modern Greek literature Author: Dia Mary L. Philippides In search … · ptn f rt (266, th ltrl rfrtlztn f th t ltr hd rd rlt. "rtn Rnn" ltr tr h t p n th lt 6th t rl th ntr (th tr

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In search of patterns in classical andmodern Greek literature

Author: Dia Mary L. Philippides

http://escholarship.bc.edu

In Search of Patterns in Classicaland Modern Greek Literature*

by DIA M.L. PHILIPPIDES

The passage below (Euripides's Medea 476-513), 1 the first ofthe play's three major confrontations between Medea, the wrongedwife, and Jason, the husband who had betrayed her trust (the fullconfrontation actually runs 11. 446-626), is an illustration of anextraordinary incidence of metrical variation in the dialogue meter(the iambic trimeter) of ancient Greek tragedy:

gutoodt thc loamy TXkilvtov ScotTaney auvaugfirjaav 'ApyCjiov mceupog,nci..190avta Tothpow rupnvOcov g7ClatliTTIV

Ei)y?,,atcst Kai mccpoiivra OavampovSpáKovra A', Og Itayxpucrov apitgxcov 56pac 480ancipcug gag* roAvrAtkotc Chnuvoctacivaa' etvkaxov uot gpioc aanfiptov.a* SC rarépa kat 54toug npo5oticy' gp.okTI)V Etc loAlcOv tx6wrivcries uoi, mptiOugoc gEtUov ij uoycatCpa• 485170,1av cirEeKTEIV, Oicsiccp ilaytutov Oavciv,naiScov aka, netvta 5' 64c11A,ov 561.tov.xat Tai30' i)(p' filt&w, w mixtue etv5p6v, notectivnpoii&oicag futac, xatvat S' Cx-rrlaw Xkxrj,naiScov ycydyrow. ci yap 1)a°' anal; gtt, 490myyyvtoutOv fiv Got Toi38' gpaafivat Ahloug.Opxcov 5C cppo6511 niartc, 65' Exto [tastyEt Oeok vopgctg Tok Tot' °irk tipxctv g-ct,it xatva, iccicrOat Okupl' etvepthnotc Tit viiv,

DIA M.L. PHILIPPIDES is Professor of Classical Studies and Modern Greekat Boston College.

33

gmei crOvotaea y' sic gp,' ovx eiiopicog wv. 495yeti 8E4ca xcip fig o-i)7cOU.' iXag(kwau,xat TOWSE yovert-cov, thg OTTIV KEXpthatlEOCEKalccoi /TO; av8p6c, ani8ow 8' kiiiptotiev.ay', cbg cpiXo,) yap Oyu anti KOMIXFO}Lat,Salcaiiaa tLeV Ti Itpc5; ye (Sof) apec4eiv Kaktbg, 50081.icog 8'• gpcorriOcic yap aiaxicov (pawl.WA/ rtoi TpducaNiat; nOrepa npOg natpe; 861.ioug,uric csoi TcpoOolicsa Kai nettpav acpud.uriv;it TcpOg Takaivag IlelterSac, KaX6i y' av8e4cuvro g' dixot; ci.yv gerrápa icargicravov. 505gXE1, yap aka)• toffs olicoOcv cpiXot;kcOpa icaOkatrix', offs oinc gxpliv xaxthgSpay, aoi xaptv cpgpauaa itaspiovg Exc.°.totydtp to noX,Xaig parcapiavIAITIviScovgarlicag avti TOW8E• Oawaarew SE ae 510gxco ithatv Kai mat& f Tdikaw' gyth,ci cpcgoticti ye yaiav gicosOkr i pivri ,cpiXow aiw Tgicvotc ticivotg•

As already noticed by Carlo Prato in the early 1970s, 2 this passagepresents an exceptionally high concentration of the metrical phe-nomenon called "resolution," where in the regular 12-syllable pat-tern of the iambic line of verse two short syllables are substitutedfor a single long syllable, thus creating a line of thirteen syllables(or more, if the line of verse contains, as it may, more than a sin-gle resolution). 3 In the passage above, the (nine) words containingresolutions have been rendered in italics.

The significance of resolutions for the poetry of Euripides hadbeen noted much earlier. Among others, the Polish classical scholarZielinski stated near the beginning of the 20th century (1925) thatthis metrical variation sufficed to separate the plays of Euripidesinto chronological categories. 4 His theory was subsequentlyexpanded by Ceadel (1941) to include the corollary that Euripideanplays of uncertain date might be dated through interpolation withplays of defined date, based on their total count of resolutions, sincethat count seems to increase rather steadily with time over the pro-duction of Euripides. A sophisticated demonstration of the theorywas given by Martin Cropp and Gordon Fick in their recent studyof the fragmentary tragedies of Euripides (1985), in which, on the

34 JOURNAL OF THE HELLENIC DIASPORA

basis of statistical analysis, they assigned dates to a good numberof the 50 fragmentary tragedies included in their analysis.' (Bycontrast, Euripides' predecessors, Aeschylus and Sophocles, show arelative avoidance of resolutions in their works.)

Metrical variation and other phenomena of style (such as thelength of sentences or the preference for (or avoidance of) certain"function" words) have often been used to re-examine, and wherepossible confirm, the uncertain authorship of works and/or theirrelative dating.° What was new about the Euripidean studies ofthe '70s is the fact that they linked their observations on metricalphenomena with an (internal) analysis of the dramatic content ofthe plays.' From a study of the dialogue meter of three early andthree late plays of Euripides (Philippides 1981 8) it may be hypoth-esized that the poet used either exceptionally high concentrationsor an avoidance of resolutions (beyond what might be expected bychance) to underscore the dramatic content of certain types ofscenes—high concentrations accompany passages of heightenedemotional intensity, and passages with exceptionally low concen-trations may be found in accounts of events that occur offstage(such as in messenger speeches) and occasionally in passages wherea speaker is putting on a calm front, trying to hide his actual inten-tions and lull his interlocutor into a false sense of security. 9

Stylistic analysis on the iambic trimeter of Euripides has beenfacilitated by early studies of scholars such as Joseph Descroix; thelatter's monograph (1931) offers scansions for the dialogue meterof all 33 tragedies. In a survey of this broader area one should pointout the monograph of Seth Schein, on the trimeter in Aeschylusand Sophocles (1979), the link between meter, style and vocabu-lary in the trimeter of the three Greek tragedians by Carlo Pratoet al. (1975), and the important work on prosody by Devine andStephens (1981 and 1994).b0 We can hope that the Perseus Pro-jectl I will expand to include the metrical scansion of the trimeterlines of the Greek texts.

Here in today's story we take flight from Euripides, through aseries of fortunate coincidences, and find ourselves poised at theend of the 1970s in a course taught at Harvard, under the auspicesof the then new George Seferis Chair of Modern Greek Studies, byits incumbent George Savidis, on the topic of Cretan RenaissanceLiterature. Towards the end of the four centuries-long Venetian

In Search of Patterns in Classical and Modern Greek Literature 35

occupation of Crete (1211-1669), the cultural cross-fertilization ofthe two cultures had a marked result. "Cretan Renaissance" liter-ature has its peak in the late 16th to early 17th century (the tra-ditional dates are 1570-1669), partly coinciding with the latteryears of El Greco (1541-1614). This important period of Greek lit-erature was little known to the Western world until the appear-ance in 1991 of the seminal volume of essays edited by DavidHolton, entitled Literature and Society in Renaissance Crete. Themajor literary works of the period encompass plays—religiousdrama, comedy, tragedy and pastoral are the types represented.The arguably most significant contemporary work is the longromance, Eroufkritos.

From the presentation of the material in Prof. Savidis' course,to one of his auditors, still relatively unfamiliar with the period ofthe Cretan Renaissance, it soon became apparent that the Cretandramas resemble in their form the tragedies of 5th-centuryAthens, in that they are expressed mainly in "stichic verse," thatis poetic lines of fixed length;' 2 in this case the 15-syllable line iniambic rhythm that is characteristic of late medieval Greek verseand the folksong, arranged here in rhyming couplets (with "femi-nine" rhyme, i e final stress on the penultimate syllable of the lineof verse). One of the shorter works of the period is the religiousdrama The Sacrifice of Abraham, which retells, in ca. 1,100 verses,the story of God's message to Abraham that he must sacrifice hisson, and the carrying out of that command (the gavterco). We shallleave aside the important Renaissance characteristics of the play,and also issues pertaining to its relationship to its Western (Ital-ian) prototype which has been identified (about these topics muchis found in the works of especially Wim Bakker and also Arnoldvan Gemert). 1 3 The reader of this religious drama can become mes-merized by the—alas, anonymous!—poet's fine attention to lan-guage and form. The first four lines of the play (Ovaict 1-4) follow:

'APparig, 4.67tv' 'Al3padtp,, yeipou Kt Cucavo) o-tetcou,j.tavtetto firth toi)g oi)pavoi)g suoil Tkpvou Kt Oupompacrou.

267tvrias, Soac zov Coca lae Kai AntotsOvs,Kai va Kotgacsat Otttgptgva 186 KatpOg Ogv gvat.

In order better to appreciate the play's language and poeticstyle, the auditor in Prof. Savidis' course prepared for the Sacrifice


of Abraham a number of printed word-tables, including a keyword-in-context concordance and several other word-tables, includingword-frequency, a reverse index and a rhyming table. The bookwas published in Athens (Philippides 1986)." Figure 1 15 gives asample taken from the concordance: the locations of the nameEdtppa in the text, chosen in honor of our conference host. A key-word-in-context concordance lists all the words in the exactform(s) in which they occur in the text, placing them in the cen-ter of the page in alphabetical order; each line in the table refers toa citation in the text, identified by the number of its line at theright. Words with more than one citation in the text are arrangedin the alphabetical order of the context to their right. This arrange-ment brings to light similar phraseology—which in the case ofthis word is (unfortunately) not to be seen! The word-frequencytable (see Fig. 2) summarizes the fact that the name Elippot occurstwenty-two times in the text—twenty as Eappa and two as Eap-pag, in the genitive case. Fig. 3 presents a section of the rhymingtable with the words from the play's nine couplets that rhyme inARA. Here Eappa, is included five times, always in an odd, or first,line of a couplet.

The concordance to the Sacrifice of Abraham, which was basedon the edition prepared by Eleni Tsantsanoglou (1971), 16 was thefirst to be printed in Greek for a work of modern Greek litera-ture." It was prepared in the best classical tradition: designed andprinted by Stephen V.F. Waite (now of the Packard HumanitiesInstitute in California, then living in New Hampshire in the vicin-ity of Dartmouth College, and in charge of the APA's collection ofLatin electronic texts), and based on the programs developed andused by David Packard in his landmark four-volume concordanceto the Roman historian Livy (1968). Two other concordances formodern Greek literature were to follow separately: the first (pub-lished in seven volumes!), to the complete (prose) works of the19th-century General Makrygiannes (Kyriazidis et al. 1992) 18 andthe second, a concordance to a version of the early modern Greekepic (or "narrative poem" 19) of Digenes Akrites (Beaton et al. 1995).Both these concordances use a slightly different arrangement thanthat of the Sacrifice of Abraham (and Livy et al.). 2°

It could be claimed that the major use of the concordance tothe Sacrifice of Abraham to date has been to serve as a stepping stonefor the subsequent new critical edition of the play by Wim Bakker


and Arnold van Gemert that appeared ten years later (1996). 21

Both of the critical editors have admitted their debt to the con-cordance (which facilitated their checking up on forms appearingwith inconsistent spelling in the text, e.g. yripareta ("old age"),with eta and yepatstd, with epsilon; the inclusion or omission ofapostrophes; their review of meter, etc.)—in fact the copy of theconcordance which I had sent to their Institute's library in Ams-terdam fell apart due to heavy use and had to be replaced!—but,as one can anticipate, the publication of their new critical editiongenerates a problem for the longevity, or usefulness, of the exist-ing concordance. The editors sent to me a copy of their bookadding a personal inscription in which they begged my forgive-ness for their publication, tout court. Obviously, the current text oftheir edition of the play no longer matches the text on which theconcordance and other word-tables are based. The problem ofkeeping up with new editions is one regularly faced, I expect, alsoby the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae and Perseus, on a scale far largerthan that of a single play. The amount of philological (and techni-cal) work involved in the making of a concordance and other suchword-tables is extensive. Thus I was, and still am, seeking amethod of presenting, in clear tabular form, the differences in thenew edition from the old, so as to supplement the existing set ofword-tables rather than being forced to produce an entirely newone. When, a few years ago, I consulted one of the best authoritiesI could think of, Peter Robinson of Oxford, who has produced theprogram Collate for the automatic collation of texts (and therelated CD-ROM to Chaucer's Wife of Bath Prologue22), he repliedthat I seemed to be wanting to collate concordances, somethingwhich has not yet been done automatically. The case rests there forthe moment. The main joy is that from the many years of close col-laboration over problematic issues of the text of the Cretan Sacri-fice of Abraham, two of the collaborators gained, according to theinimitable expression of our colleague in Theater Studies at the Uni-versity of Athens, Walter Puchner, a more lasting collegiality. 23

The tale now takes a different turn, breaking away from drama.The major literary work of the Cretan Renaissance, both because ofits length (which is almost 10,000 verses, i.e. close to the extentof Homer's Odyssey) and also because of its stature, is the romanceErogkritos. The Erotokritos tells (in five books, not twenty-four) the


story of the young princess of Athens, Aretousa, and the com-moner Erotokritos, who fall in love and must go through severalordeals—she, brutal imprisonment by her father, and he, exile,wanderings, and then battle—these trials lasting close to fiveyears, until Erotokritos returns to Athens (in disguise), havingsucessfully defended the kingdom of Aretousa's father's, andclaims her hand in marriage, which is granted to him by the grate-ful king.

Like the Sacrifice of Abraham the Erotokritos is also based on aWestern prototype. 24 An important edition of the romance wasproduced by Stephanos Xanthoudidis in 1915; the most recentcritical edition is that of Stylianos Alexiou, with a publication dateof 1980, and several reprintings (including corrections) since thattime. 25 As soon as the Alexiou edition appeared, its text wasentered into the computer. At the Cretological Conference in1986, David Holton and Dia Philippides decided to worktogether, and in 1996 the 3-volume set of their concordance to theErotokritos was published by Hermes Publications in Athens. 26

Much of the related work presented in the present paper is an out-come of that collaboration, and should be taken as the result ofjoint effort.

Along with the plot, the characters and the language, one ofthe most interesting features of the romance is its form, as it hasbeen called a "daring mixture of genres" (St. Alexiou 1980: oa).The Poet-narrator controls the development of the plot throughhis (mostly third-person) narration and allows the characters of thestory to speak in direct discourse (or as we term it, dialogue). Thename of the Poet-narrator (in the form of Hour* = Poet)appears—just as the names of all the speaking characters—at thechange , of interlocutor, in the left margin of the text of the edition(in the original sources 27 as well). The five books contain differingproportions of narrative and dialogue—Book B (that in certainways resembles Homer's Rhapsody B with the catalogue of ships),where the competitors for the joust are individually presented andcompete, has the greatest proportion of narrative verses. Book r,where many developments in the love plot of the story take place,has the highest proportion of dialogue. The Poet-narrator inter-venes almost everywhere between the speeches of the characters,except when once or twice he lets the dramatic excitement silencehim.


The keyword-in-context concordance helps us recognize theword-forms and the phrases the poet has used, and especially thosehe returns to and uses more than once. Through the arrangementof the concordance repeating phrases may be seen—I hesitate tocall them "formulas," though Greek scholars mostly refer to"Xorkunot." 28 (Also, this is not an oral composition; rather theromance is expressed in a written, sophisticated literary language.)Repeated phrases in the Erotokritos usually range in length fromhalf a line of verse to a whole verse, or even slightly more. In Fig.4 all the poem's (eight) references to "Crete" (KATI') are given (6Kprinick, "the Cretan," occurs more frequently 29). The alphabet-ical arrangement of the citations of a word by following contextmakes obvious the repeated phrase tilchafl Kpftrig TO Alovtetpi. (thelion of Crete), which refers, twice in Book B and once (in retro-spect) in Book F, to the great Cretan jouster Xapi&rigog, whowould have been the likeliest to win the crown in the joust, if Ero-tokritos, through luck (and the poet's help), had not succeeded inreceiving the prize from Aretousa's hands.

Fig. 5 assists us in noticing the four-fold repetition of thephrase itrpqta (-E) (th)csav Kakówt (I/(s)he trembled like a reed), therepetition of the full verse (near the bottom of the figure) itrpcp.evOAD to Koptii 5.6vagfi Touttom kcetOri in lines F977 and F1147(with a difference only in the final pronoun), and the slightly morepermutated repetition in the first and third lines of the excerpt:'Hips (-s) an) Ina p.Epa K' EKEiVOC Eig -rijv tali (B537and F585). 3°

The concordance aims at facilitating the study of narrative vs.dialogue and the identity of the person speaking at each time. Thus,to the book and line number given at the left is added, for each key-word, the name of its speaker. 3 ' (Other concordances lack this infor-mation; however, it is useful.) With the speaker identification wecan easily distinguish what words may be characteristic of narrativeor dialogue, and examine whether and how characters echo oneanother. We can begin to seek for linguistic idiosyncracies that par-ticular characters may exhibit, as has been done for Achilles andothers in the Homeric epics. 32 For instance, Aretousa, who is com-monly agreed to be the kernel of the romance (Sherrard 1978: 119-120)—does her speech show idiorrhythmic characteristics?

Having the two concordances available, for the Sacrifice ofAbraham and the Erotokritos, means that we may review the


hypothesis of the common authorship of the two texts. As far backas 1915, Xanthoudidis proposed in his edition of the Erotokritosthat the Sacrifice of Abraham be attributed to the author of theromance. 33 (This is not going back as far as the start of the Home-ric question, but still the issue is respectably dated!) The sizeablenumber of similar verses that occur in both works made thehypothesis take hold, and it gained ground when it was confirmedin 1960 by the great scholar of modern Greek literature Linos Poli-tis. 34 At Fig. 6 we see one of the lines of verse that coincides in thetwo works: fleit 'vav (tia tva) icepiv Capta6gsvo(v) gicparcauv K' (KO*TOT* ptot) ("<as if> I was holding a candle that went out"), usedby Sarah in her tiotpokOt over Isach and by Erotokritos as helaments having to leave his love behind, as he goes into exile.

The latest review of the status of the question of commonauthorship is to be found in chapter IX of the introduction to theBakker-van Gemert critical edition of the Sacrifice of Abraham(1996: 116-27). Issues of language and metrics (e.g., the use ofparticular words, personal pronouns; the presence or absence ofhiatus) as well as the religious outlook of the two works are usedas arguments. We still cannot be sure either way, although weknow that the authors of that time were good readers (or listeners)of one another, that they could have borrowed unconsciously, andcertainly considered it "comme it faut" to borrow from another'swork.

It could be of interest to note here that both the Erotokritos andthe Sacrifice of Abraham are non-typical in their overall form. TheErotokritos presents itself in five books in the proper form of aRenaissance drama,” whereas the Sacrifice of Abraham ignores someof the aspects that it should have as a drama of its time: the playhas no prologue and no choral interludes, and the division into fiveacts has been obscured in the tradition of the text. 36

Beyond the search for repeated phrases, and beyond the re-examination of the hypothesis of common authorship, the concor-dance can be instrumental in a number of ways: in bringing tolight inconsistencies in forms, so as to suggest critical emendationsto this text and others of its period; to contribute informationtowards a grammar of the language of the period, which is stilllacking; in the study of the poem's metrics (which is only begin-ning—though Natalia Deliyannaki's doctoral dissertation (1995)offers much promise; the same author earlier published a study on


enjambement in the poem (Deliyannaki 1991)—one thinks backto the considerable secondary literature on the same phenomenonin Homer37); to examine connections of the Erotokritos with earlierGreek texts and also with subsequent authors who are known tohave been influenced by Kornaros (for instance, Solomos andSeferis). 38

In addition to the three volumes of the concordance a fourthvolume will soon be appearing in the set of word-tables to the Ero-tokritos. 39 As was done earlier for the Sacrifice of Abraham, now forthe romance other tables, such as of word-frequency and therhyme, have been prepared. The frequency has been counted bothfor the actual word-forms as they appear in the text and for the dic-tionary headings (lemmata) under which they may be placed.Looking at lists of the most frequent lemmata in the Sacrifice ofAbraham and in the Erotokritos (see Fig. 7) one notes similaritiesand differences: the lemma of the article 6 is the most frequent andKai follows immediately upon it. The romance has a more para-tactic structure, whereas the drama includes more subordinateclauses (see the relatively higher status of va). The third personpronoun (a6t6c) is more frequent in the romance; the first and sec-ond person pronouns 176 and its() in the drama. Most of the dis-tinctions between the two works could be linked to theirdifference in genre.

As just mentioned, metrical studies in the Erotokritos havebarely begun. One need recall that the poetry is created throughmeans other than those of ancient Greek literature: ancient poetryresults from a regular alternation of long and short syllables; by thetime of the Erotokritos, the meter is based on an alternation ofstressed and unstressed syllables (i.e. it is "dynamic"). An impor-tant related aspect is the rhyme that links successive pairs of versestogether into a couplet. In the area of rhyme two results obtainedso far are worthy of mention:

(a) In Fig. 8 the most frequent words in the rhyme of each ofthe romance's five parts have been identified. Many of these wordsare represented fairly evenly in each part (see the words underlinedin the figure), which observation may be used to support the inter-nal coherence of the poem and the relatively simultaneous compo-sition of the five parts—which has occasionally been questioned,especially with regard to the joust in Book B, 4° (yet other kinds ofrecent research, based on the analysis of characters and themes


[Holton 1988 and Bakker 2000), have shown that the second bookis inextricably linked to the whole, of which it forms a microcosm).

(b) An analysis of the parts of speech4 ' to which the rhymingwords belong, in the Erotokritos, the Sacrifice of Abraham and a thirdwork contemporary to them, the tragedy Erophile,42 shows the Sac-rifice of Abraham exhibiting behavior similar to that of the other playand a marked difference between the two plays on the one hand andthe romance on the other.43 Yet no one has ever proposed that theSacrifice of Abraham be attributed to the Cretan poet George Chor-tatsis, the known author of the Erophile. This analysis seems to bepointing to a linking of the rhyme with literary genre. 44

The rhyming table comes with the name of the speakerattached to each couplet. Thus it will be possible to examinewhether specific speakers tend to favor certain rhymes—we havesome preliminary results for Aretousa. The rhymes of CretanRenaissance literature have also been studied by Walter Puchner(1991) and Tasoula Markomihelaki (1993)—they working exclu-sively with the Cretan dramas. Now we'll be able to add in thestudy of the rhyme of the romance in connection with their dra-matic findings.

Another element of the poem's form that has been studied, atleast initially, also points us in the direction of acknowledging theeffect of literary genre: the number of syllables per line of verse isalways fixed at fifteen, but the number of words encompassed ineach line varies—in the Erotokritos from three to fifteen! Charts andgraphs published elsewhere (cf. Philippides 1998:384-385) juxta-pose the Erotokritos and the Sacrifice of Abraham in this respect. Thetwo works' profile differs: the romance shows a preference for (onaverage) lines of verse with fewer, longer words (the top frequencytype contains eight words), whereas the drama shows a preferencefor nine-word lines, with more, and hence shorter words on aver-age, that may give the impression of quicker interaction in the dia-logue. A parallel analysis, examining separately the narrative partsand the dialogue parts of the Erotokritos, shows its result also in thestudy just mentioned. Separate charts and graphs for the narrativeparts and the dialogue parts of the Erotokritos taken separately(Philippides 1998:386) show that the narrative portions alone ofthe Erotokritos resemble the overall spectrum of the romance,whereas its dialogue parts, when considered alone, resemble thespectrum of the Sacrifice of Abraham.


Another feature of the form of Erotokritos which it is importantto study is the juncture of narrative and dialogue. In the text,speeches tend to begin and end (tidily) at the start and end ofrhyming couplets (the exchange of dialogue between speakers isdone exclusively in this way in the Sacrifice of Abraham). In theromance, however, there are cases where a single line of verse hasan internal change of speaker (usually a transition between thePoet-narrator and a speaker) or where a couplet is not entirelyexpressed by a single speaker. There are 185 of these "divided"lines and 48 such "divided" couplets in the Erotokritos--a rela-tively small proportion given the total length of the work (9,982verses or 4,991 couplets). Most of so-called divided lines beginsimply with the Poet-narrator stating either Aayet (he/she says) orAfryet combined with a pronoun of the person addressed (e.g. MiraTM) or Akyat tai [he/she says to him or her], or in the reverse order:

Xeyet . .). Immediately thereafter in the line begin the actualwords of the character speaking. 45 These divided lines usuallycome at the end of longer narrative speech introductions. Theintroductions to speech have been extensively studied for theHomeric epics. 46 It would be interesting to study them fully in theErotokritos, and I hope that a narratologist will be undertaking thechallenge. At present I have been reviewing the small subset men-tioned, that of the "divided" lines and couplets at the juncture ofnarrative and dialogue. There the approaches of Homeric scholar-ship, which one had hoped would have been helpful, did not servethe Renaissance context. Fortunately, a theoretical approach hasjust been located, in the work of Panagiotis Agapitos (1991) onnarrative structures in the Byzantine vernacular romance. 47 Inorder to describe the similar phenomena which he witnessed in theearlier romances, he has developed the needed terminology: withinhis description of the "speech frame" that surrounds direct dis-course, he identifies a type of speech-introducing technique thathe calls the "delayed speech-introducing formula."48 This term maybe used precisely to classify the few verses of the type given below:

I'159 "Nava [toy, A,081 4 ApEz-4, Tp6vtga OacncaAzirtetc,F171 "Hai& [ton, Agyei 4 véva rrls, cmpetvouat TeE Aorgetc,F299 "Nava gun, Aiya 4 Aper4, 'Nth to OccoicaXeiryugE613 "Nava, zar1A.Eyea 4 Apsz-4, to TivrixEvE1133 na, Akyst it Apert yktopa 'Ica) xupov i.tou


These verses, where the speaker begins abruptly, and after his/herfirst few words the narrational introduction Myet plus the name ofthe speaker is interjected, are found only in restricted locations ofthe poem, mainly linked to the speech of characters who are closelyconnected emotionally.49

At this break in our own narrative, I should like to mention-briefly—the forthcoming CD-ROM, 5 ° now under final reviewbefore circulation, based on the material from the book with theword-tables of the Erotokritos. Besides the fact that it will be muchlighter to carry around and less expensive than the four-volume setof the book with the word-tables, the three main characteristics ofthe CD-ROM are: (a) the fact that it will include the text of theromance in St. Alexiou's edition, corrected according to the incon-sistencies we have pointed out to the editor; 5 ' (b) the ca. 500,000bi-directional links that have been added to connect all the wordsin many of the word-tables to the text, so that the reader may moverelatively quickly from table to text and back again, in order tocheck any idea he may have; (c) the fact that it has been preparedusing Netscape technology, 52 which theoretically means that, assoon as the publisher recoups some of the costs of production, itcould be rather easily transferred to the Web. Given the fact that,until now, the Greek fonts and keyboard layouts on computerswithin Greece are generally incompatible with those used byphilologists of Greek abroad, it seemed best to include the fontsused in the text and tables on the CD-ROM itself, so that it shouldplay on most computers without requiring the readers first to pur-chase new fonts.

It should be crystal-clear by now that, in the 1980s and the 1990s,modern Greek has firmly entrenched itself in the world of com-puters and the humanities. On the one hand it had to deal withthe complexities of the Greek alphabet and diacritical marks thatdifferentiated it from the regular sorting order of the Latin alpha-bet that is familiar to computers; on the other hand it has gainedgood benefit from the lessons learned and the routes previouslyopened and travelled by researchers of ancient Greek. In this spec-trum, though, it is interesting to note that making a concordancein the fully-stressed Greek alphabet is not a simple mechanicalprocess: the keyword-in-context concordances to Homer's Odyssey


and Iliad came out only this past decade, respectively in 1994 and1998.' 3 The job is laborious, as anyone who has made a concor-dance (especially for a text in any period of Greek) can testify. InCretan Renaissance Greek, at least judging from the experience ofthe concordances to the Sacrifice of Abraham and the Erotokritos,even if one does not have to fully identify each word as to its mor-phology (that could be a different project 54), just disambiguatingthe "homograph" forms means identifying the syntax of approxi-mately 'A of all the forms in the text, i.e. close to 25,000 words(the total number of word-occurrences in the text is 84,568)."Such projects can be completed only with a large investment oftime, and with the collaboration of specialists from many separateareas: philologists, experts in computing (who know about thecombination of computers and literary texts); if conclusions are tobe sought re authorship, dating or style, then a statistician shouldalso be included in the team.

Approximately a decade ago, the pioneers of the computeranalysis of texts, especially those trying to answer questions ofauthorship and dating based on style, went through self-examina-tion, and started to doubt their previous approaches.% As a result,the use of statistics has become much more sophisticated. In Mod-ern Greek we have not yet entered that race, but we are aware thata recent study of Shakespeare relied on the consensus of 55 tests(Elliott-Valenza 1996). It will obviously not be easy for us to solvethe question of the common authorship of the Erotokritos and theSacrifice of Abraham. First we need to collect general informationfrom the literary texts of the period so as to know better the liter-ary standard from which either work may be deviating (one needrecall that we still lack a grammar of the period). We then have tothink of many tests.

But even if such a project does not prove conclusively, forinstance in our case, whether the poet of the Erotokritos did or didnot compose the Sacrifice of Abraham,57 we are building step by stepa corpus, or databank, that may be relied upon by scholars longinto the future. We need the time, the coordination, and the fundswith which to continue this development's

Such an approach to texts is a precise science, very analytical,but aiming at an overall view of the text from a different angle thanlinear reading. We follow this approach in order to learn moreabout the history of the literary language, and in the case of the


Erotokritos to understand why George Seferis calls this "the mostperfectly organized language in the history of medieval and mod-ern Greek literature." 59 In the past, it has been stated that "the<demotic> songs and the Erotokritos will be honoured equally withthe Homeric poems, because assuredly these, and only these, con-stitute the . . . true link of modern Hellenism, joining us to thegolden chain of our forebears" 60—from our point of view, thepoem's relative length, and its stature (and subsequent influence),might allow this claim. The approach to texts, common to thestudy of Plato, Aristotle, and St. Paul (frequently with the aim ofestablishing the authorship of works), brings early modern Greekliterature into line with ancient Greek literary studies but alsowith those based upon other medieval and Renaissance texts of theWest, where parallel issues (of how best to prepare and print crit-ical editions) are being addressed.

While relying partly on methods that have yielded fruit in thestudy of ancient Greek texts, we need to look more closely at Ital-ian metrics, theories of decorum and style too, since the basis forthe Greek Renaissance texts comes from Italian literature and soci-ety. This approach might well be included within ComparativeLiterature. From the side of modern Greek literature, we are open-ing a dialogue with other disciplines—even if it's not really across-over, it's still a meeting or an opening of the minds and asharing of experience.

Kai id& kOyo Stapapiii ncisic nayst nib; nap -Liget (Erot. I-646) ("andhe measures out every word, to see how it fits in")—these wordsare used by the Poet-narrator to describe Erotokritos' examinationof the first words of love he has just heard from Aretousa, but theycould be self-referential to the poet's own review of his words, andcertainly they could reflect what we are now doing in retrospect aswe revisit his text. Like the analysis of music, the point is not totake the work apart, but to learn how better to appreciate the sev-eral parts that make up the beauty of its whole. 6 '


Notes*This paper is delivered for publication with sincere thanks to our hosts at

the Contours of Hellenism conference, Prof. Sarah Morris, Prof. Speros Vryonis,and Dr. Stelios Vasilakis, for their invitation and warm hospitality, as well as toProf. Ann Bergren of the Classics Dept. at UCLA, for her guidance in metricalfootsteps some years ago.

'The text is taken from the Loeb edition of the play (Way 1935:320-22),cf. Philippides 1982:23, Fig. 4, wherein the Greek text is given accompaniedby its English translation.

2Prato 1972, esp. p. 74.'A resolution is seen in the first two syllables of iinatc in Medea 255, cf.

Philippides 1982:17, Fig. 1:kych 5' gprip.oc 'fixoXic ace .613piCol.tat° — • — • • • • — ° — • —

4Zielinski's categories are entitled "severe," "semi-severe," and "free." Thefree group might be subdivided into middle and freer.

5See especially their Conclusions, p. 69.6Well-known studies in the field of Classical Greek Studies refer to works

of Plato and Aristotle and, in a slightly later period, to works attributed to St.Paul. See summaries (and bibliography) in Hockey 1980 (especially 136-140)and Oakman 1984:143-46.

7Sylvia Brown presented similar theories based on the choral meters ofEuripides's plays, in her doctoral dissertation (1972) and in an article (1974).To the studies on the trimeter in Euripides should be added Marianina Olcott'sstudy (1974) of the dialogue meter of two Sophoclean plays. The investigationof the interaction of meter and dramatic content in the trimeter of Euripides iscurrently continuing in the work of Nancy Laan (Ph.D. candidate in Classics atthe University of Amsterdam), centering on elision; cf. Laan 1995.

8A monograph, based on my doctoral dissertation. The article Philippides1982 gives a summary of the general approach used, and of the particular resultsachieved in the study of Euripides's Medea.

9The linking of exceptionally high, or low, concentrations of resolutions toparticular type of scenes persists in the three late plays as well as in the threeearly plays examined, even though the total counts of the resolutions containedin each play increase over time.

"'Here, and in the case of all classical references in this paper, indicative(not comprehensive) sources are mentioned.

"Currently available in either of its versions: Perseus 2.0 (1996) or on theInternet.

'2For a major presentation of Greek stichic verse in antiquity see van Raalte1986.

"Two English translations of the play have appeared recently: Karampet-sos-Nittis 1989 and Garland 1991.

"The book includes a bilingual compendium of remarks on style."All the numbered figures for this paper will be printed at its end."This is the edition from which lines will be quoted in this paper, and on

which all the play's word-tables are based.


"Foibos Ghikopoulos had previously printed, on computer paper and inASCII, a concordance to Greek folksongs from Italy (1984).

18The concordance, Kyriazidis et al. 1992, expands the work of the sameteam's pioneering word-index published a few years earlier: Kyriazidis et al.1983.

' 9David Holton briefly discusses (1991b:208) the nature of Digenis Akritis,"the best known narrative poem of early Modern Greek literature": "Eventhough it is often characterized as an epic, . . . it too contains many features ofromance."

"In the concordances to Makrygiannis and Digenis Akritis the multipleoccurrences of a repeated word are listed in their order of appearance in the text.

21 Their new critical edition was subsequently published as a xpriarucilgKSocrn: Bakker-van Gemert 1998.

22Robinson-Blake 1996.23 "Die Ergebnisse dieser langjahrigen Zusammenarbeit sind nicht nur in

die kritische Edition eingearbeitet, sondern hat die beiden Forscher, WimBakker and Dia Philippides, in gliicklichster Fiigung auch auf nicht-wissenschaftlicher Ebene zusammengefuhrt" (Puchner 1996:582).

24For the Sacrifice of Abraham the prototype is Lo Isach of Luigi Groto (cf.Bakker-van Gernert 1996:38-39), and for the Erotokritos the French Provencalromance Paris et Vienne (cf. St. Alexiou 1980:4a'-413'), via an Italian translation.A full English translation of the Erotokritos is now available: Stephanides 1984.

250ut of the many reprintings of the critical edition of 1980 (in 1986 and1994), and of the Alexiou "small" edition of 1985, the editor counselled us touse his edition of 1992 (the third improved reprint of the 1985 edition), claim-ing that it includes the most up-to-date text. (The Alexiou edition of 1992 hasbeen reprinted [reprints published by Hestia Publications, in 1995 and subse-quent years); the editor claims that no changes have been introduced to thetext.)

26phili pp ides-Holton 1996-2001, vols. B-i\.27The earliest surviving sources for the romance are two: British. Library

Harleiamis ms. .5644 of 1710 and the first Venetian edition dated 1713—thecopy of the Gennadius Library in Athens is easiest to access; it lacks two folios;the only other (complete) surviving copy of that edition known to us is in theBiblioteca Civica of Verona; of the latter a photostatic reprint edition has beenpublished recently: Stevanoni 1995.

"Gregory Sifakis, unable to travel to the conference, is sorely missed. Hisattention to the terminology and the analysis is significant. On koyOuntot see,for instance, St. Alexiou 1993.

29Specifically, forms of the word Kinitudic appear 44 times in the text.3°As the duality in the spelling of the verb form indicates, we have not

intervened in the editor's use of elision, which needs reviewing.31 In the assignment of speaker names we have made some changes from the

edition of Alexiou (cf. Philippides-Holton 1996-2001, vol. A, [introduction)IV.4).

32E.g., Friedrich and Redfield 1978.33Xanthoudidis 1973 [1915):CXVIII-CXX.34See Politis 1960:360.


35See Holton 1988:161.36See Bakker-van Gemert 1996:41.37See Higbie 1990.38See Chatziyakoumis 1968 and Charalambakis 1985.39Philippides-Holton 1996-2001, vol. A, which has appeared in the mean-

time.40Mathiopoulou 1995:528 ff.41 A factor which we might assume is used "unconsciously" by the poet, a

distinction that is important to statisticians.42The text studied is based on the 1988 edition by St. Alexiou-M. Aposkiti;

the interludes on their 1992 edition.43Philippides 1994.44Cf. Philippides 1994:583.45Another, rarer type of divided line occurs in cases when a character quotes

the words, either actual or hypothetical, of another person. Aretousa four timesquotes words of Frosyni: A989-92 "Ouyatepa, ictav&a;," F1208 "Apecii, Rt-g:76yo) va a' &pilaw," 1'1239-42 "di(pou, kcigkpa," F1246 "OtjAilicariRgv7i!."Once Erotokritos quotes Aretousa: F1375-6 "PonOxpac xarpt-vc, / 8'6 &at."Likewise, Erotokritos' friend Polydoros quotes Aretousa: A1980 "i) ickagrrrigfjp0e KiOka;," and Aretousa quotes Rotokritos: E1038 lad poirri OriagWu." Here it might be fruitful to adduce Victor Bers's approach to cases of"actual oratio recta" in dialogue speeches of Attic drama (cf. Bers 1997:99-102,where the quotation of another person's words may serve to "heighten thepathos" [101]). The lines cited above are also discussed in Philippides-Holton1996-2001, vol. A: [introduction] IV.4.

46E.g., Edwards 1970 and Riggsby 1992.471 am grateful to Panagiotis Agapitos for a discussion in the spring of

2000, during which he clarified to me the sources of his theoretical framework.48Agapitos 1991:66 ". . . a variation of the s<peech)-icntroducing,

f<ormula>, in which the verb of speaking is placed after the initial words of theactual speech, thus delaying the exact signalling of the discoursive section andobscuring the juncture."

49As seen here, this rare pattern occurs only in emotional interchangesbetween Aretousa and her nurse, Frosyni (Nena). Other disrupted patterns inthe narrative occur, but also rarely. For instance, on only a few occasions in thepoem does the Poet-Narrator allow two speakers to follow immediately uponone another without an intervening comment on his part (Areti and Frosyni inBook A967-68 and A974-75; the two opposing combatants, Aristos and Ero-tokritos, in Book A1776-77).

5°Philippides-Holton in press."This is an important point: in the future the text and the tables will be

fully coordinated, both in subsequent printings of St. Alexiou's edition of thetext and on our CD-ROM.

52The program relies on an off-line Netscape browser.53Tebben 1994 and 1998. A previous full concordance to the Homeric

epics, prepared by Richard Janko, has been on display in a locked case, at theUniversity of Cambridge, as a rare book (only one or very few copies had beenprinted).


54Cf. Perseus with its full indexing of all words in the Greek texts. For hisdoctoral dissertation in Sweden Vasilis Sabatakakis is reported to have com-pleted the morphological analysis of the Erotokritos.

"With respect to modern Greek we also suffer from the fact that makers ofcomputers within Greece and those outside Greece, as has already been sug-gested, have employed distinct, mutually incompatible ways of storing Greekcharacters on the machine. It is hard for authors within Greece and those abroadto exchange computer files with one another. One should also point out the factthat the multi-volume dictionary of medieval Greek (Kriaras 1969-) still onlyreaches the letter TC-.

"See the retrospectives of Milic and Potter (both 1991); also, Clayman1992, and Olsen 1993.

57However many tests we may perform, based on criteria of style, a singlenew discovery in the archives of Venice might best solve the issue.

"Our choice of an early time period shares a certain positive characteristicwith studies of ancient Greek literature. Both avoid the caveat of the lesson inDavid Lodge's Small World, where the practically maddened computerresearcher (Robin Dempsey, a professor of English) causes the writer whose stylehe fully analyzes (Ronald Frobisher) to go into writer's block: "I've never beenable to write fiction since," he exclaims (Lodge 1985:185). It seems best per-haps to limit one's analysis, at least at present, to authors who are no longer inour midst!

59Seferis 1981 [19461:296.60An early quote from the editor of Cretan texts K.N. Sathas (1868:603),

cited in English translation by Margaret Alexiou (1991:242).6 'In earlier times reference would be made simply to the "typical 15-sylla-

ble iambic line in rhyming couplets" of the Cretan Renaissance texts, whereasnow it has become clear, as with the stichic hexameter and trimeter texts ofancient Greek, that study of the versification and the language may allow forindividual characterization and juxtaposition of authors and particular works,as well as a link of meter with content within the texts. Thus, our study of therhyme, meter and language of the Cretan Erotokritos and its contemporarydramas may lead to further appreciation of the distinctions between variousauthors and works, or between narrative and dialogue form, as have done for theHomeric hexameter—and its relatively contemporary texts—the recent studiesof Janko (1982) and Kelly (1990).

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7. The most frequent lemmata in the two works

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8. The most frequent rhyming words in the five books of the Erotokritos

Erot. A(2210 vv.)

Erot, B(2454 vv.)

Erot. F(1756 vv.)

Erot. A(2020 vv.)

Erot. E(1542 vv.)

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modern Greek literature Author: Dia Mary L. Philippides In search … · ptn f rt (266, th ltrl rfrtlztn f th t ltr hd rd rlt. "rtn Rnn" ltr tr h t p n th lt 6th t rl th ntr (th tr