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Modelling the environmental dispersion of radionuclides
Jordi Vives i Batlle
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Lancaster, 26th November 2010
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Dispersion models available in the ERICA Tool Other types of dispersion models that are
available Key parameters that drive dispersion models
for radioactivity in the environment Applicability to different scenarios/circumstances
(e.g. release directly to a protected site/end of pipe concentrations (e.g. mixing zones))
Lecture plan
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Often the receptor is not at a point of emission but is linked via an environmental pathway (dilution)
Need to predict media concentrations when (adequate) data are not available
To conduct authorisation-based assessments for the protection and conservation of species listed under the EC Birds and Habitats Directives
What reasons to use models?
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Part I - Dispersion modelling in ERICA
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Designed to minimise under-prediction (conservative generic assessment)
A default discharge period of 30 y is assumed (estimates doses for the 30th year of discharge)
IAEA SRS Publication 19
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Gaussian plume model version depending on the relationship between building height, HB & cross-sectional area of the building influencing flow, AB
Assumes a predominant wind direction and neutral stability class
Key inputs: discharge rate Q & location of source / receptor points (H, HB, AB and x)
Atmospheric dispersion
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a) H > 2.5HB (no building effects)
b) H 2.5HB & x > 2.5AB½(airflow in the wake zone)
c) H 2.5HB & x 2.5AB½(airflow in the cavity
zone). Two cases: source / receptor at same building surface not at same surface
(a) (b)
(c)
Not generally applicable at x > 20 km
Conditions for the plume
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
A Gaussian plume model for an elevated release is as follows:
C x y z
Q
u
y z H
z y y
S
z
, , exp
2 2 210
2
2
2
2
where C = the air concentration (Bq/m3) or its time integral Bq.s/m3
Q = release rate (Bq/s) or total amount released (Bq) u10 = wind speed at 10 m above the ground (m/s) z = standard deviation of the vertical Gaussian distribution (m) y = standard deviation of the horizontal Gaussian distribution (m) HS = effective release height (m) x, y, z = rectilinear coordinates of the receptors
Importance of Release Height
Basic dispersion equation
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Wind speed and direction 10 minute average from 10 m wind vane & anemometer
Release height Precipitation
10 minute total rainfall (mm) from tipping bucket Stability or degree of turbulence (horizontal and vertical
diffusion) Manual estimate from nomogram using time of day, amount of
cloud cover and global radiation level
Atmospheric boundary layer (time-dependent) Convective and or mechanical turbulence Limits the vertical transport of pollutants
Key parameters
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Based on the recommendations of the
Working Group on Atmospheric Dispersion
(NRPB-R91, -R122, -R123, -R124) Gaussian plume model
Meteorological conditions specified by: Wind speed Wind direction Pasquill-Gifford stability classification
Implemented in PC CREAM
R91 aerial dispersion model
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Model assumes constant meteorological and topographical conditions along plume trajectory
Prediction accuracy < 100 m and > 30 km limited Source depletion unrealistic (deposition modelling &
transfer factors are uncertain) Developed for neutral conditions Does not include
Buildings Complex terrain e.g. hills and valleys Coastal effects
R91 - model limitations
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Freshwater Small lake (<
400 km2) Large lake
(≥400 km2) Estuarine River
Marine Coastal Estuarine
No model for open ocean waters
Surface water dispersion
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Based on analytic solution of the advection diffusion equation describing transport in surface water for uniform flow conditions at steady state
Processes included: Flow downstream as transport (advection) Mixing processes (turbulent dispersion) Concentration in sediment / suspended particles estimated
from ERICA Kd at receptor (equilibrium) Transportation in the direction of flow No loss to sediment between source and receptor
In all cases water dispersion are assumed critical flow conditions, by taking the lowest in 30 years, the rate of current flow
The only difference between RNs in predicted water concentrations as material disperses is physical half-life.
Processes and assumptions
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The river model assumes that both river discharge of radionuclides such as water harvesting is done in some of the banks, not in the midstream
The estuary model is considered an average speed of the current representative of the behaviour of the tides.
If x on the same bank side and Lz = 7D the radionuclideCondition for mixing is (y-y0)<<3.7xconcentration in water is assumed to be undiluted
Lz = distance to achieve full vertical mixing
Kd = Activity concentration on sediment (Bq kg-1) Activity concentration in seawater (Bq L-
1)
Rivers and coastal waters
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Assumes a homogeneous concentration throughout the water body Expected life time of facility is required as input
Small lakes and reservoirs
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Simple environmental and dosimetric models as well as sets of necessary default data: Simplest, linear compartment models Simple screening approach (robust but conservative) Short source-receptor distances
More complex / higher tier assessments: Aerial model includes only one wind direction Coastal dispersion model not intended for open waters e.g.
oil/gas marine platform discharges Surface water models assume geometry (e.g. river cross-
section) & flow characteristics (e.g. velocity, water depth) do not change significantly with distance / time
End of pipe mixing zones require hydrodynamic models Assumes equilibrium at assessment location - Kd
Limitations of IAEA SRS 19
Uncertainty associated with the application of aquatic SRS models: Models generally conservative. From factor of 2 to 10 difference with respect to a dynamic
model. Uncertainty associated with the application of a
Gaussian plume model for continuous releases: About a factor of 4 or 10 for a flat and complex terrain
respectively. At distances < 2.5 times the square root of the frontal area
of the building, the model provides conservative results. For distances of about 2.5 the above, the model tends to
underpredict for wind speeds above 5-m s-1.
Effects of using these models on dose
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Part II: PC CREAM as a practical alternative for dispersion modelling
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Consequences of Releases to the Environment Assessment Methodology
A suite of models and data for performing radiological impact assessments of routine and continuous discharges
Marine: Compartmental model for European waters (DORIS)
Seafood concentrations => Individual doses => Collective doses.
Aerial: Radial grid R-91 atmospheric dispersion model with (PLUME) with biokinetic transfer models (FARMLAND)
Ext. & internal irradiation => foodchain transfer (animal on pasture e.g. cow & plant uptake models) => dose
Collective dose model PC CREAM
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Compartmental - marine model
(continuous discharge)
Radial grid - atmospheric model
Sellafield
Dundalk
Dublin
Irish SeaNorth West
Irish SeaNorth
Irish SeaNorth East
Irish SeaSouth East
Liverpool And Morecambe Bays
CumbrianWaters
Irish SeaWest
Localcompart.
Marine and aerial dispersion
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Marine model (DORIS) => improvement Has long-range geographical resolution Incorporates dynamic representation of water /
sediment interaction Aerial model (PLUME) => no improvement
Still a gaussian dispersion model unsuitable for long distances (though it has been used in that way)
Also assumes constant meteorological conditions Does not correct for plume filling the boundary layer Must use a better model e.g. Lagrangian particle
dispersion - NAME
Degree of improvement of the models
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Part III: Other alternative dispersion models
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Marine modelling
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Allow for nonequilibrium situations e.g. acute release into protected site
Advantages: Resolves into a large geographical range Results more accurate (if properly calibrated)
Disadvantages: Data and CPU-hungry (small time step and grid sizes
demand more computer resources) Run time dependent on grid size & time step Requires a more specialised type of user Post-processing required for dose calculation (use as input
to ERICA)
Geographically-resolving marine models
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Input requirements: Bathymetry, wind fields, tidal velocities, sediment distributions, source term
Type of output: a grid map / table of activity concentration (resolution dependent on grid size)
All use same advection/dispersion equations, differences are in grid size and time step
Types of model: Compartmental: Give average solutions in compartments
connected by fluxes. Good for long-range dispersion in regional seas.
Finite differences: Equations discretised and solved over a rectangular mesh grid. Good for short-range dispersion in coastal areas
Estuaries a special case: Deal with tides (rather than waves), density gradients, turbidity & c.
Model characteristics
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Finite differences Compartmental
Model characteristics
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Long-range marine models (regional seas): POSEIDON - N. Europe (similar to PC-CREAM model but
redefines source term and some compartments - same sediment model based on MARINA)
MEAD (in-house model available at WSC) Short-range marine models (coastal areas):
MIKE21 - Short time scales (DHI) - also for estuaries Delft 3D model, developed by DELFT TELEMAC (LNH, France) - finite element model COASTOX (RODOS PV6 package)
Estuarine models DIVAST ( Dr Roger Proctor) ECoS (PML, UK) - includes bio-uptake
Readily available models
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
As seen previously (PC-CREAM section of the lecture) Area of interest divided into large area boxes and transfer
at boundaries is dependent on the parameters in the adjacent boxes
Contains sediment transport project (MARINA project) Simple, quick, easy to use radionuclide transport model
Continuous discharge Time variable discharge Continuous leaching of an immersed solid material
Post processing for annual dose to humans is intrinsic, hence only minor coding required for determination of dose to biota
POSEIDON
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Two-dimensional depth averaged model for coastal waters
Location defined on a grid - creates solution from previous time step
Hydrodynamics solved using full time-dependent non-linear equations (continuity & conservation of momentum)
Large, slow and complex when applied to an extensive region
Suitable for short term (sub annual) assessments
A post processor is required to determine biota concentrations and dose calculations
DHI MIKE 21 model
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
2 km grid
Applies advection - dispersion equations over an area and time
Generates activity concentration predictions in water and sediment
Has been combined with the ERICA methodology to make realistic assessments of impact on biota
Marine Environmental Advection Dispersion (MEAD)
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Residual flow field (12 month MIKE21 simulation / averaged wind conditions)
Bathymetry for MEAD grid: resolution 2 km - 2 km
MEAD input data - water
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Distribution of fine grained bed sediment
Distribution of suspended particles (modelled)
MEAD input data - sediment
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
020406080
100120140160180200
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Model predictions
Measured activity in crabs
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Model predictionsMeasured activity in winkles
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Model predictions
Measured activity in mussels
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
Model predictionsMeasured activity in codMeasured activity in plaice
60Co in winkles 137Cs in cod / plaice
99Tc in crab 241Am in mussels
Could be used to derive CFs for use in ERICA
MEAD output - Cumbrian coast
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
-6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.053.0
53.5
54.0
54.5
55.0
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
5.00
10.00
50.00
100.00
1000.00
-6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.053.0
53.5
54.0
54.5
55.0
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
5.00
10.00
100.00
1000.00
5000.00
Cumbria fishingarea
-6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.053.0
53.5
54.0
54.5
55.0
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
5.00
10.00
50.00
100.00
1000.00
-6.0 -5.5 -5.0 -4.5 -4.0 -3.5 -3.053.0
53.5
54.0
54.5
55.0
0.00
0.01
0.10
1.00
5.00
10.00
100.00
1000.00
5000.00
Cumbria fishingarea
Predicted distribution of 137Cs in seawater in 2000
Predicted distribution of 137Cs in bed sediments in 2000
MEAD - Long-range results
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Extra modules in MIKE21 More complex water quality issues e.g.
eutrophication Wave interactions Coastal morphology Particle and slick tracking analysis Sediment dynamicsD isso lv e d
Su sp e n d e dSe d im e n t
A d so rp tio n
D e so rp tio nR e su sp e n sio n
D e p o s itio n
A d v e c tio n
D if fu s io n
D if fu s io n
D e so rp tio n
A d so rp tio n
D e p o site dSe d im e n t
A d v e c tio n
Discharge
ModelMaker biokinetic models
Dynamic interactions with sediment
SpeciationDynamic uptake in
biota
Seawater_Pu_III_IVSeawater_Pu_V_VI
Suspended_load
Reduction
Oxidation
Desorption_sed Adsorption_sed
Adsorption_coll
Adsorption_susp
DepositionRemobilisation Coagulation
Desorption_susp
SedimentationBioturbation
Flushing_oxidisedFlushing_reduced
Flushing_colloidal
Flushing_susp
Burial
Discharge
Influx_Pu_III_IV
Influx_Pu_V_VI
Influx_Pu_particulate
Surface_sediment
Bottom_sedimentMiddle_sediment
Far_field
Colloidal
Pelagic_fish
Crustaceans
Molluscs
Benthic_fish
More complex process models
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River and estuary modelling
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Advantages: Large geographical range Consider multiple dimensions of the problem (1 - 3D) Considers interconnected river networks Results more accurate (if properly calibrated)
Disadvantages - same as marine models: Data hungry Run time dependent on grid size & time step Requires a more specialised type of user CPU-hungry (as time step and grid size decreases it demands
more computer resources) Post-processing required for dose calculation (use as input to
ERICA)
River and estuary models
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Input requirements: Bathymetry, rainfall and catchment data, sediment properties, network mapping, source term
Type of output: activity concentration in water and sediment, hydrodynamic data for river
All use same advection/dispersion equations as marine but differences in boundary conditions
Generally models solve equations to: Give water depth and velocity over the model domain. Calculate dilution of a tracer (activity concentration)
Model characteristics
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Can be 1D, 2D or 3D models 1D river models: River represented by a line in
downstream direction - widely used 2D models have some use where extra detail is required 3D models are rarely used unless very detailed process
representation is needed Off-the-shelf models:
MIKE11 model developed by the DHI, Water and Environment (1D model)
VERSE (developed by WSC) MOIRA (Delft Hydraulics)
Research models: PRAIRIE (AEA Technology) RIVTOX & LAKECO (RODOS PV6 package)
Common models
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MIKE11 - Industry standard code for river flow simulation
River represented by a line in downstream direction
River velocity is averaged over the area of flow
Cross sections are used to give water depth predictions
Can be steady flow (constant flow rate) or unsteady flow
Use of cross sections can give an estimate of inundation extent but not flood plain velocity
Example - MIKE 11
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Aerial modelling
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Advanced models: ADMS, AERMOD Gaussian in stable and neutral conditions Non-Gaussian (skewed) in unstable conditions
Continuous turbulence data rather than simplified stability categories to define boundary layer
Model includes the effects on dispersion from: Buildings Complex terrain & coastal regions
ADMS a good choice
New-generation plume models
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Modified Gaussian plume model Gaussian in stable and neutral conditions Skewed non-Gaussian in unstable conditions
Boundary layer based on turbulence parameters Model includes:
Meteorological preprocessor, buildings, complex terrain Wet deposition, gravitational settling and dry deposition Short term fluctuations in concentration Chemical reactions Radioactive decay and gamma-dose Condensed plume visibility & plume rise vs. distance Jets and directional releases Short to annual timescales
UK ADMS
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Meteorological data (site specific & Met Office) Wind speed, wind direction, date, time, latitude, boundary
layer height, cloud cover Boundary Layer Height
Height at which surface effects influence dispersion ADMS calculates boundary layer properties for different
heights based on meteorology Monin-Obukhov Length
Measure of height at which mechanical turbulence is more significant than convection or stratification
ADMS calculates M-O length based on meteorology and ground roughness
ADMS input parameters
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Stack with building
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
M etres
NOx Concentration (ug/m 3)
-400
-300
-200
-100
0
100
200
300
400
Met
res
23456789101112131415161718192021222324
Concentration plot
Types of output
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Terrestrial (biosphere) modelling
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Convert rainfall over the catchment to river flow out the catchment
Represent the processes illustrated, however in two possible ways: Simple “black box” type model such as empirical
relationship from rainfall to runoff (cannot be used to simulate changing conditions)
Complex physically based models where all processes are explicitly represented
Catchment modelling
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Integrated groundwater - surface water solution
Advanced rainfall runoff model with extensive process representation
Intense parameter demand
One of the more widely used models
A good choice when the close linkage of surface water and ground water is important to the study
Graham, D.N. and M. B. Butts (2005) Flexible, integrated watershed modelling with MIKE SHE. In Watershed Models, Eds. V.P. Singh & D.K. Frevert Pages 245-272, CRC Press. ISBN: 0849336090.
Example model - MIKE SHE
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
ERICA uses the IAEA SRS 19 dispersion models to work out a simple, conservative source - receptor interaction
SRS 19 have some shortcomings PC-CREAM can be used as an alternative suite of
dispersion models There are further off-the-shelf models performing
radiological impact assessments of routine and continuous discharges ranging from simple to complex
Key criteria of simplicity of use and number of parameters need to be considered
Conclusions
www.ceh.ac.uk/PROTECT
Model Organisation LinkADMS 4 CERC http://www.cerc.co.uk/environmental-software/ADMS-model.htmlAERMOD EPA http://www.epa.gov/scram001/dispersion_prefrec.htm#aermod
(Freeware)DELFT 3D DELFT
Hydraulicshttp://delftsoftware.wldelft.nl/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogcategory&id=13&Itemid=34
DIVAST CardiffUniversity
http://hrc.engineering.cf.ac.uk/
EcoS 3 PML http://www.pml.ac.uk/
HEC-RAS HEC(USACE)
http://www.hec.usace.army.mil/software/hec-ras/hecras-download.html (Freeware)
IAEA SRS 19 IAEA www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/Pub1103_scr.pdfISIS Halcrow http://www.halcrow.com/isis/isisfree.asp (Freeware)
http://www.halcrow.com/isis/default.asp (Professional edition)MEAD WSC http://www.westlakes.org (in-house model)MIKE11 DHI http://www.dhigroup.com/Software/WaterResources/MIKE11.aspxMIKE21 DHI http://www.dhigroup.com/Software/Marine/MIKE21.aspxMIKE3 DHI http://www.dhigroup.com/Software/Marine/MIKE3.aspxMIKE-SHE DHI http://www.dhigroup.com/Software/WaterResources/MIKESHE.aspxMOIRA-PLUS EU MOIRA
programmehttp://user.tninet.se/~fde729o/MOIRA/Software.htm (Freeware)
PC CREAM 08 HPA http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733792183
POSEIDON CEPN http://www.cepn.asso.fr/en1/logiciels.htmlPRAIRIE AEA
Technologyhttp://www.aeat.co.uk/
R91 NRPB http://www.admlc.org.uk/NRPB-R91.htmRODOS PV6(COASTOX,RIVTOX &LAKECO)
EU RODOSprogramme
http://www.rodos.fzk.de/rodos.html (Freeware, password protected)
TELEMAC 2 &3D
SOGREAH http://www.telemacsystem.com/index.php?option=com_jdownloads&Itemid=31&task=viewcategory&catid=3&lang=en (Freeware)
VERSE WSC http://www.westlakes.org (in-house model)
Links to alternative models