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Modern European History IIHIS-107
Unit 5 – Europe’s World Supremacy, 1871-1914
Imperialism Definitions
The process of extending one state’s control over another
Formal imperialism Colonialism or direct control Colonizing countries annexed territories outright Established new governments
Informal imperialism Conquering nations reached agreements with
indigenous leaders and governed through them Allowed weaker state to maintain its independence while
reducing its sovereignty Carving out zones of European sovereignty and privilege
Imperialism “Old imperialism”
Maritime and mercantile Mostly done through informal imperialism
“New imperialism” Arose during the 19th century with the Industrial
Revolution Focused more on formal imperialism Demand for raw materials Built up newly acquired territories to make them
more productive Aspired towards political and territorial domination Exerted influence on governments already in place
Imperialism Nineteenth-century imperialism
Appeared against the backdrop of industrialization, liberal revolutions, and the rise of nation-states
The need for raw materials Bringing progress to the world Imperialists sought to distance themselves from
earlier histories of conquest Guided more by “settlement and discipline” than
independent entrepreneurial activity Colonial resistance and rebellion forced Europeans to
develop new strategies of rule British granted self-government to Canada, Australia, and
New Zealand 19th empires established carefully codified racial
hierarchies
Imperialism Why the change over?
After 1875, Europe was dominant both economically and militarily
Non-European states were entering a period of decline Included the Ottomans, Persians, Chinese, and Japanese
No longer had to bow down to the existing governments in non-European states Europeans had military capabilities that the non-
Europeans did not possess Battles were typically one-sided in favor of the Europeans Because of this, non-Europeans were forced to accept
either a new government or a European “advisor”
Incentives and Motives There were many incentives for taking new
colonies Acquisition of raw materials
Europeans were used to a certain quality of life Many goods were only available from tropical regions
Included tea, coffee, coconuts and jute (used in ropes and bags)
Neomercantilism Push for the creation of new markets Wanted to create favorable balance of trade
Raised tariffs to prevent buying of imports Used raw materials from colonies to make domestic goods
Goal: to accumulate as much wealth as possible
Incentives and Motives The profit motive
Investments in non-European countries brought a higher rate of return
Natives provided cheap labor Strategic and nationalist motives
International rivalries fueled the belief that national interests were at stake
The French supported imperialism as a means of restoring national honor
The British worried about German and French industrialization and losing world markets
The link between imperialism and nation-building
Incentives and Motives Socialist critics
J. A. Hobson (1858–1940), Imperialism (1902) Imperialism was driven by a small group of financiers International capitalists Investors sought out secure investment opportunities in
colonies The manufacturing, military, and armaments interest
Lenin (1870–1924) Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism (1917) Imperialism as an essential stage in the development of
capitalism Demand for raw materials made colonization a necessary
investment The internal contradictions of capitalism produced imperialism The overthrow of capitalism would check imperialism
Incentives and Motives Profits were a huge incentive to countries like
Britain and France 1/8 of the Britain’s wealth was invested in
overseas colonies France had 1/10
Most of the wealth was targeted to Egypt, South Africa and Asia
Did invest in eastern Europe as well by supplying Russia with loans
Germany was the only major country not heavily investing in colonies What little was invested went to the Ottoman
Empire, Africa, and China
Incentives and Motives Another motive was national security
This was tied in to the economic well-being of the country Joseph Chamberlain (1836-1914) believed that Britain
should be “a great self-sustaining and self-protecting empire” With economic profits, the country could look after its population Wanted to strengthen the empire through economic controls
Did the working class benefit from imperialism? Somewhat Higher wages due to the inflow of low-priced colonial goods Left a higher standard of living Did not produce the angry proletariat class the Marxists
were hoping for
Incentives and Motives Imperialism was also seen as a crusade
A way for the white man to “civilize” the natives Strengthened by the concept of Social Darwinism
That whites were “more fit” than other races Many traveled to the colonies not so much for
profit but to improve the lives of the native populations This included building schools and hospitals
This “humanitarianism” was still tied to European self-interests
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Empire in the 1850s
Very diverse population Mix of religions
Different forms of Islam including orthodox and Wahhabis Jews and Greek Orthodox Christians who always lived in
this region Ruling class were the Turks and majority were
Muslims Muslims followed their own laws Jews and Christians had their own separate system
of laws and government Disputes between Europeans were held in European courts Disputes between a European and a Muslim were held in a
Muslim court but with a European observer
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire There was no sense of national unity The “sick man of Europe” during the 1850s
Russia took the Caucasus and Crimea France occupied Algeria Both Serbia and Greece received some form of
independence Wahhabis were gaining control over most of Arabia
The effects of the Crimean War (1854-1856) Nationalism that bolstered Europe was going to
start affecting the Ottomans Even though they were on the winning side, the
war exposed its political and military weaknesses
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Hatt-I Humayun (1856)
Ottoman’s attempt at major reform throughout the empire Created national citizenship for all persons inside the
empire Abolished the civil authority of religious hierarchies Guaranteed equality before the law Opened up government and army positions to non-
Muslims Led to a period of Ottoman revival
For 20 years, the reform movement grew There was some resistance but was not effective
The new sultan Abdülhamid II even proclaimed a new constitution in 1876
Sultan Abdülhamid II (1876-1909)
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Repression after 1876
While he initially supported the reform measures, Abdülhamid II became an autocratic ruler
Became increasingly paranoid of westerners and reformers
Instituted a period of repression lasting his entire regime Many were forced to leave the empire
Young Turks fled to Europe in hopes of again returning to Europe to dethrone Abdul the Damned
Others put up some form of resistance Included Armenians, Bulgars, Macedonians, and Cretans April Uprising (1876) led to the massacre of thousands of
Bulgarians Hamidian Massacres (1894-1896) led to the death of at least
80,000 Armenians
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Europeans were shocked at what was taking
place in the Empire At the same time, the thought of a reformed,
newly invigorated Empire was not what the Europeans had wanted
Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878) Fought mainly in the Caucuses and the Balkans Russia hoped to regain its territories lost in the
Crimean War Also played on the growing pan-Slavism of the
time and the April Uprisings in Bulgaria Russia easily defeated the Turks
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Treaty of San Stefano (1878)
Ottomans recognized the independence of Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro
Also recognized the autonomy of Bulgaria The Great Powers were not enthralled with
this arrangement Threw off the balance of power in eastern Europe
in favor of the Russians Britain was especially fearful of Russian influence
over the Middle East now that it was a major stockholder in the Suez Canal
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Congress of Berlin (1878)
Organized by the Great Powers to reorganize the Balkans
Designed to prevent an Anglo-Russian War Illustrated the growing weakness of the Ottoman Empire Conditions included those set down in the Treaty of San
Stefano but: A much smaller Bulgaria Territory going to Austria-Hungary and Russia Macedonia was returned to the Turks who promised reform
Not everyone was satisfied with the outcome Russia was annoyed at Europe for taking away key
territories it had gained, including influence over Bulgaria
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Egypt was technically autonomous in the Empire During the 1850s and 60s, Egypt worked on
economic development and reform Modernized its infrastructure and legal system Allowed the French to build the Suez Canal Borrowed most of the money for these reforms from
Britain and France By 1879, Egypt was in economic distress due to
its debts Paid off some by selling shares of the Suez Canal to
Britain The current khedive, Ismail Pasha, was forced to
abdicate under pressure from Britain and France
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire Nationalism sparked during this period
Mainly in resentment to the growing influence of foreigners
Led by Colonel Arabi, riots broke out in Alexandria Britain responded by sending troops into Egypt
and defeating Arabi Included a naval bombardment of Alexandria in
1882 Troops were to remain only temporarily but stayed
until 1956 Britain supported a puppet government led by
Tewfik Pasha Egypt became a British protectorate
The Collapse of the Ottoman Empire France was upset about the presence of the British
in Egypt Concentrated its efforts on Algeria setting up a colony
there It also set up protectorates in Tunisia and in Morocco
End of Abdülhamid’s Reign (1909) A Young Turk revolution broke out in the summer of
1908 Called for an end to repression and a promise for liberal
reforms Abdülhamid agreed to implement the 1876 constitution In April 1909, he led a counter-revolution against the
Young Turks The government finally deposed of him on April 27, 1909
Africa in 1870
Scramble for Africa Prior to 1870, Africa was a mysterious continent
that had yet to reveal its secrets to the Europeans During this period, Scot David Livingstone and
journalist H.M. Stanley explored the innermost regions of the continent Travelled along the Zambezi River and “discovered” Victoria
Falls Stanley realized the economic opportunities of Africa
and went back to Europe looking for financial backers Leopold II of Belgium (1865-1909)
Believed that overseas colonies would make Belgium a great state
Worked with Stanley to gain colonies for Belgium
Scramble for Africa International Congo Association (1878)
Set up by Leopold II, Stanley, and a few financiers Private enterprise Stanley traveled to western Africa
Signed treaties with local elites Opened the Congo to commercial exploitation (palm oil,
rubber, diamonds)
This led a flurry of other explorers and financiers to lay claims to the lands in inland Africa Germans began claiming east Africa French began traveling down the Congo River as well There was a mindset of get it before someone else
claimed it
Scramble for Africa Berlin Conference of 1885
Called for by Bismarck Goals:
Set up the territories of the Congo Association as an international state
Draft a code governing the way Europeans were to acquire territory in Africa
The Congo would be open to free trade and commerce Terms for claiming territory:
Those with coastal claims also had claims to inland territories
Must have boundaries on paper and troops or administrators in place
Formal notice must be given to the other European powers over what territories were being claimed
Scramble for Africa The Congo Free State
Actually run by Leopold’s private company Slave trade was to be suppressed in favor of free
labor Leopold cared more about profits than the
people Focused on rubber, which was in huge demand in
Europe and the U.S. Created inhuman working conditions by using forced
labor and pushing for high quotas on materials Led to the deaths of 2-15 million natives Rubber supply was eventually wiped out
Scramble for Africa In 1908, the Belgian government took control
of the Congo Done mainly in response to the atrocities
committed Made the Congo a Belgian colony
Between 1885 and 1900 most of Africa was claimed by a European nation Germany focused on central Africa
Took Cameroon and Tanzania Britain took positions in the north and south and
then moved inland France moved from west Africa towards the east
Africa in 1914
Scramble for Africa The scramble for territory was going to lead to
conflicts with the natives First Italo-Ethopian War (1895-1896)
Only time a native population was able to defeat European colonizing forces
Battle of Adowa (March 1, 1896) 80,000 Ethiopians defeated the 20,000 Italian forces
that were attempting to move inland Ethiopians were being assisted by Russia
Kept European powers from trying to establish colonies there for over 40 years
Scramble for Africa Britain
In Egypt, Britain attempted to conquer the Upper Nile Also attempted to conquer southern and eastern Africa Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902)
Made a fortune from South African diamond mines (DeBeers) Prime minister of Cape Colony (1890) Personal goal was to build an African empire founded on
diamonds Carved out territories in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi, and
Botswana The “Cape-to-Cairo” railway
Designed to transect Africa Purpose of colonization was to make Britain self-
sufficient
Scramble for Africa The French in Algeria
Algeria as a settler state Utopian socialist communities Exiled revolutionaries of 1848 Winegrowers Not all settlers were French
Under the Third Republic (1870), Algeria was made a department of France Gave French settlers full rights of republican citizenship Consolidated privileges Disenfranchised indigenous populations Differentiated “good” Berbers and “bad” Arabs
Scramble for Africa After 1870: the “civilizing mission”
Reinforcing the purpose of the French republic and French prestige
Jules Ferry (1832–1893), argued for expansion into Indochina
French acquired Tunisia in 1881 Federation of French West Africa (1893)
Rationalizing the economic exploitation of the area “Enhancing the value” of the region Public programs served French interests only
Scramble for Africa Germany
Bismarck was a reluctant colonizer Did not enter the “race” until the 1880s Established colonies in German East Africa, the
Cameroons, and Togo With the scramble, it was clear that the
European powers were going to come into conflict with one another French and Germans had colonies along an east-
west route Britain focused on a north-south route
Scramble for Africa Fashoda Crisis (1898)
Britain and France faced one another for dominance of Africa
General Kitchner was conquering the Nile for Britain Came upon French troops under Captain J.B. Marchand at
Fashoda France eventually backed down for fear of Germany’s
growing power both in Europe and in Africa Afrikaners (Boers)
Dutch and Swiss settlers who had arrived in the early nineteenth century
Troubled relationship with the British in South Africa Set up two free states: Transvaal and the Orange Free
State
Scramble for Africa When diamonds were discovered in Transvaal,
the government refused to pass legislation allowing mining companies into the republic
Jameson Raid (1895) Rhodes sent in Dr. Leeander Jameson with a party
of armed irregulars into Transvaal to spark a British uprising
It failed German Kaiser William II sent the infamous
“Kruger telegram” to Transvaal president Paul Kruger Congratulated him on driving off the British without the
use of German aid
Scramble for Africa Second Boer War (1899-1902)
British army was completely unprepared for war British government refused to compromise The British eventually seized Pretoria A guerilla war dragged on for three years British used concentration camps where Afrikaner
citizens were rounded up 120,000 women and children were sent to the camps Around 20,000 died
In 1910, the Union of South Africa was created British and Boers shared power
Boers in a British concentration camp
European Colonies (c. 1900)
Imperialism in Asia Both British India and the Dutch East India
colonies were profitable They continuously exported more goods than they
imported Developed high level bureaucracies
These were good for providing government jobs to the middle- and upper-classes
The ideal form of colony for the Europeans
Dutch East Indies By 1815, the Dutch only controlled Java
However, incursions by the other European countries into the region forced the Dutch to seek greater claims in the East Indies
They laid claim to the entire archipelago “Culture System” (aka Cultivation System)
20% of village land was dedicated to crops to be exported
Form of taxation system Led to a 14% increase in exports Helped to bring the Netherlands out of the brink of
bankruptcy
India and the British Empire The “Jewel of the British Crown” The British East India Company
Had its own military divided into European and Indian divisions
Held the right to collect taxes on land from Indian peasants
Held legal monopolies over trade in all goods (the most lucrative was opium)
Constituted a military and repressive government Offered economic privileges to those who allied
themselves with the British against others
India and the British Empire British policy divided
One group wanted to westernize India Another thought it safer and more practical to
defer to local culture There were many social, economic, and
political grievances Did not like the repressive British policies Resented that those who were pro-British received
the better benefits British were against many of the Indian traditions
Included an end to widow burning and suppression of the Thuggee cult (criminal assassin “caste”)
India and the British Empire The Sepoy Rebellion (1857–1858)
Sepoys were the native Indian troops that made up around 5/6th of the British Indian army
Already unhappy with terms of their service being changed Company had terminated their pensions and forced them to
serve in unfamiliar regions Rumors spread that the British were greasing gun
cartridges with pig and cow fat The new cartridges needed to be bitten open Agitated the Muslim and Hindu soldiers
Uprising began near Delhi Indian peasants attacked law courts and burned tax
rolls Hindu and Muslim leaders denounced Christian
missionaries
India and the British Empire The British response
Systematic campaign of repression Rebel-supported towns and villages were
destroyed Reorganizing the Indian empire
New strategies of British rule East India Company was abolished British raj governed directly Military reorganization Queen Victoria as empress of India Reform of the civil service Missionary activity subdued
India and the British Empire India and Britain
India as Britain’s largest export market India provided Britain with highly trained
engineers and bureaucrats 1.2 million Indian troops fought with the British in
World War I British indirect rule sought to create an Indian elite
to serve British interests Large social group of British-educated Indian civil
servants and businessmen Provided the leadership for an Indian nationalist
movement
Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi One of the key
leaders of the Sepoy rebellion
The “Great Game” Russian colonization was through a policy of
annexation Southern colonization
Georgia (1801) Bessarabia, Turkestan, and Armenia Brought Russia and Britain close to war, especially
over Afghanistan The “Great Game”
Represented the jockeying taking place between Britain and Russia over the central Asia
The “Game” was played out dramatically in Persia
The “Great Game” Control over Persia
Both Russia and Britain sought to control the region This was especially the case after 1900 when oil was
discovered there They each provided the Persian government with
loans that were to be paid back through collection of tariffs at Persian ports
Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905-1906) Started as a nationalistic movement against the
influence of both the British and the Russians over the shah
Ended with the creation of a new Persian constitution with a monarchy limited by a parliament
Britain and Russia were forced to accept the “spheres of influence” for each other
Tabriz Revolutionaries
Europe and China Europe and China
Forcing trade agreements Set up treaty ports Established outposts of missionary activity British aimed to improving terms of the China
trade Canton System
Limited the ports to which Europeans could do business from
Forbade trading between European merchants and Chinese civilians
Europe and China The opium trade
A direct link between Britain, British India, and China Opium one of the few products Europeans could sell in
China Northeast India as richest opium-growing area A “narco-military empire” Opium production was labor-intensive
A triangular trade East India Company sold opium to British, Dutch, and
Chinese shippers Opium sent to southeast Asia and China Silver paid for opium was used to buy Chinese goods
for the European market
Europe and China China banned opium imports in the 1830s
Will lead to a collision course with British opium traders
First Opium War (1839-1842) Fought between the British and the Qing Dynasty Drugs not the main focus The issue was sovereignty and economic status European rights to trade
Treaty of Nanking (1842) Ended the Canton System Gave British extensive trading privileges Control of Hong Kong was given to the British China was forced to pay $21 million in reparations
Europe and China Second Opium War (1856-1860)
Fought between Britain, France, and the Qing Dynasty
British demanded more trading rights and permission for a British ambassador to China
British and French troops burned down the Summer Palace in Beijing
Treaty of Tientsin (1860) Britain granted further trading rights 11 more ports were open to trade Established freedom of religion in China Legalized the opium trade China was forced to pay an indemnity of 20 million
taels to Britain and France (~$743 million in 2011)
Europe and China Other countries demand similar rights and
economic opportunities French, German, and Russian demanded mining
rights All begin manufacturing with Chinese labor The United States and the “open door” policy
Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864) Radical Christian rebels in southern China
challenged the authority of the Qing Dynasty First instance of “total war” in China
Every able-bodied man was conscripted in some way China’s agricultural heartland was devastated by
this civil war
Europe and China Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
Fought between Qing Dynasty and Meiji Japan Mainly over control of Korea Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895)
Forced China to concede trading privileges to Japan China recognized the independence of Korea China was forced to pay 200 million taels to Japan
War showed the continued weakness of the Chinese government
Triple Intervention Russia, Germany, and France negotiated with
Japan to not take the Liaondong Peninsula Area was later occupied by Russia
Europe and China The Order of Literary Patriotic Harmonious Fists
AKA the Boxers Secret society of men trained in martial arts Anti-foreign and anti-missionary Upset with the “Unequal Treaties” with the west
Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901) The Boxers attacked foreign engineers and
destroyed railway lines In June 1900, they marched on Beijing Defeated by the Eight Nation Alliance
Included Austria-Hungary, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, Britain, and the U.S.
Europe and China Boxer Protocol (1901)
War reparations of 450 million taels over 39 years $335 million in 1901 $6.7 billion in 2011
Qing Dynasty had to allow foreign troops in Beijing Permanent ban on memberships to anti-foreign
societies Europeans were granted rights to occupy 12 cities
Boxer rebel (1900)
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) There were increasing tensions between Russia
and Japan over the control of Manchuria and Korea Japan wanted the region for its raw materials and
markets Russia wanted to strengthen its position in eastern
Asia and protect the city of Vladivostok Russia was building a railroad to Vladivostok
through Manchuria Vladivostok was not a warm water port
Russia turned its attention to Port Arthur on the Liaodong Peninsula
Occupied the Peninsula after the Boxer Rebellion
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Japan began negotiating with Russia in 1901
Hope to give Manchuria to Russia and Japan would keep Korea
Anglo-Japanese Alliance (1902) Designed to check Russian expansion in eastern
Asia Ended Britain’s period of “splendid isolation” Recognized the independence of China and Korea Each side would remain neutral if either one
became involved in a war over China or Korea with only one enemy
If either side was fighting two or more enemies then the other would come to its aid
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Franco-Russian Alliance (1902)
France would technically come to the aid of Russia if attacked
However, if Russia went to war with Japan, France could not do so This would cause Britain to join the war France was not willing to take that risk
Negotiations continued through 1904 However, terms could not be agreed upon Russia refused to give up Port Arthur Diplomatic relations were severed in February
1904
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Nicolas II was interested in going to war against Japan
He believed it would spark Russian patriotism However, his advisors believed that there would be
strategic issues in such a war This included the transportation of soldiers to the east
War began when the Japanese navy attacked Port Arthur An official declaration of war was received three hours later Russia declared war eight days later
While Britain did not join the war, it did provide Japan with intelligence against the Russians Japan returned the favor Discovered that Germany was supporting the Russians
Helped Britain decide that Germany was an international threat
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Battle of Mukden (February 20 – March 10,
1905) Largest number of participants in one battle up to
that date 276,000 Russian forces versus 270,000 Japanese
Russians lost the city 90,000 casualties Also lost most of their combat supplies and artillery
Battle of Tsushima Straits (May 27-8, 1905) Russian fleet traveled 18,000 nautical miles First naval battle using wireless telegraphy Japanese navy destroyed 2/3 of the Russian fleet This defeat brought an end to the war
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Treaty of Portsmouth (1905)
Negotiated by Theodore Roosevelt Manchuria was to be returned to China Japan received a lease to the Liaodong Peninsula and
the Russian railway through Manchuria Japan received a protectorate over Korea Japan also received the southern half of the Island of
Sakhalin Importance of the war
First war between the Great Powers since 1870 First time non-whites defeated a white power in
modern era Japanese showed that they were a major world power
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) Effects of the war
Russia shifted its attention back to Europe Specifically turned to the Balkans and pan-Slavism
Tsar’s power was considerably weakened He became the laughingstock of Russia due to his
incompetence over the war Helped to contribute to the Revolution of 1905
Became a motivating factor for those fighting against the European powers Japan proved that they could be defeated
Japan emerged as a world power