailor and trader intrusted life andpropertyto thecapricioussea.To-day,the husbandmanof AsiaMinorsowshis seedunderthefirm beliefthat St.Georgeor St. Jameswill watch over hisinterestsandwillbringto himanabundant har-vest. The sailor and the trader intrust life andpropertyto St.Nicolas, who,bytheway,is thepatronof allseafaring people.In thecityofSmyrna,inaparishcalledu*Ava)Ma^aXa?,""theupper parish,"there is asortof acavernLOCAL PECULIARITIES.11called"17 Kpvrj Tlavayid"the secretvirgin.This"secretvirgin"is considered thepatronofmechanics,and herplaceisdailythrongedbyall classes ofworkingmen,who,inofferingapartof theirscanty earningstoher,earnestly praythat shemaynot cease to exercise her influenceover theirrespective callings.Now,it is afact,that in ancient times the mechanic traced theskill andhandicraft,whichgrew unconsciouslyuponhimbythepractice,to the direct influenceof aGod. 'I knewof apoetin AsiaMinor,bythe name ofGeorgeKanares(Feajpytos Kavdprjs)who,afewyearsago,wrote aninteresting poemand dedicated it to hispatronsaint,St. Eustha-thios ! In Mr.Murray's mythology,we noticethat artists ascribed themysteriousevolutionof theirideas,andpoetstheinspirationof theirsong,to"asupremecause."-Everywhereinnature was felt thepresenceofaugust,invisiblebeings,in thesky,with its luminaries andclouds;on thesea,with itsfickle,changefulmovements;ontheearth,withitsloftypeaks,itsplainsand rivers.To-day,old women in theEastpretendto cure all sorts of diseasesduringfullmoon,andbytheinfluenceofcertaininvisiblebeingswho inhabit certain stars. Old womenpretendto curepimpleson the facebyrubbingmudon itduringfull moon.Again,the deitiesof the ancients wererepresentedasimmortal,and,being immortal,theywerenext,as a con-12LOCAL PECULIARITIES.sequence, supposedto beomnipotentandomnis-cient. Theirphysicalstrength wasextraordinary,the earthshakingsometimes under their tread.St.George to-dayisrepresentedasridingon afierysteed,withaspearin his hand with whichhe killedafierydragon lyingat the feet of hishorse.Mythologyteaches us that there weretales ofpersonalvisits andadventuresoftheGodsamongmen,taking partinbattles andappearingin dreams.Now,thegreaterpartofthosepecul-iar-lookingbarracks the so-called churchesthat are seennestledontopof hills andscatteredhither andthither,in theinteriorof AsiaMinor,were erected because some devout Christian de-clared that suchasaintappearedtohimorderingtheerection of achurchtohismemory! Inpray-ingit wasa custom of the ancients to lift theirhandsandturnthefacetowardsthe east. Thisisstill thepracticeoftheignorantclassesinAsiaMi-nor. Here is aspecimenof what seems to havebeentheusualformofprayingamongtheancientGreeks:"Zeus,ourLord,giveuntouswhateverisgood,whetherweask it of theeorriot;what-everis evilkeepfarfromus,evenif weaskit ofthee." Thepeasantinthe Eastto-day,inpray-ing,will lift hishands and turn his face towardstheeast,andwillsayinalowtone,asappearstohave been the ancientcustom,"MyGod,ourLord,Ipraytothee,giveuswhateverisgood,andkeepfar from uswhateverisevil,evenif weaskLOCAL PECULIARITIES. 13it of thee." This is averycommon form ofprayer,whichwashandeddown,as itseems,fromgenerationtogeneration. Pythagoras,thephi-losopher, taughthis followers topraywithaloudvoice;but loudprayersdo notappearto havebeencustomary.Sneezingwasregardedassomethingdivine;andXenophoninformsus, that,ononeoccasion,asoldierhappeningtosneeze,all thosepresent,withoneaccord,bowedto theGod. "Touro Se Xe-yovrosavrovTTTapvvTairt? cx/coucraz^re?8* olcrTpa-Tio)TOLiTTOLVTZS/uaopp,rj TrpocreKvvrjcravrovOeov." . . .To-day,ifanyonehappensto sneeze after nineo'clockintheevening,thepeasantsofAsiaMinorarewont topourwine on theground. Finally,wemust notforgettomention,asaproofof thewide-spread religious feelingof the ancientGreeks,the national festivals orgames,such astheOlympian, Pythian, Nemean,andIsthmian,maintained in honor of certain Gods.To-day,likewise,thepeasantof theEast,incelebratingthefeast of hispatronsaint,suspendsall businessandcelebrates thedaywithfestivals anddancing,cordial invitationsbeingextendedtobothfriendsandfoes,a custom which was in existenceamongthe ancientGreeks,because it is wellknown thattheyused tosuspendwhatever warmightbegoingonbetweenseparatestates,andtopermitvisitors topassunmolested,eventhroughhostile territories.14LOCAL PECULIARITIES.Thistendencytopolytheismiscertainlyarem-nant of thereligionof the ancient Greeks. Al-though Christianityhas shed itslightin AsiaMinor andontheislands of theArchipelago,thepeopleareaddictedtothosesuperstitiousnotions,andtheywill never beabandonedsolongasthebarbarousTurk holdsswayoverthose countries.IntheKingdomofGreecethepeopleareenlight-ened,andfreefrommost of thesuperstitiousno-tions oftheirbrethrenin the East.Letusnot, however,forgetthattheinhabitantsof AsiaMinor arepraiseworthyinretainingthelanguageof their illustrious ancestors. I havealludedto the"localpeculiarities"whichare stillprevalent,in order to showthat the Greeks arearemarkablyconservative race.AlthoughtheTurksprohibited,underpenaltyofdeath,theGreeklanguagetobespokenortaughtanywherein GreeceProperor in AsiaMinor;althoughawarof exterminationwascarriedonbythem,notonlyagainstthepeople,butagainsttherenownedmonuments ofantiquity;althoughallteachers,whenpointed out,wereinstantlymurdered,andthe silencewhichreignedin thatcountryoncethe home of the hero and the statesman re-sembled the silence of an oldcemetery,theGreeks succeeded inkeeping uptheirschools,and thuskepttheirlanguage,inspiteof theiroppressors.CHAPTER IV.MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THE MODERNGREEK PRONUNCIATION.ONE cause thatmakesscholars so averseto theadoptionof the modern Greekpronunciationisthe belief that the Greeks must have lost theirlanguage, owing mainlyto the invasions of somanybarbaroustribes,towhichGreece for cen-turiessubmitted,until theyear1821,when theWar ofIndependencewasproclaimed,whichterminated inthrowingoff the Turkishyoke.Buthowerroneousthis idea! AnEnglishwritersays"that it seemshardlytoo much tosaythatourconduct in thisregardshowsakindof liter-aryingratitude,whichoughtto shock ourmoralsense. Greecehas,in variousages, preservedtousthe succession ofculture,whentherest of theearthwas overrunwithsavages.For us it hasheldthe citadel of civilizationagainstthe barba-rismof theworld,andnowthedangeris overwehaveforgottenourbenefactor,and trouble our-selves little how it fares with him!" The caseremindsusof thewordsofthe Preacher:"Therewasalittlecity,andfewmenwithinit;andthere16MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THEcameagreat king againstit,andbesiegedit,andbuiltgreatbulwarksagainstit. Nowtherewasfound in it apoorwiseman,and hebyhis wis-domdeliveredthecity;yetnomanrememberedthatsamepoorman." ....WhyforgetthatduringthetimewhenTurkeyheld control overGreece,and when Greeceseemed dead to the rest of theworld;whentheTurks,Irepeat,hadprohibited,underpenaltyofdeath,the Greeklanguageto bespoken any-where within theirdomain,often some remotechurchamongthe defiles of themountains,andfar from theTurks,used to serve as aschool,where the Greeklanguagewastaughtandspoken?Whyforgetthat the Greeks had sub-terranean schools inConstantinople,theverycapitalofTurkey,where,under learned Greekprofessors,the Greeklanguagewasby nighttaughtto thousands of Greeks?Now,in thosesupernaturalefforts,sotospeak,onthepartoftheGreeks,lies the wholemysteryof their successinpreservingtheirlanguage.No! Not for amomenthastheGreekforgot whowerehisances-tors;not foramoment hashethoughtofgivinguphislanguage.Time,andthe invasions ofbar-barians,had no effect whatever tochangeordemoralize either thepeopleor thelanguage.Idiomaticexpressions, peculiaritiesoflanguage,socommonamongthe ancientGreekauthors,areMODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.17tobeheard,evento-day,inthe different sectionsof Greece.Foreignwords arerigorouslyex-cluded;and evenin thepublic pressthe namesofforeign newspapers,sometimes also offoreignplaces,aresubjectedto translation.Thus,theTimes is known as 6XpoVo?,the New YorkHerald,as 6Kyjpvg 7775Ne'as'TopKrjs,etc.;andwhereas it would sound ridiculous to call"LepalaisdesTuileries" thepalaceof theTileworks,it isactuallytranslatedbytheu'A^a/cropara^Kepa^iaiv"in modernGreek.Itmaybewell here to state that it is fromtheancientgrammarianswe learn thepronunciationof the Greeklanguage.Moreover,a scholaraffirms thatDionysiusofHalicarnassus,byre-ferringthe Greekalphabeticalsounds to theirproper organs,has,as itwere,embalmed themfor our use. Sothat,knowingthesefacts,wecan assert that the modern Greekpronunciationhas a closer resemblance to the ancient Greekthananyotherexistingpronunciation.Again,this is evident from the clearness anddistinctnesswith which the educated classes es-peciallypronounce.It is evident from the strik-ingsimilaritywhichexists inpronouncingGreekin all the countries where the modern Greekpronunciationisprevalent.InGreece,in AsiaMinor,inEgypt,on theislands,one and thesamepronunciationexists. It isagainevident18MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING THEtkfrom thepurityofstylewith which thepapersare edited in Greece. It is evidentfromthefactthattheGreekhistorians,suchasXenophon.andHerodotus,are thedelightofeveryGreekwhoreads them asunderstandinglyas theaverageAmerican does thehistoryof his owncountry.TakethelastparagraphoftheOlympianOration,deliveredbyProfessorPhilipposloannou,onthesecondanniversaryof the modernOlympiads,A.D.,1870. Thesubjectof the orationis,"TheIntellectualProgressof the Greek Nation fromtheWar ofIndependenceto the Present Time."IntheclosingparagraphProfessorArnoldstates :"Embracingabout apageand ahalf ofcloselyprintedoctavo,there are aboutfiftyverbs,everyone of which is found in Liddell and Scott'sancient Greek lexicon. .... Ofseventy-fiveoreightynouns,all but onearefoundintheabove-namedlexicon,and this oneissimplyamodifica-tion of a well knownroot,familiar to Greekscholars,andrepresented byseveralcognatewords(Trayia>T7? s)Ofaboutfiftyadjectives,all but one are found in thelexicon,andof thisonethecorrespondingadverb is found.Indeed,theadjectiveitself is foundinPickering'slexicon.Allthenounsandadjectives,withouttheslightestexception,are declined as in the ancientgram-mars.Among eightor ten differentpronouns,personal,relative, demonstrative,andcompound,MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.19occurringin all abouttwenty-fourtimes,there isonlyone instance ofdeparturefrom ancientusage.Of tenadverbs,theonlyone not be-longingtotheancientlanguageis thenegativeSe*>(contractionforouSe*/)insteadof ovorOVK. Thismodernformis usedtwice,and the ancientform,ov^i,also occurstwice. Soslightis thedifferencebetween the Greeklanguageof B. C. 400 andthat of A. D. 1870."Now,is this not aproofthat thelanguagemust beessentiallythesame?And does notidentityoflanguage necessarilyimply identityof sound? How is it that thepeopleof Athensrecentlyfilled the ancienttheatre of Bacchus tooverflowing,towitnesstherepresentationofAntigonein ancient Greek?How is it that the Athenianheart,everfinelysusceptibleto the sentiments ofhumanity,gaveevidenceby manya tear that thepeoplewhowitnessed it were imbuedwith thespiritof thetragedy,and felt in theirveryhearts thepathosof thepiece? Towhatdoyouattribute all thisITowhat canit beattributedbut to the fact thatthe"ancient Greek"isto-day essentiallytheliving languageof the modern Greeks? Whatmoreneedbesaidinfavorofadoptingthe modernGreekpronunciation,which aloneis thetruepro-nunciationof the Greeklanguage?The Rev. JohnGroves,adistinguishedGreekscholar,asserts that"Wehave,afteranexamina-20MISTAKEN NOTIONS CONCERNING- THEtionmade with no littlelabor,formedadecidedopinionthat thepronunciationof the Greeksliasundergoneverylittlechangefor'TWO THOUSANDYEARS/ The writtenlanguageitself has beenpreservedingreater purity, duringanequalex-tent ofyears,thananyof theEuropeanlan-guagesof the same stock." He is inclined tobelieve,with anintelligenttraveller inGreece,that the"contemporaryof William of Malmes-buryorof FroissartwouldfindmoredifficultyinconversingwithhismoderncountrymenthananyAthenianof thepurerageswithhis."BishopHorsleyremarksthat itmayreasonablybesupposedthat thepronunciationof theGreeklanguage,even in the time ofEustathius,whichflourished in thebeginningof thethirteenth cen-tury,much more resembled thepronunciationof the bestagesthananythingwecansubstitutefor it now;certainlymuchmore than our BAR-BAROUS recitation ofGreek,CORRUPTEDbyourbadwayofsoundingit. To the same effect istheopinionof awell-knownEnglishauthor,whohas bestowed as muchattentionuponthesubjectofpronunciation generallyas"anywriterof ourage."Thereseems,saysMr.Midford,noreason-ablegroundfordoubtingthat thepresent politepronunciationofConstantinopleapproachesnearerto thespeechof the ancient Greeks than thatofanyothermoderns,withany advantagetheMODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION. 21studycangive,and that in order to obtain thenearestpossible approximationto the ancientGreekpronunciationwe cando nootherwaysowellas toadopttheConstantinopolitan.Furthermore,theUniversityofCambridgeinEnglandhascandidly acknowledgedthattheEnglishare almostsingularin theerroneousandvitiatedpronunciationof the Greeklanguage.And,in a well-knownliterary journal,a writerhasremarked,instronglanguage:"Itis,I be-lieve,anundisputedfact,that ourpronunciationof Greek bears not theslightestresemblance tothat of the ancients Aremedyshould befound Great attentionoughttobepaidtothepronunciationof the modernGreeks,....which mustobviouslyapproximatemore to thestandard of the ancients than the methodpreva-lentinEnglandandelsewhere."Again,it is anundisputedfact,thatbystudy-ingthe Greek as aliving language,andbyadoptingthe modernGreekpronunciation,manyidioms of modern Greekmaybeemployedinamanner hitherto unlockedfor,in the criticismofdocumentsof doubtfulage,as,forexample,theGospelof St.John,withaviewofdeterminingtheperiodatwhichtheywerewritten.Professor Geldart asserts that the relation be-tweenaccentandquantityinpoetrycanneverbefullynorfairly judged by anyone who is not22MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.familiarwiththesoundofGreekreadaccentually,afamiliaritywhich canhardlybeacquiredapartfrom apractical acquaintancewith Greek as aliving, spoken language.Furthermore,"thepronunciationofGreek,andtheinterchangeof certain letters withinthelimitsof the Greeklanguage,is a sealedmysterytothosewho areignorantof the soundswhich theGreeks of thepresent daygiveto the letters oftheiralphabetandtheirseveralcombinations."Finally,asexactlythe same lettersappeartobeinterchangeableinancient andmodernGreek,we hold it to be in itself thestrongestproofofthegeneralidentityofmodernandancientGreekpronunciation.But we will notice thispointhereafter. We will no1^proceedto discuss thesubject concerningtheneglectof the modernGreekpronunciation.CHAPTER V.NEGLECT OF THE MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.AFTER theforegoingconsiderations,thereadermaybecurioustoknowwhyscholarsare soloathtoadoptthepronunciation prevalentinGreece.For,infact,howcan the Western nations eversupposethat theirpronunciationiscorrect,whenthey pronouncetheGreek,which is thelivinglanguageof millions ofpeople, accordingto thesoundof theirrespectivelanguages? Is this notaregrettableconfusion?Now,would it not bebettertohavefortheGreekoneuniformpronun-ciation,such as we have foreveryotherspokenlanguage?The reasons for thisneglectaremanyandvarious. With learned menof the old school itisdue,veryprobably,"to a certainantiquarianbent ofmind,amountingto apositive prejudiceagainst everythingmodern." Professor Geldartiscertainly right,when hesays,that with suchscholars the fact that alanguageisdead, is,ofitself,thebestreasonforstudyingit,forgettingthat"aliving dogis better than a dead lion."24MODERN GREEK PRONUNCIATION.Tosuch,thediscoverythattheGreekis asreallyalivinglanguageas it wasinthedaysofHomer,canhardlybeexpectedtoprovewelcome. Themanner of life which suchpersonslead is notinaptlyexpressedinthewordsofSouthey:"Mydaysamongthedeadarepassed.AroundmeIbehold,Where'erthesecasualeyesarecast,Themightymindsof old:Mynever-failingfriends arethey,WithwhomIconversenightandday."Theremainingreasonsforthisneglect,ProfessorGeldart attributes to"thepoliticalinsignificanceof thenation;theobscurityof its literature;thesmallpracticaluse of thelanguage;andlast,butperhapsnot theleast,theprevalenceof theErasmiansystemofpronunciation."CHAPTER VI.PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE."(EDIPUS. Wherearewenow,mydearAntigone?Knowestthoutheplace?ANTIGONE. FarasmyeyescanreachI seeacityWithloftyturretscrowned;andif I errnot,Thisplaceis sacred;bythelaurelshade,Oliveandvinethickplanted,andthesongsOfnightingalesweetwarblingthroughtheyear."THEpoliticalinsignificanceofGreececannotbeofverylongduration. ApeoplewhichhasmadesuchrapidstridesineducationastheGreeknation,since itsindependencewasestablished,must "beworthsomething,after all."Professor Feltonsaid,in reference to theUniversityofAthens,"Thatmanyof itsprofessorswoulddohonor toanyuniversityofEurope";and it is notsayingtoo much when Isaythat theUniversityofAthensisacknowledgedto-dayasoneof theverybestuniversities ofEurope.General educationiswidelyspreadinGreece,and no nation sur-passesthe modern Greeks "ingeneralinforma-tion."But in order that the readermayfullyunderstand theastonishing progressthe Greeks26PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.have made in thesciences, arts,andliterature,thatis tosay,incivilization,since1832,theyearwhenGreecewasdeclared anindependent king-dom,it isnecessarythat Ipreface myremarksbya briefdescriptionof thecountrybefore theoccurrence of that memorable event."BeforeIfartherin thetale dopass,ItseemethmeaccordantuntoreasonTotellyouall,theconditionOfeachofthem,so as it seemethme,Andwhotheywere,andof whatdegree,Andekeinwhatarraytheyall werein."In 1821 ageneralwaragainstthe Turks wasdeclared,and,afterawarof sevenyearsamostcruelandatrociouswar theGreekssucceededinobtainingtheirliberty.Educationduringthoseyears,andpreviousto1821,was indeedinasadcondition. The Turkswouldpermitthe Greekstohavechurches,buttheywouldnotpermitthemto haveany"regularschools." The Greeksaccordinglyturnedmanyof their churches intoschool-houses,and here is a faithfuldescriptionof one of those "schools"bya Greek whoattended one of them:"The rich were wont toattend the subterranean schools established inConstantinople, Smyrna,and other cities. Theseschools weregenerally taught byable andscholarlymen,who had studied inGermany.Thepoorattendedthe schools held in the church.PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.27Theschoolwaskeptattheentranceofthechurch,and our teacher was thepriest,a man of notextensiveacquirements.Wewentatabouteighto'clockin themorning,andwererangedin twolines in theporch,one on each side of the door.The children sat onsheepskins spreadon thefloorwiththewoolup,thefloorbeingsweptveryclean. Sometimeswewererangedroundagainstthewall,without distinction ofageorclass,brothersbeing generallyplacedtogether,andthegirlsin anothergroup.The exercisesbeganateighto'clock,byallstanding,while aprayerwasrepeated bythe teacher. Thenwe all said theCreed. Thepriestthenrepeatedthepsalmbe-ginning'Eleeson me oTheos,'which is muchusedbyus in ancientGreek,of which I un-derstood themeaningwhen a littleboy.Itneeded not a translation. When this wasdone,theboysbegantoread,oneatatimegoingwithhisbookto themaster,who correctedanyerrors.There were twoclasses,one in analphabetbook,called'phillada'(leaves);the other inthePsalter,or the'Apostles.'ThelApostles'contained the Acts and all theEpistles.Boththe Psalter and thelApostles'were in ancientGreek. Each scholar had a fewlines toread,which he studied as a lesson at his seat. Wenever studiedmathematics,aswedidafterwards,in the school of OekonomosinSmyrna,This28PROSPECTIVE STATUS OF GREECE.school of Oekonomos was what Imayterm a'privateschool.' Afew such schoolsweretobefoundinAsiaMinoratthat time. Buttheyweregenerally placedunder theprotectionof someEuropean power,and thustheywere left un-molested. To thisday,theEvangelical CollegeinSmyrna,thoughaGreekinstitution,endowedbyaGreek,is under theprotectionofEngland.After dinnerwelearned to write. Threeorfoursmall sheets ofpapersewedtogether,without acover,served for each of the olderboys,whousedtowritewithlarge crow-quills.Thesequillswereverydurable. Theshepherds suppliedusfrom the birdstheykilled. Thepensweremendedbythe master. Wesat onsheepskins,as Imentioned,spreadon thefloor,andplacedthepaperonour kneeswith ourinkstandsbesideus. The mastergaveacopyof thealphabetalone to eachlearner,and afterwards a line ormore,writtenalwaysin a small hand. All theexercise of theafternoon,for twoorthreehours,wasinwriting.Beforethe close ofschool-hours,thewritingwas shown to themaster,whopun-ished thenegligent by ferulingtheir hands.Greatoffences werepunishedbybastinadoonthefeet.*Thiswasperformedafterthe Turkish man-ner,byliftingthefeetup.Inoursandtheneigh-boringvillagesofpoorGreeks,theboyscarriedeveryweek tenparas (twoand a halfcents),orViJV. VcaOe(T0r)V /Lterarwv OV\WVJJLOVTOJJLZVr/./J *vJVjt.'r >/aTrag eviKfjaaavrcov Kau avrot,i]fyw(jav/ue* fTroirjcraVY]V fiTawrwv Kai,w^oadv pot,TO, et^coXaavrwv,xaiMODERN GREEK LITERATURE.41TOVOpKOVCiVTWVO>9Kd\OI, L(7LVavOpCOTTOl,'et