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Reports of the Department of Mathematical Information Technology Series E. Educational Technology No. E 2/2013 Mobile Learning – a Review of Current Research Jenni Rikala University of Jyväskylä Department of Mathematical Information Technology P.O. Box 35 (Agora) FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä FINLAND fax +358 14 260 2771 http://www.mit.jyu.fi

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Reports of the Department of Mathematical Information Technology

Series E. Educational Technology

No. E 2/2013

Mobile Learning – a Review of Current Research

Jenni Rikala

University of Jyväskylä Department of Mathematical Information Technology

P.O. Box 35 (Agora)

FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä

FINLAND

fax +358 14 260 2771

http://www.mit.jyu.fi

Copyright © 2013

Jenni Rikala

and University of Jyväskylä

ISBN 978-951-39-5292-1

ISSN 1795-5726

1

Mobile Learning – a Review of Current

Research

Jenni Rikala†

Abstract

Mobile learning, learning with mobile devices in various contexts, is an ascending

trend across different sectors of education worldwide. One major challenge, however,

is that the mobile learning solutions have not deeply-rooted to educational contexts

and practices as the mobile learning commonly is characterized by short-term and

small-scale trials. In this report I give a cross-section about what is topical at the

moment in the field of mobile learning. This report will also provide a comprehensive

view of pedagogical models and proposes a new mobile learning framework.

1 Introduction

Mobile technologies have changed our societies in many respects [1]. They have

affected the way people interact with each other, how people communicate, work

and travel [2]. Mobile devices, systems and technologies are now universally

owned, accepted and used. As consequence also the meaning and significance of

learning are changing. [1] Educators, employers, parents and the public have

begun to emphasize the need for lifelong learning and 21st century skills.

Technologies can respond to these changes in learning. Technologies have made

many new educational forms possible but despite this the methods of teaching and

learning still are in many respects quite traditional, teacher-centred and classroom-

bounded. There remains definite gap between the knowledge and skills that

learners learn in school and the knowledge and skills that they will need later in

life. It has been shown that innovative teaching can support student’s development

of the skills that they will need in future life and work [3]. Taking this into account

even more innovative learning scenarios and practices should be designed and

implemented.

Researchers and educators all over the world have recognized the potential of

mobile technologies as learning tool and mobile technology has promoted a new

† Department of Mathematical Information Technology, University of Jyväskylä, P.O. Box 35

(Agora), FI-40014 University of Jyväskylä, Finland, [email protected]

2

learning style mobile learning or briefly m-learning. Innovative learning practices

(e.g., student centred pedagogy, extending learning beyond the classroom) can be

realized through different mobile learning solutions. At best, mobile devices can be

used to support learners’ needs and to develop a variety of appropriate learning

solutions and learning practices.

Research in the field of mobile learning has been done widely all over the world.

This research is studying “how the mobility of learners augmented by personal and

public technology can contribute to the process of gaining new knowledge, skills and

experience” [4]. In other words, mobile learning is learning in which learners are

using mobile devices such as PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants), laptop computers,

mobile phones, smart phones (e.g., iPhone), digital players, media players, cameras,

games consoles (e.g., Nintendo DS, Sony PSP), voting systems as well as

customized hardware to enhance learning by gaining knowledge, skills and

experiences. Learners can learn anytime and anywhere so learning can be very

personalised, situated and authentic [5].

Mobile phones and PDAs are the most commonly used technologies for mobile

learning but as above listed there is also wide variety of other possible mobile

technologies as well. Mobile, commonly understood as portable and movable, can

also implicate a personal, so mobile technologies can be classified by using the two

orthogonal dimensions of personal vs. shared and portable vs. static. [6]

Naismith et al. [6] emphasized that mobile technologies comprise all devices from

quadrants 1—3 and also those from quadrant 4 that are not at the extreme end of

the static dimension (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Classification of mobile technologies [6]

3

The new wireless and powerful handheld devices have new exiting capabilities

and possibilities such as multimedia, social networking, and geo-location [7]. But

also less powerful handheld devices with slower communication have been used

for mobile learning for several years now. For example, three applications such as

classroom response systems, participatory simulations, and collaborative data gathering,

have been re-implemented many times, and studied by many different research

teams. [8]

The mobile learning context can be extremely dynamic. Because of this also the

applications of mobile learning can vary greatly according to the context and

situations (from K-12 to higher education and corporate learning settings, from

formal and informal learning to classroom learning, distance learning, and field

study). Some of the mobile applications and software have been purpose-built for

educational use but some of them are off-the shelf solutions originally intended for

other uses like business use. The extremely dynamic mobile learning context and

different reasons to utilise mobile technologies in education make it tricky to make

any generalisations about the requirements and ways of using them. The ways that

mobile technologies have been used to support teaching and learning are, for

example: individual study, group work, data collection, recording reflections/diaries, skills

practice, feedback/questions to teacher, peer-to-peer communication/support, reviewing

knowledge, warm up/cool down exercises. [9, 10, 11, 12]

There are several challenges with m-learning, such as connectivity, small screen

sizes, limited processing power, and reduced input capabilities. Also the great

variety of mobile devices and possibility to personalize and use them in different

settings creates challenges to mobile learning. One more considerable challenge is

the diversity of educational goals and needs of the users. Also the lack of cohesive

theoretical mobile learning framework and mobile learning standards brings some

challenges. Undoubtedly, there are number of technological and pedagogical

issues that need to be take account. [13, 14, 15, 16]

Mobile learning is still developing rapidly, but it is evidently undeveloped

compared to technologies and their pedagogies. The use of mobile devices is

increasing across every sector of education, and across both the developed and

developing worlds. Mobile learning also has growing visibility and significance.

There is the growing size and frequency of dedicated conferences, seminars, and

workshops. There have also been a rising number of references to mobile learning

at generalist academic conferences. There are now much larger and more sustained

and blended trials and experiments than before but so far the development and the

delivery have focused on short-term small-scale pilots and trials in the developed

countries of Europe, North America, and the Pacific Rim. [1, 5]

4

The purpose of this report is to review articles to summarise the current research

concerning the mobile learning. For this review I have examined articles that I have

found in electronic databases using keyword searches including mobile learning

and m-learning. I searched articles from the Jyväskylä University library’s Nelli

portal which provides access to databases, e-journals and other electronic resources

and also from the Google search engine and Google Scholar. I sought to explore

and analyse the most recent studies (2007—2012).

2 Theories behind the mobile learning

Mobile devices by themselves do not guarantee effective teaching or learning.

Methods of teaching and the teacher’s views of learning are essential part of the

educational use of technology. In the background of every educational effort there

is always a theory or idea of how the learner’s mind works and how the learner

should be taught [17].

Pedagogical theories and strategies are normally strongly linked to learning

theories so the way to use mobile devices to support learning widely depends on

the learning theory. To crystallize the importance of the learning theories in mobile

learning, I quote Herrington and Herrington [18] who argued that: “Adopting more

recent theories of learning has the potential to exploit the affordances of the technologies in

more valuable ways”.

Mobile learning research integrates research from different theoretical

perspectives. Many researchers have explored the relationship between existing

learning theories and mobile learning. Naismith et al. [6], for instance, compared

mobile learning against learning theories such as behaviourist, constructivist, situated,

collaborate, informal and lifelong learning.

Also Keskín and Metcalf [19] discussed about the mobile learning and learning

theories in their literature review. They found that current mobile learning theories

are behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, situated learning, problem based learning,

context awareness learning, socio-cultural theory, collaborative learning, conversational

learning, lifelong learning, informal learning, activity theory, connectivism, navigationism,

and location-based learning.

In my review I also found theories such as active experiential learning, inquiry-

based learning, transactional distance theory, and sense making associated with mobile

learning. Some of these theories described above are subsections of broader

theories but I’m not going to separate them into more detailed groups here. The

most important observation is that there is not cohesive theoretical mobile learning

theory as mobile learning is supported by various theories.

5

These different learning theories offer different perspectives and views to

mobile learning. Naismith et al. [6] presented learning theories in mobile learning

contexts and posed the ways how mobile learning can be implemented into

learning activities. Also Keskín and Metcalf [19] and Herrington and Herrington

[18] presented some examples in their literature review (e.g., behaviourist –

classroom response systems, situated learning – multimedia museum tours,

constructivist – the virus game).

Traxler [1] have stressed that on the whole the mobile learning theory is very

problematic matter because mobile learning is an inherently ‘noisy’ phenomenon

where context is everything and confounding variables abound. The lack of

cohesive theory and framework could, however, bring some challenges to mobile

learning but at the same time it can bring some opportunities too. Everyone can

choose the theory that best suits for his/her goals and this at best can enable

technology uses that are valuable and instructive.

3 The evolution of mobile learning

Mobile learning actually has surprisingly long history [20]. Mobile learning

advanced in the 1970s and spread widely in 2000s [2]. The appearance of mobile

technology in education has extended the scope of teaching but only the latest

mobile technologies have truly enabled learning on the move [20].

Despite the relatively long history, mobile learning is evidently undeveloped

compared to technologies and their pedagogies and is still developing rapidly [1,

5]. Also the concept of m-learning is still developing [2]. Because of different

theoretical perspectives there are several different views to mobile learning. This

has led to the result that there is no common definition for mobile learning. There

are various terms such as wireless, ubiquitous, seamless, nomadic or pervasive

learning/education and mobile e-learning that all somehow indicates mobile learning.

[21]

Mobile learning (or briefly m-learning) is not merely combination of mobile and

learning. It has always referred more or less to mobile electronic learning (or

briefly e-learning) [1]. Mobile learning also has a close relationship with distance

learning (or briefly d-learning) [2]. Figure 2 illustrates the place of m-learning as

part of e-learning and d-learning.

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Figure 2: The place of m-Learning as part of e-Learning and d-Learning [22]

Even though mobile learning have the close relationship with e-learning and d-

learning, mobile learning distinct from e-learning and d-learning. Traxler [23]

defined the core characteristics that define mobile learning. Many of these

characteristics separate mobile learning from e-learning (Fig. 3). The characteristics

that Traxler [23] defined are spontaneous, private, portable, situated, informal, bite-sized,

light-weight, context aware and also connected, personalized, and interactive.

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Figure 3: m-learning vs. e-learning (adapted from Traxler [23])

Table 1: The characteristics of e-learning an m-learning

e-Learning m-Learning

Computer Mobile

Bandwidth GPRS,Gs, Bluetooth

Multimedia Objects

Interactive Spontaneous

Hyperlinked Connected

Collaborative Networked

Media-rich Lightweight

Distance learning Situated learning

More formal Informal

Simulated situation Realistic situation

Hyperlearning Constructivism,

situationism,

collaborative

Also Laouris and Eteokleuous [24] compared the characteristics of e-learning

and m-learning (Table 1). Because of the unique characteristics of mobile learning

there are also definitions that see m-learning entirely apart from e-learning.

Laouris and Eteokleuous [24] proposed the definition of mobile learning after an

8

inclusive review and comparison between e-learning and m-learning. They come

to the conclusion that the definition of mobile learning must take into account

many parameters and also the ways in which they interact and influence each

other. Their formulation for the definition of m-learning function is:

MLearn = f {t, s,LE,c,IT,MM,m}

(where t is time, s is space, LE is environment, c is content, IT is technology, MM is

mental abilities, and m is method).

Geddes [25] saw mobile learning as the acquisition of any knowledge and skill

through the use of handheld technology, anywhere and anytime. This is also

probably the most commonly seen meaning and definition of m-learning.

O´Malley et al. [26] have defined m-learning from more pedagogical perspective

as follows: "Any sort of learning that happens when the learner is not at a fixed,

predetermined location, or learning that happens when the learner takes advantage of the

learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies."

Most mobile learning definitions see the mobility (either learners’, devices or

contents) and personality to be integral part of mobile learning (e.g., [6, 23, 25, 26,

27]) The most important observation, however, is that mobile learning is not just

about learning by using portable devices, but also learning across different

contexts [28].

Many early perspectives of m-learning focused mainly on technology but at the

present there are many different m-learning perspectives and each focuses on the

different features, for example, such as mobility, individualism, and ubiquitous

[19]. Belshaw [29] found four different perspectives in his interviewees and

literature review: 1) techno centric, 2) e-learning related, 3) augmentation of formal

process, and 4) learner-centred. In addition, there are perspectives such as the

learner/user centre perspective, the usability perspective, and the context-aware

perspective (e.g., [30, 31, 32, 33]). Usually three different perspectives - technical,

usability and pedagogical - are incorporated into the design and evaluation of

mobile learning applications and materials [34].

There have been some attempts to categorize m-learning. For example, Traxler

[5] found six categories of m-learning in his literature review. These six categories

are 1) technology-driven mobile learning, 2) miniature but portable e-learning, 3)

connected classroom learning, 4) informal, personalised, situated mobile learning 5)

mobile training/performance support, and 6) remote/rural/development mobile

learning.

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On the basis of mobile learning perspectives reviewed, there could be created a

list of main views of m-learning. These views are:

accessible & usable (e.g., portable, light-weight, bite-sized, effective, easy to

use),

contextual & situated (e.g., time, context and location-awareness),

flexible & adaptable (e.g., possibility to spontaneous learning anytime and

anywhere),

formal vs. informal (e.g., educational contexts vs. real life contexts),

interactive (e.g., enhances different ways to communicate and interact with

other people, information, or systems),

personalized (e.g., awareness of learner’s attitudes, perceptions, personal

needs and goals),

technology vs. pedagogy (e.g., technology driven view vs. learner-centred

view),

authenticity (e.g., authentic “real-life” tasks and processes),

collaboration (e.g., learning activities with peers),

ubiquitous.

3.1 Mobile learning frameworks

Many researchers have attempted to encapsulate the unique characteristics of

mobile learning in the form of a simplified framework. Two of these frameworks

are presented in the following sections and a new framework is proposed.

The framework for the rational analysis of mobile education (FRAME)

Koole [27] described mobile learning as a process resulting from the convergence

of mobile technologies, human learning capacities, and social interaction. Koole [27]

introduced the Frame Model (Fig. 4). This model describes a mode of learning in

which learners may move within different physical and virtual locations thereby

participate and interact with other people, information, or systems - anywhere,

anytime. The three aspects, the device, learner and social aspect, are intersecting.

10

Figure 4: The Frame Model (Koole [27])

Mobile learning experiences occur within a context of information. Learners are

consuming and creating information collectively and individually and the

interaction with information is mediated through technology. [27]

Frame model refers theories such as activity theory and it also place emphasis

on constructivism. The frame model also takes into consideration the technical

characteristics of mobile devices. [27]

M-learning Framework

Also Kearney et al. [7] introduced a mobile learning framework. Their framework

is based on a socio-cultural theory. The framework introduced by Kearney et al. [7]

includes three core characteristics personalisation, authenticity and collaboration

(Fig. 5).

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Figure 5: Kearney et al. [7] M-learning Framework

The basis of the framework is time and space. Together time and place creates

“malleable spatial-temporal contexts of learning”. Kearney et al. [7] also stated sub-

scales for each of the three constructs (personalisation, authenticity and collaboration).

The authenticity feature highlights the opportunities for contextualized,

participatory and situated learning; the collaboration feature captures the

conversational and connected aspects of m-learning; the personalisation feature

has implications for ownership, agency and autonomous learning.

Kearney et al. [7] also highlighted that the way that learners experience these

aspects is strongly influenced by the organisation of spatial and temporal aspects

of the m-learning environment.

Proposed framework of mobile learning

After an inclusive analysis of the various mobile learning frameworks and 21st

century learning environment a new framework is proposed (Fig. 6).

12

Figure 6: A new proposed mobile learning framework

Technological, social and cultural changes do and will influence learning. They

will affect the structure and content of curricula (e.g., the national core curriculum),

the nature of learning environment and the methods, systems and tools for

supporting the learning (e.g., the national digital strategy). Consequently social,

cultural and technical factors are taken into consideration at the external level of

the framework.

The 21st century learning environment provides structures (e.g., student-

centered pedagogies, ICT implementation & integration strategies, innovative

teaching practices, learning objectives and teacher’s competencies) that facilitate

mobile learning. And vice versa, mobile learning is one way to support teaching

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and learning of 21st century skills outcomes. The 21st century learning environment

is organized such way that it supports teaching and learning of 21st century skills

outcomes. Learning can occur in classroom, virtually or in informal settings. The

environment is flexible and adaptable and enables collaboration, interaction and

information sharing in relevant, real world 21st century contexts [35]. The 21st

century learning environment with its structures creates the inter-medium level of

the proposed framework.

The majority of the existing mobile learning frameworks highlight the context

(e.g., [7, 27]) and time (e.g., [7]). Especially aspects such as authenticity,

situatedness and contextualisation are emphasized. In proposed framework the

context, time and space shapes the central of the internal level. By this way the

mobile technologies unique ability to support learning anywhere and anytime is

highlighted. Mobile technologies truly give the learner the opportunity to gain

knowledge, skills and experiences in different contexts. Learning can occur in

formal and informal as well as physical and virtual settings.

Also the learner aspect is highlighted in most of the mobile learning frameworks

(e.g., [7, 27]). Especially the personalisation, customisation, autonomy, and self-

regulation are emphasized. In other words, individual's cognitive abilities,

memory, prior knowledge, emotions, possible motivations, attitudes, experiences

are in a significant role in mobile learning. This is why learner aspect is taken into

consideration at the internal level of the proposed framework.

The social aspect is taken into consideration at the internal level of the proposed

framework as most of the mobile learning frameworks highlight the social

interaction and collaboration (e.g., [7, 27]). The impact of interaction on learning

cannot be underestimated.

The device aspect is taken into consideration at the internal level of the

proposed framework as well. There are several challenges with mobile devices,

such as connectivity, small screen sizes, limited processing power, and reduced

input capabilities. But at the same time mobile devices generates opportunities to

personalize and use them in different settings. However, mobile devices by

themselves do not guarantee effective teaching or learning. Learning is depending

on context, time and space, learner aspects as well as social aspects, learning

environment and its structures. In device aspect especially the device usability is

emphasized. Device usability means the physical, technical and functional

characteristics of a mobile device and applications that influence the learners’

experiences, perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, etc.

When all these aspects are realised the mobile learning experience is progressing

smoothly and is a pleasant and motivating for the learners. The learner aspect for

instance can be realised by ensuring that the learner’s needs are taken account.

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Whereas, the social aspect can be realised by ensuring that the learners can

exchange information and collaborate. The device aspect should take into account

when planning the mobile applications as well as when planning the mobile

learning activities.

4 The current mobile learning research

As described, the mobile learning has had very diverse theoretical and pedagogical

approaches. Because of this mobile learning projects have illustrated learning

across different educational contexts (schools, universities, museums, informal

learning, professional development and workplace settings), with diverse target

groups (including children, adult learners, and professionals) [36]. Next sections

will summarize what kind of methods, contexts and target groups there have been

in the current research and what countries have been most active in mobile

learning research.

4.1 The research topics

Petrova and Li [37] analysed 333 articles and identified three main research

domains: 1) technology, 2) educational theory, and 3) pedagogy. Also domain

generalist was included. Their result indicated that there was a shift from focus on

technology to focus on theory in 2006 and 2007 [37].

Because of different theories and perspectives also the research topics vary.

Cheung and Hew [38] found four main research topics that were: 1) usage profile,

2) viability as an assessment tool, 3) learning outcomes and 4) attitudes.

Wu et al. [39] found in their literature review that 58% of 164 studies took

evaluating the effectiveness of mobile learning as the primary research purpose and the

second-most frequently-cited research purpose was mobile learning system design

(32%). These research purposes were followed by investigating the affective domain

during mobile learning (5%) and evaluating the influence of learner characteristics in the

mobile learning process (5%).

In other words, the mobile learning research has so far focused on user

acceptance and attitudes, personalization, the effectiveness of mobile learning and

the design principles and recommendations. However, the research in the field of

mobile learning should offer explicit proof of educational outcomes and impacts.

Educational outcomes and impacts cannot be assessed before the use of mobile

devices in education is in stable form. Consequently, one major challenge is that

the mobile learning solutions have not deeply-rooted to educational contexts or to

practices. There should be cohesive theoretical mobile learning framework and a

set of best practices. Without these it simply takes too much teachers' time and

15

energy to interweave all crucial aspects together. Teachers alone will be unlikely to

bring the width of implementation needed.

4.2 Types of research methods

Cheung and Hew [38] have summarised types of research methods and data

collection methods in their literature review. The various research methods that

Cheung and Hew [38] found include descriptive research, true experiment, experiment,

quasi-experiment, ex-post facto, single-subject, design-based research, and mixed method.

Their results showed that the most common type of research method was

descriptive research (65.9%), followed by experiment (11.4%), mixed-method

(6.8%), quasi-experiment (4.5%), true experiment (4.5%), ex-post facto (2.3%), single

subject design (2.3%), and design-based research (2.3%) [37].

Wu et al. [39] found in their literature review that for evaluating the effects of

mobile learning the researchers primarily relied on surveys followed by experimental

research methods and descriptive methods. As for evaluating the influence of learner

characteristics in the mobile learning process the experimental research methods were

used most often, followed by surveys, descriptive methods and observation. For

investigating the affective domain during mobile learning only two methodologies

were used: surveys and interviews. As for designing a mobile system for learning

surveys were the most commonly used methodology, followed by experimental

research methods, descriptive methods, case studies and observation. [39]

The most common type of research method evidently seems to be descriptive

research methods, followed by experimental research methods, design and

evaluation-based research methods, and case study.

The data collection methods that Cheung and Hew [38] found include tests,

quizzes, questionnaires, interviews, discussions, observations, and content analysis. Their

result showed that the most common of all data collection methods used previous

studies was questionnaire (31.4%), followed by test or quiz items (22.5%), content

analysis (20.6%), interview or focus group (18.6%), and observation (6.9%) [38].

The most common method evidently seems to be questionnaires, followed by

content analysis, interviews and observations. Also literature review is very

commonly used method. These methods also could be mixed together to get richer

and more exact or objective view about the subject.

Based on my findings I argue that the lack of cohesive theoretical mobile

learning framework and mobile learning standards have led to a situation in which

mobile learning research and pilots are characterised by short-term, small-scale

studies focusing on either user acceptance or attitudes measured with

questionnaires. Very often the learning outcomes are reported to be positive

without sufficient evidence.

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4.3 The research samples and learning domains

Hwang and Tsai [42] reviewed 154 journals from 2001 to 2010 and identified the

research samples and learning domains. The research samples were identified and

they were elementary school, junior and senior high school, higher education, teachers,

working adults and non-specified. They found that from 2001 to 2010 the most

selected research sample was higher education followed by elementary school

students and high school students. Only a few studies selected teachers and

working adults as the research sample. [42]

Wu et al. [39] found in their review that mobile learning is most frequently used

by higher education students (51.98%), followed by elementary school students

(17.51%), adult learners (12.43%), secondary (post-secondary) school students

(8.47%) and disabled students (0.56%).

The most common research sample evidently seems to be higher education

followed by elementary school students, and teachers. Only a few studies select

working adults as the research sample. There are also such research samples as

migrant/rural children and experienced mobile device users.

Learning domains that Hwang and Tsai [42] categorized into subcategories were

science (e.g., physics, chemistry, and biology, medical and sport science),

mathematics, language & art, social science, engineering (including computers), others

and non-specified. They found that most studies did not involve any learning

domain; instead, they mainly focused on the investigation of motivations,

perceptions and attitudes of students toward mobile and ubiquitous learning. So

the most common subcategory was non-specified followed by engineering,

language and art and science. Hwang and Tsai [39] also noticed that studies on the

learning domains of engineering, arts and language, science and social science

significantly increased in years 2005—2010. But at the same time they also pointed

out that the ratios for mathematics and other learning domains were relatively low.

[42]

Wu et al. [39] found in their literature review that studies on mobile learning in

educational contexts most frequently focus on use in supporting professional

subjects and applied sciences (29%), followed by humanities (20%), and formal

sciences (16%). Wu et al. [39] also noticed that mobile learning was widely used in

courses related to environmental studies, forestry and health sciences, but less in

other courses such as statistics or law. They also suggested that mobile learning

can be applied to any course or subject matter. [39]

On the whole it seems that most studies do not involve any learning domain so

the most common subcategory is non-specified followed by engineering, science

and social science. Based on my findings I argue that the mobile learning practices

17

can best support cross-curricular longer-term projects in which the mobile

technology is enhancing, for example, observation and data collection processes.

4.4 The contributing countries

Hwang and Tsai [42] investigated the major contributing countries of mobile and

ubiquitous articles. They found that the major contributing countries (years 2006 to

2010 and 154 publications total) were:

Taiwan (51 publications),

UK (16 publications),

USA (12 publications),

Singapore (5 publications),

Netherlands (4 publications),

China, Chile, Ireland, Japan (3 publications),

Finland, Greece, Hong Kong, Italy, Switzerland, Turkey (2 publications),

China, Chile, Ireland, Japan (3 publications),

Brazil, Germany, Luxembourg, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, Spain

(1 publications).

In my review I found that the major contributing countries (years 2007 to 2011

and 33 publications total) were:

Taiwan (7 publications),

China, USA (4 publications),

UK (3 publications),

Australia, Singapore (2 publications),

Chile, Hong Kong, Italy, Malaysia, Mexico, New Zealand, Pakistan,

Portugal, Romania, South Africa, Spain (1 publications).

Evidently more and more countries have contributed to the mobile and

ubiquitous learning studies in the past years. Especially in Asia there is

considerable interest in mobile and ubiquitous learning.

The mobile learning infrastructure varies across the world. Some of the

countries are very well developed and ICT (information and communication

technologies) are extensively integrated into schools but at the same time there are

also countries where the development is in its infancy and even in some developed

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countries there could be so called geographic digital divides. In the next sections

the state of the mobile learning across world is summarised.

Mobile learning in Europe

In Europe mobile learning began in 1980s when hand-held devices were first tested

in a few schools [43]. In broader perspective mobile learning arose in the mid-1990s

with research projects that exploit a new generation of pen tablet and PDA devices

for learning [36].

There have been several European projects (e.g., HandLeR, MOBILearn, M-

Learning) that have shaped developments in mobile learning. Also the national

and European policy has shaped and formed the impact of mobile learning in

Europe. For example, The European commission has funded many mobile learning

projects. [36] Also some individual countries have funded mobile learning projects

as part of their national education agendas (e.g., The United Kingdom, the

Netherlands and Denmark) and also several local or private-funded mobile

learning projects that have not anchored to government plans or educational

programs have been implemented. [44]

Even though there have been carried out many research and development

projects regarding the use of mobile technology in education the practice of using

mobile devices for education is still emergent, and the concept of mobile learning

has not yet reached the policy level. Most of the pilot projects are typically

conducted on a small scale and driven by enthusiastic teachers. [44]

In Europe mobile technologies have been used to support learning across

various context with diverse target groups. Many of the European projects involve

elements of inquiry-based and problem-based learning. [36] Many of the research

projects are, for example, demonstrating how mobile technologies can used to

support interdisciplinary, student-centred, interactive and inquire-based learning

activities [44]. Also the learner collaboration is seen important aspect and the

mobile devices are seen as tools to support collaborative and conversational

learning outside the classroom. [36]

There are also some examples of seamless learning spaces. Seamless learning

implies learning spaces where students can learn whenever they are curious and

spaces where they can switch easily and quickly from one scenario to another (e.g.,

learning individually, learning with another student, learning with a small group

or a large online community, face-to-face interaction or different modes of

interaction, learning at a places such as classrooms, outdoors, parks and museums).

[43]

In many cases there have been blended technologies and educational

approaches to support the design of learning experiences that cross spatial,

19

temporal and conceptual boundaries, and interweave with the learner’s everyday

life and into her web of personal knowledge, interests and learning needs [36]. The

most effective European projects and programs have blended mobile devices with

fixed technologies such as desktop computers. This blended approach has made

learning more accessible and flexible. [44]

Unfortunately many governments, policy-makers, parents and teachers treat

mobile technologies as disruptive devices and are worried about inappropriate

behaviours like cheating and cyber-bullying. Many countries (e.g., France) have

banned or restricted mobile device use in school. [44]

Mobile learning in Asia

Mobile learning in Asia is still relatively new phenomenon. This is because the

countries vary greatly in terms of their technological and social infrastructure,

economic development, educational contexts and the degree of ICT

implementation and integration. Nevertheless, there has been remarkable progress

in ICT development in the Asia in the last decade. [45]

In his literature review So [45] argued that despite the tremendous diversity

Asian countries tend to fall into one of three main categories in terms of their

engagement with mobile learning:

Category 1: Countries with a mature mobile market, high penetration of

mobile phones and strong ICT infrastructure (e.g., Malaysia, Singapore and

South Korea). Mobile learning is included under the broad context of

national-level ICT policies.

Category 2: Countries with a growing mobile market, medium to high

penetration of mobile phones and basic ICT infrastructure (e.g., Bangladesh,

India, Pakistan and the Philippines). Mobile phones are used for distance

learning and in informal learning contexts.

Category 3: Countries with an emerging mobile market, low to medium

penetration of mobile phones and weak or basic ICT infrastructure (e.g.,

Afghanistan and Nepal). Mobile learning activities are scarce.

Only very few policies (regional, national or local) speak directly to mobile

learning. In most cases mobile learning is buried inside broader ICT or digital

learning policy documents [45].

Because the mobile learning in Asia is still relatively new phenomenon most of

the mobile learning initiatives are small-scale and ad hoc. Some academic

researchers and small groups of teachers have launched disparate projects to

explore how mobile devices might be used to improve teaching and learning. [45]

20

One of the key characteristics of mobile learning in Asia is the ability to make

learning more accessible for people living in rural areas and to people who are less

reachable through other types of technologies. Especially literacy education and

distance education are supported by mobile phones. [45]

Another key characteristic is a pedagogical shift toward self-directed learning.

Mobile devices have been identified as tools for facilitating self-directed learning

and linking formal and informal learning spaces. [45]

The third significant characteristic is the movement toward designing future

learning environments. This focus seems to be in more developed countries on

designing technology-enhanced learning environments that meet the demands of

twenty-first century learners. [45]

Unfortunately the use of mobile technologies for educational purpose remains a

controversial issue in many Asian countries. The mobile phone use in schools has

raised some concerns about mobile technologies as distracting, addicting and

harmful. [45]

In my literature review I found that despite the controversial issues there is

considerable interest in mobile learning in Asia.

Mobile learning in Latin America

Latin America is a heterogeneous region and it faces several significant educational

challenges (e.g., drop-out rates, illiteracy, access to education, education quality).

Also the technological infrastructure can vary significantly. Some higher-income

countries have more advanced infrastructures, while lower-income countries are

still in the initial stages of infrastructure development. [46]

Because of the difference in technological and social infrastructure, economic

development, educational contexts and the degree of ICT implementation and

integration the mobile learning initiatives are still in the early stages of

development. Also at the policy level mobile learning is still in its infancy. The ICT

policies tend to focus more on computer-based programmes and most of the

mobile learning programmes are pilot projects, driven by non-profit organizations

or universities targeting small groups and focusing on particular of local needs.

Nevertheless, Educators and policy-makers have shown some interest in exploring

how mobile technologies can be used to address educational issues such as literacy,

educational access and retention. [46]

Because of the heterogeneous, essential elements, such as situation specificity,

cultural sensitivity, practical usability, theoretical applicability, economical

scalability, and viable sustainability and learning needs must be taken account to

develop a usable and effective personal mobile learning model [47].

21

One of the biggest obstacles of mobile learning is the existence of regulations

restricting the use of mobile phones in the classroom. Mobile devices are viewed as

fundamentally disruptive to teaching and learning. [46]

Mobile learning in North America

The role of national government in education varies between the United States and

Canada. Canada does not have a national ministry of education and the federal

government does not play a significant role in determining education policy. All

thirteen Canadian provinces and territories belong to the CMEC (the Council of

Ministers of Education, Canada) that provides education leadership at the national

level. In the USA, the Department of Education enacts federal education laws,

provides guidance and establishes program requirements. The US states and

Canadian provinces hold the primary responsibility for education in their

countries. States and provinces have a role in setting guidelines and policies and

issuing recommendations related to education. [48]

Many educators have recognized the potential of mobile learning and with the

increase of online and blended learning also mobile devices are becoming more

common in education. Mobile learning typically only appears in the larger context

of education technology and access and mobile learning programs are often part of

larger school reform efforts. Many mobile learning efforts tend to be school- or

district-led. The United States government, however, has initiated several national

programs that support and promote mobile learning. Also several state and

provincial programs exist. [48]

The mobile technologies are seen as tools to provide opportunities for

personalized instructional strategies that best meets the need of individual

students. The mobile technologies are also seen as tools to personalize professional

learning. [48]

Augmented reality is seen one of the key characteristics of mobile learning.

Augmented reality applications use mobile devices built-in camera, GPS and

compass features to gather information about the learner’s surrounding and then

project additional information. Augmented realities in an educational context can

increase student engagement and facilitate the transfer of knowledge and skills in

real-life situations. [48]

The biggest barrier to mobile learning is the way people feel about mobile

phones in education. Many policy-makers, parents and educators worry about the

possible negative effects (a small screen, distraction, cheating, cyber-bullying). Also

some national laws and policies are unclear, outdated or overly restrictive in

regards to mobile technologies and may limit the possibilities for mobile learning

in schools. [48]

22

Mobile learning in Africa and the Middle East

The African and Middle East region covers a diverse range of communities,

cultures, languages, histories and education systems and it has faced endemic

crises. Over the past two decades several initiatives have tried to address ways in

which ICT can play an enabling and systemic role in education. There has been

much attention especially to the potential of mobile learning to improve teaching,

learning and institutional efficiencies. [49]

In the African and Middle East region, mobile learning projects have emerged in

a number of sectors and fields (e.g., health care sector, banking sector, agricultural

sector, food security sector, and media sector) and all education levels and settings.

Many of the mobile learning projects start out as pilots. Mobile learning is still a

relatively new phenomenon and because of this many projects are explorative or

experimental in their intent and design. The majority of the projects are initiated by

individuals or organizations backed by private corporations or donor agencies.

Only a few pilot projects have adopted an evolutionary design strategy that

enables the project to expand over time. [49]

Most of the projects are small-scale projects and they mostly used text-based

communication (e.g., SMS). Majority of the projects are situated in urban

environments. Even though there are growing number of mobile learning projects

in the African and Middle East region the formal integration of mobile learning in

education systems is very much in its infancy. [49]

Mobile learning initiatives in African and Middle East have demonstrated how

to support education for all goals by mobile learning. Unfortunately many

institutions have banned the use of mobile phones because of the concerns about

the disruptive nature of mobile phones. [49]

5 Mobile technologies and their uses in education

Mobile technology consists of mobile IT devices and variety of communication

technologies [2]. As described in introduction part there is variety of different

mobile IT devices. Also the applications of mobile learning can vary greatly

according to the needs of the learners’ or organisations’. One of the biggest

challenges is the rapid development of technologies. The development of the m-

learning clearly is balancing between student and organisational needs and the

rapid technological changes [2].

Pollara and Broussard [50] studied and summarized 18 key studies published

from 2005-2010. They found that the most common m-learning technology tool

tested was the mobile phone and PDA (n=14). Two studies also used an mp3

player.

23

Wu et al. [39] found in their literature review that mobile phones are most

commonly used for mobile learning (36.55%), followed by PDAs (30.96%), laptop

computers (9.14%), iPods (4.06%), mp3/mp4 players (2.54%), podcasts (2.04%), and

cameras (1.52%). Wu et al. [39] also found that in formal education contexts, higher

education institutions favored mobile phones (34 studies), followed by PDAs (30)

and laptops (7). PDAs were more commonly used in elementary schools (18

studies). Wu et al. [38] also noticed that in non-formal education contexts, mobile

phones were still predominant (5 studies) and similarly, mobile phones were used

in informal education (6 studies). Wu et al. [39] also found that other devices and

mobile services (e.g., mp3/mp4 players, iPods, cameras, podcasts, GPS devices, and

satellite TV), are applied in all three educational contexts but with very low

frequencies.

In my review I found that the most common tool tested was PDA (n=12)

followed by mobile phone (n=9), laptop (n=3), smart phone (n=2), cameras (n=2),

mp3 player (n=1), and e-book (n=1). I also noticed that mobile phones were most

tested tools in such studies that focused on rural or remote places.

Klopfer et al. [51] enumerated the core features of the ubiquitous portable

devices (such as PDAs). According to Klopfer et al. [51] core features are:

portability, can take the computer to different sites and move around within

a site;

social interactivity, can exchange data and collaborate with other people face

to face;

context sensitivity, can gather data unique to the current location,

environment, and time, including both real and simulated data;

connectivity, can connect handhelds to data collection devices, other

handhelds, and to a common network that creates a true shared environment;

individuality, can provide unique scaffolding that is customized to the

individual's path of investigation.

Also Sharples [52] represented core characteristics for mobile technologies to

support contextual life-long learning. According to Sharples [48] technologies

should be:

highly portable, so that they can be available wherever the user need to learn;

individual, adapting to the learner's abilities, knowledge and learning styles

and designed to support personal learning;

24

unobtrusive, so that the learner can capture situations and retrieve

knowledge without the technology obtruding on the situation;

available anywhere, to enable communication with teachers, experts and

peers;

adaptable to the learner's evolving skills and knowledge;

persistent, to manage learning throughout a lifetime, so that the learner's

personal accumulation of resources and knowledge will be immediately

accessible despite changes in technology;

useful, suited to everyday needs for communication, reference, work and

learning;

intuitive to use by people with no previous experience of the technology.

Some of these requirements can of course be satisfied by traditional tools and

methods but new technologies can supplement traditional tools and methods by

offering learners the opportunity to manage their learning over long periods of

time, to engage in worldwide collaboration, and to relate near-unlimited

information to situated problems [52].

Device that truly supports mobile learning have to be 'hand-held' and also

'hand-operated'. DeGani et al. [53] mapped device types against definition of

mobile learning. Devices that need to be carried (e.g., netbooks) or require

preparation (e.g., cameras) break the concept of learning as a spontaneous

everyday activity. DeGani et al. [53] reminded that two points are important to

note. The first relates to the rigidity of the definition of mobile learning devices.

Some devices might be closer to the pure definition than others. The second point

has to do with the ways in which the devices are used in. Some tasks with

particular device engage students more in mobile learning than others. [53]

The potential of m-learning is depending on the design and develop of

pedagogically proper opportunities and environments that enhance learning. The

handheld devices by themselves do not guarantee enhanced learning. In other

words the uses of mobile devices considerably depend on pedagogical strategies

and goals, target group, and devices. To support learning, pedagogic, behavioural

and usability elements need to be integrated with technology to create appropriate

educational applications. The intention should not be to make teaching and

learning to be bounded to the mobile devices but to promote more student-centred

learning. The mobile technology should be an enabler to stimulate the

transformation of teaching and learning. [54] At best learning can happen in places

outside of the classroom and learning materials are no longer limited to textbooks

[55].

25

The applications of mobile learning can vary greatly according to the context,

situations and devices. Cheung and Hew [38] found seven categories of the uses of

handheld devices. The seven categories included: 1) multimedia access tool (to

access multimedia resources), 2) communication tool, 3) capture tool (to capture

data and media or to co-create content in situ), 4) representational tool (to

demonstrate students' thinking, ideas, experiences and knowledge), 5) analytical

tool (to manipulate data or variables), 6) assessment tool (to answer examination

questions, tests, or quizzes), and 7) managing tool (personal information managers,

for example, calendar, address book, task lists, attendance rates). In my review I

found that mobile devices were used as cognitive tool (to engage and facilitate

student cognitive processes), guiding tool (to assist teachers in-class management or

guide the students’ schoolwork), communication tool (to communicate information

from one person to others), information access tool (to access information resources),

activating tool (to foster students to active learning, for example, to participate),

capture and content creation tool.

Rogers and Price [56] in turn categorized mobile learning activities in terms of

four types: 1) physical exercise game (e.g., Nintendo Wii applications) (games that

incorporates learner into a number of physical activities), 2) participatory

simulations (e.g., Virus game) (sensor-based devices are worn or carried to enact a

complex phenomenon), 3) field trips and visits (visits to museums and other places)

and 4) content creation. Pollara and Broussard [50] identified tasks and found four

different types of tasks. The tasks were 1) facilitating the individualized learning of

content (self-evaluation systems or other tools that helps students to learn different

subjects), 2) group projects/discussion (mobile devices as collaborative learning

tools), 3) assessment, and 4) teacher-directed lecture (for example, podcasts).

Cheung and Hew [38] found that the three most frequent uses of mobile devices

were utilizing the devices as communication (21.8%), multimedia access (20.5%),

and task management (17.9%) tools. Pollara & Broussard [46] found that the mobile

technology was most commonly used for the interaction between student and

content. Interaction between student and instructor and interaction between

students was also supported by mobile technologies.

I found that the mobile devices were used throughout field trips and visits and

some learning activities included games, content creation, reflective journals or

portfolios. Some of the reviewed studies focused mainly on handheld devices and

informal learning (for example, learning to change tire with how-to-do list, data-

collection activities to produce information to bird watch database, reading

postings on forums) (e.g., [33]).

Mobile learning activities can engage in critical thinking skills, inquiry and

problem solving in a meaningful context in and out of classroom. Commonly these

26

activities presume group work, presentations, investigations, discussions or peer

evaluations. Some activities can be multiple choice quizzes, questions as warming

or cooling exercise. Mobile learning activities can also include listening, watching

or reading something with mobile device. Basically one can argue that the

possibilities are nearly boundless.

On the basis of mobile learning uses described in reviewed literature, I created a

list of main uses of m-learning. These uses are:

access to resources,

assessment,

capturing & creating (also co-creating),

collaboration,

communication,

edutainment (entertainment is a part of learning materials and interaction

e.g., games),

extending learning beyond the classroom,

management & guiding,

augmented reality.

I also created a list of things that need to be considered when designing m-

learning tasks. These things are:

content,

context,

device & connectivity,

pedagogical strategies and goals,

target group and learners needs.

The key elements for planning the teaching are the curricular goals, the nature

of learning tasks, the teacher’s acts in learning situation, the teacher and student

roles, conceptual knowledge and applied knowledge, the importance of social

context for learning, and evaluation methods. It is also important that learner has

the opportunity to examine subject with several different manner. For example,

real-life situations and problems are usually conceptually rich and they challenge

the learner to examine problem with different angles. Real-life situations can also

insure that learning is constructive and contextual. Learning should also be in

27

some extent collaborative (collaboration either between teacher & students or

students & students). [57]

In other words effective teaching is much more than performing to or

interacting with audience. To support learning, the teacher has to select adequate

objectives, teaching methods, contents, assignments, evaluation methods, formats

of interaction, and to organize learning situations. [58]

5.1 Pedagogical models

Teaching is usually based on practical experience and also theoretical reference

framework or pedagogical model. Pedagogical model can help and direct the

planning of teaching-studying-learning situation and design of teaching materials.

There are numerous pedagogical models with different emphasis that can be used

when designing teaching and learning environments. [59] Next chapter will

introduce some of the models and those models are linked to mobile learning.

Situated learning

Situated learning theory posits that learning and cognition are situated and that

activity and perception are prior to conceptualization. By result of this knowledge

is part of the activity, context, and culture in which it is developed and used. This

is why authentic activities are important for learners. [60] Situated learning

activities promote learning within an authentic context and culture [6].

With mobile technology the learning environment can be extended into

authentic contexts. Mobile devices are available in different contexts and that's

why they are well suited to context-aware applications. [6]

One example of mobile system and situated learning in authentic context

includes the Ambient Wood by Rogers et al. [61]. In their playful learning

experience children explored and reflected upon a physical environment and

biological processes. A variety of devices and multi-modal displays were used to

trigger and present the 'added' digital information. The learning experience was

structured into three distinct stages: 1) exploring and discovering, 2) reporting

back, consolidating and hypothesizing, 3) experimenting and reflecting. The

learning experience was also designed for pairs to collaborate during the

explorations.

Also the problem-based learning, inquiry-based learning, and context-aware

learning can be considered in relation to the situated learning paradigm [6].

The problem-based learning

The problem-based learning approach considers a whole range of different

learning theories [62]. It is an instructional and learner-centred approach [63].

28

Problem-based learning is also affected by the structural and pedagogical

environment into which it is placed, in terms of discipline or subject, the faculty

and the organization concerned. [62]

In problem-based approach the focus is in organizing the curricular content

around problem scenarios to encourage students to engage themselves in the

learning process [62]. Learners conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and

apply knowledge and skills to develop a solution to a defined problem. Learners

have the responsibility for their own learning and also collaboration is essential.

The role of tutor is a facilitator of learning. [63]

Problem-based learning platform can be built in mobile learning environment

(Fig. 7). For example, Li and Chun [64] designed and built learning platform that is

based on problem-based learning.

Figure 7: Problem-based mobile learning environment [60]

29

The learning loop (Fig. 7) and student learning process starts by giving students

an inspired question through mobile device. After this students discuss with each

other and follow the instruction to learning spot. In the learning spot, students

observe and collect learning objects in mobile learning environment (QR-codes

with information). System estimates students learning by asking questions. The

system selects and leads students to next suitable learning spot after student

complete learning objective. [64]

The inquiry-based learning

Inquiry-based learning approach is very similar with problem-based learning.

Inquiry-based learning is a student-centered and active learning approach that is

focused on questioning, critical thinking, and problem solving. Activity starts with

a question followed by investigating solutions, creating new knowledge,

discussing discoveries and experiences, and reflecting on new-found knowledge

(Fig. 8). [63]

Figure 8: Inquiry-based learning

30

The primary difference between problem-based learning and inquiry-based

learning relates to the role of the tutor. In a problem-based approach the tutor

supports the process but does not provide information related to the problem. In

the inquiry-based learning the tutor is both a facilitator of learning and a provider

of information. [63]

Shih et al. [65] used an inquiry-based mobile learning approach to enhance the

learning performance of the students. The learning content and activities were

related to the historic site. In the first learning stage, the students were led out on

the fieldtrip to the Peace Temple. Students used the mobile devices to explore the

temple. The pre-designed hints guided them to spots that were related to learning

theme. Students could also gather more information with the PDA. In the second

stage the students participated in the production stage. Students were asked to

synthesize and categorize the data collected in the field and to construct reports to

share with classmates. There were also discussion and feedback that stimulated

higher levels of thinking. In the third learning stage, the students were asked to

give a learning result presentation. Students also created a story based on the field

collections and then designed a new temple using paper crafts. [65]

Also Looi et al. [66] designed their mobilized curriculum to be student centered,

inquiry based and also collaborative in nature. The students started the inquiry

learning by playing a cooperative game. After the game the teacher recapped what

students had learnt. After this students were tasked to conduct an experiment at

home using the smartphone to video record the experiment and to discuss about

experiment in class. After the discussion the students were required to do online

research using their smartphones and to share their findings with classmates.

Students also updated their own KWL (what do I already know? What do I want to

know? What have I learned?), created animations and evaluated another’s work.

The lesson culminated in teach-your-parent activity. Students had to teach their

parents what they had learned and these interactions were recorded and discussed

and reflected with a partner. [66]

The context-aware learning

Context awareness means gathering information from the environment and to

make available activities and content that are relevant to the environment. Mobile

devices are very well suited to context-aware applications. [6]

Museum and gallery sector has been on the forefront of context-aware mobile

computing by providing additional information based on the visitor's location [6].

For example, in July 2002, Tate Modern, London launched interactive audio-visual

tour of its galleries. The location-sensitive wireless network fed the correct

information to visitors at the right time. Multimedia tour allowed background

31

information in a variety of different media. For example, visitors could see video

and still images, could listen expert talk about details of a work.

Location is the most commonly used variable in context recognition and several

different location detection techniques have been exploited. One of the most

commonly used technologies is the global positioning system (GPS) [67]. For

example, Games Atelier is a learning tool that uses mobile phones, GPS and

Internet to collectively create, play and watch location-based games. The student’s

surroundings are the source of information and the setting for a gaming storyline.

With mobile phones and with GPS it is possibly to make various types of

information, stories and media accessible. Students navigate their surroundings

and look for assignments or game clues. Each game can be watched afterwards, so

students can share and reflect their experiences and learning moments. [68]

The collaborative models

In Collaborative learning the interactions among peers is the most important factor

of learning. But collaboration and group achievement are not necessarily

accomplished by just assigning students to groups and telling them to work

together. The task need to be appropriate to the capabilities of the individual

learners and to the collaboration process and structured so that learners must work

together cooperatively. The teacher has a significant role to play in organizing

fruitful collaboration. [69] In other words collaborative learning activities are such

that promote learning through social interaction [6].

Alvarez et al. [70] implement collaborative learning activities supported by

mobile devices. They used CollPad script originally introduced by Nussbaum et al.

(2009) (Fig. 9). The idea is to encourage social interactions toward constructing

shared understanding of open-ended tasks. Learners are randomly assigned to

small groups. After groups are organized, the teacher delivers the learners an open

ended task. First learners work individually. Then the system shows all group

members a visualization containing their individual answer and group has to

submit in agreement one of the available answers, or choose to write a new answer

collectively. After this teacher can start a whole class discussion. Teacher can pick

random students from each group, who must defend the answer submitted by

their groups verbally. When the whole class agrees on a final response the problem

can be closed. [70]

32

Figure 9: Phases of the CollPad script [70]

The model of experiential learning

Experiential learning theory is a holistic integrative perspective on learning that

combines experience, perception, cognition and behaviour. The experience plays

central role in the learning process. Experiential learning is the process of creating

knowledge through the transformation of experience. Learning can be conceived as

cycle (Fig. 10) where experience is the basis for observation and reflection.

Figure 10: The experiential learning cycle

33

Knowledge is continuously derived from and tested out in the experiences.

Learners need four different kinds of abilities - concrete experience abilities,

reflective observation abilities, abstract conceptualization abilities, and active

experimentation abilities.

This is because learners must be able to involve in new experiences and reflect

and observe experiences. Learners must be able to create concepts that integrate

their observations into theories and must be able to use these theories to make

decisions and solve problems. [71]

Chen et al. [72] strengthened experiential learning cycle with the challenge

approach where they start experiential learning cycle with a challenge phase

(Fig. 11).

Figure 11: A Challenge-Experiential cycle on the handheld computer [72]

34

First the teacher gives an introduction to the problem and students record some

of their prior knowledge through questions like “what I know, what I want to

know, what I learned”. In other words students are given a challenge. In the

experience stage students are equipped with handheld computers to carry out

learning tasks. In the next stage students generate a report on handheld computers

and upload it to a portal. In other words students are reflecting and generalizing

what they have learnt. After this students view the work of other groups and

provide feedback to their peers.

Finally each group of students makes presentation to the class by using their

designed artefacts and represents their ideas. In other words student relate what

they have experienced by making an action plan. Students are also asked how they

would apply what they have learned to similar or different situations.

Knowledge building

Knowledge building refers to the creation and improvement of ideas that are

subject to evaluation, revision and application [73]. In educational context

knowledge building means engaging learners in the full process of knowledge

creation. Knowledge building is clearly a constructive process. [73] Often in

educational contexts knowledge building tends to be related with approaches such

as learning-by-discovery, project-based learning, anchored instruction and

collaborative learning [73].

Seow et al. [74] examined how mobile and web-based technologies can be

utilized to support seamless knowledge building processes. They used web-based

mapping service Google Maps as a typological-topological space and their learning

scenario included six phases from generating initial ideas and guiding queries to

sharing and comparing diverse ideas mapped in Google Maps space. It appeared

that the students socially constructed meaning from places. Students created

locative content using mobile devices, situated in the real environment of the field

trip and were enabled to continue their learning journey and interactions in the

virtual space after the field trip. Seow et al. [74] suggests that with tight coupling of

mobile technologies for pedagogical perspectives, learners can engage in

participatory knowledge building process linking formal and informal learning

experiences.

Game-based learning

Game-based learning is learning through play with games and with simulations.

Games can offer more choice for learners and an enriched learning experience. [75]

Mobile games in educational contexts can combine situated and active learning

with fun [76].

35

For example, Sánchez and Olivares [77] implemented learning activities based

on mobile games. One game represented the process of biological evolution and

another guided the visit either a zoo or a museum. Classroom intervention was

carried out in two stages (Fig. 12) and students worked in small groups. In first

stage included game-based learning activities out-of-school context and work

activities performed in the classroom. The students presented a product that

summarized what they had learned. Second stage included game-based learning

activities in-school context, and work activities performed in the classroom.

Students worked in research activities that allowed them to systematize,

complement and deepen their learning of contents worked with the game. [77]

Sánchez and Olivares [77] found that this game-based approach had an impact

on collaboration and problem solving skills among the students. Students

expressed that the class was entertaining and exiting.

Figure 12: The stages of the game-based leraning [77]

36

Shih’s mobile learning model

Shih's [78] mobile learning model (Fig. 13) is based on Keller's (1987) ARCS model

of motivational design where the learning cycle includes: attention, relevance,

confidence, and satisfaction. Shih's model was created to support instructional

design for mobile learning and the learning cycle in Shih's model includes: 1)

sending a multimedia message to trigger and to motivate learners, 2) searching

related information from the web, 3) discussing with peers by text, voice, picture,

or video messaging, 4) producing a digital story telling of what they have learnt, 5)

applying what they have learnt in the simulated environment. [79]

Figure 13: Shih's Mobile Learning Model [79]

37

Background of this model is the philosophy of social constructivism through the

use of collaborative discussion and a learning styles theory based on digital story

telling. Also Vygotsky learning theory is incorporated in Shih's model through

peer learner interactions via mobile communication. [79]

Shih and Mills [79] conducted an experiment of applying Shih's mobile learning

model in a Children's Literature hybrid course in California State University. Shih

and Mills [79] found that this model substantially improved students' overall

online learning experience and helped them to achieve better learning outcomes.

The Conversational Framework

Laurillard [80] introduced the conversational framework (Fig. 14). The framework

defines a dialogic process between 'teacher' and 'student' on two levels, the

discursive level (focus is at theory, concepts, description-building) and the

experiential level (focus is at practice, activity, procedure-building) [81].

Figure 14: The Conversational Framework [80]

38

Each of the activities within the conversational framework motivates to other

activities. In other words framework creates a continual iterative flow of attending,

questioning, adapting, experimenting, analysing, sharing, commenting, reflecting,

and articulating. [81]

Question cycle

Dufrence et al. [82] introduced a question cycle (Fig. 15). This cycle combines

instructor’s questions, co-operative learning and class-wide discussions. Dufrence

et al. [82] used a classroom communication system called Classtalk to facilitate the

presentation of questions, as well as the collection of student answers and the

display of histograms of the answers. Questions and answers led into a class-wide

discussion. The aim was to engage students and to enhance the overall

communication within the classroom. Question cycle is divided into 7 stages: 1)

question generation and selection, 2) sending the question, 3) cooperative group

work, 4) collection of answers, 5) histogram display, 6) class-wide discussion, and 7)

closure. These stages form flexible guidelines rather than an instructional recipe.

The instructor spends time to present information approximately one-third of the

class period and the other two-thirds of the class period is spent to students’ small

group discussion or discussion as a whole class.

Figure 15: Question cycle [82]

39

AEFIRIP model

Silander and Rytkönen [83] developed a pedagogical model called AEFIRIP

(Fig. 16). This model is based on the contemporary learning theories and

pedagogical models like "Progressive Inquiry", "Activating Instruction" and

"Problem Based Learning" but it is focused on the characteristics of mobile learning.

In this model learning is seen as mobile-CSCL (Computer Supported Collaborative

Learning) that relies on socio-cultural learning theories. [83]

Figure 16: AEFIRIP model [83]

An authentic situation

40

In AEFIRIP model mobile technology is seen not just as a mediator of the

learning activity or collaboration, but also as a trigger and platform that includes

guidance and support. Silander and Rytkönen [83] stresses that the problems being

solved during the mobile learning process should be as authentic as possible. The

steps of AEFIRIP model are described in Table 2.

Table 2: AEFIRIP phases

Phase Description of activity

1. Activation

Activating student’s prior knowledge and

cognitive strategies by context

2. Externalization

Externalization of student’s prior

knowledge and thinking models. Students

become aware of their prior knowledge by

making it visible and exposing it to

reflection.

3. Focusing

Focusing students perception and

cognitive processing in an authentic

learning environment according the

objectives of the learning situation (e.g., by

focusing questions or assignments)

4. Interpretations

Explicit interpretations done by student

based on perception and prior

knowledge/cognitive strategies as well as

situational factors.

5. Reflection Reflection of own interpretations and

situational factors.

6. Information processing

Information processing consist of sub

learning processes (cognitive processes)

such as problem solving, classification,

comparison, elaboration, etc.

41

Learning the stages or process

Another pedagogical model introduced by Silander [84] is learning the stages or

process (Fig. 17). When learning the stages or processes the essential part is to

direct the learners to observe the process and the stages in authentic learning

situations. However, in some circumstances, this can be very difficult. The

recording of the authentic situation with mobile devices (e.g., video, photos, audio)

and the structuring and analysing the stored process/stages can bring a solution to

this problem [84]. The steps of this model are described in Table 3.

Figure 17: Learning the stages / process

42

Table 3: The phases of the learning the stages / process pedagogical model

Phase Description of the phase

1. Guidance to observation

Learner's observation in an authentic

environment should be directed to

meaningful targets. This guidance can be

short instruction or observation frame. In

this phase it is also important to give clear

instructions for the next phases.

2. Recording the stages /process with

mobile device

In this phase the learner records the stages

or process performed by a professional

with mobile device (e.g., video, audio, and

picture) It is important that also the tacit

knowledge emerges.

3. Conceptualization of the stages /process In this phase the stages / process are

conceptualized. When the process is

conceptualized the learner can develop

deep understanding of the subject. In this

phase it is important that the learner

explains the process with her / his own

words.

4. Division of the stages /process into steps

In this phase the process is divided into

explicit and meaningful steps and every

step is also named. The result of this stage

is a structured description of the process

(e.g., video, cartoon, text).

5. Reflecting and processing the structured

process

In this phase the learner re-examines the

structural description and the original

recording and considers what needs to be

changed or what needs to be added?

6. Training or imagery-based learning

In this phase the learner is training the

process by doing herself/himself or by

simulating the mental images. The training

can be the mixture of learning by doing

and imagery-based learning.

7. Reflection After the training it is important to reflect

the performance and the know-how with

relation to process. The reflection supports

the development of thinking skills and

modeling.

43

Case-based mobile learning

Another pedagogical model introduced by Silander [84] is case-based

mobilelearning (Fig. 18). In this model there are several cases to be analysed. From

each case there are specific issues to observe and analyse. Observation is supported

by mobile devices.

Figure 18: Case-based mobile learning

44

The phases of the case-based mobile learning (Fig. 18) are

1. Authentic learning situation,

2. Recording the cases with mobile devices,

3. Aggregating the cases to shared place,

4. Analysing the cases (e.g., highlighting and inspecting some specific issues),

5. Perspectives, synthesis, similarities, differences and generalities of the

selected issues,

6. The formation of the generalized mental model.

Mobile-spotting

Another pedagogical model introduced by Silander [84] is mobile-spotting (Fig. 19).

In this model the aim is to build a learning process where information is searched

in the authentic environments. The information is stored with a mobile device and

then explored, classified and analysed as wholeness.

Figure 19: Mobile-spotting

45

The phases of mobile-spotting (Fig. 19) are:

1. Observation-orientation, for example, with the instructions,

2. Observation and the recording of the observations,

3. Identification with the help of information resources or identification tools,

4. Adding other information to a recognition (e.g., date, time, location,

circumstances),

5. Producing notations (own observations and notes),

6. Classifying the observation,

7. Saving the observation to the library for further use, analysing the

wholeness.

Reflective problem-solving

Another pedagogical model introduced by Silander [84] is reflective problem

solving (Fig. 20). This model is based on self-analysis in the authentic situations.

The process begins with setting the problem and recording the situation. The

analysis is done by "thinking out loud" (annotation) and in conclusion there is

reflection with the mobile learning diary.

Figure 20: Reflective problem-solving

46

Mobile learning example investigating growth factors

The idea of the task is to blend traditional learning methods with mobile learning.

First the group of students form research question, for example, why does the

lingonberry thrive in dry environment but the blueberry doesn’t (Fig. 21).

After this the group documents some observations in the field (for instance

taking some pictures, doing measurements, etc.). Then the group searches

information to support their findings. When the group thinks that they knew the

solution they start to form questions and tips for other students. Other students try

to find solution to the research question. Finally all the students make some

conclusions together.

Figure 21: Investigating growth factors

47

6 Learning attitudes and achievements

Even though teaching and learning tasks were good enough, without the learner's

contribution hardly anything happens. Learning depends widely on learner’s

activity and this is affected by learner's attitudes and expectations. It is difficult to

describe learning explicitly, because learning is a very complex process. At present,

learning is seen as learner’s activity and knowledge construction so in many cases

the knowledge production is measured somehow. In this section I’m going to

summarize research data about learners’ perceptions and attitudes of mobile

learning and mobile technology’s effects on learning and learning outcomes.

Pollara and Broussard [50] found that overall (in the 18 studies), student

perceptions of mobile learning was positive. In my review I also found that

students held positive attitudes towards the use of mobile devices in the learning

activities (e.g., [72]). Students’ learning attitude was reported to be enthusiastic and

positive (e.g., [30, 31]) and students were remarkably motivated, and clearly

enjoyed using mobile devices (e.g., [41]). Hwang and Chang [85] reported that

learning interest in subject and learning achievement were improved.

Students’ intention to adopt m-learning was reported to be high (e.g., [40]). The

factors that most shown to influence intention to adopt mobile learning were:

perceived usefulness of mobile learning, perceived ease of use of mobile learning,

and learner self-monitoring ability (e.g., [16, 40, 86, 87]). Taking this into account,

mobile learning applications should attract learners and they should be easy to use.

It is also important to encourage learners to enhance self-learning ability.

Also the quality of services, social influence and cultural aspects, have effects on

adopting m-learning (e.g., [16, 86]). Many studies have shown that learners have

very varying needs, goals and expectations of m-learning (e.g., [33, 87]). So to

enhance learning, mobile learning should take into account context and

personalized needs with quality in mind. We cannot forget the social influence

either. Learners can either encourage their peers to use m-learning or go against it.

Also learners’ preconceptions about using PCs can influence use of mobile

devices [12]. The smallness of the device screen can negatively impact on the

acceptance and integration of mobile learning. Churchill and Hedberg [14]

mentioned that learning objects are often simply downloaded from computers to

handheld devices rather than designed to “fit”. Gu et al. [33] emphasized that the

usable mobile learning products must be practical, micro and simple both for

content and activity.

So overall, learners’ attitudes and perceptions about mobile learning were

remarkably positive. Learners were reported to be enthusiastic and that learners

were motivated and enjoyed. But only few studies took into account the “novelty

48

effect” which means that learners and teachers are more likely to use the devices

because the devices are new to them compared to participants who have used

them for a longer period of time and this might introduce a significant bias to the

results [38, 85].

Several studies have reported positive learning outcomes or achievements. Chen

et al. [72] studied understanding of content knowledge with pre-test and post-test,

self-reports and with open-ended questions. Their design-based research used

handheld computers as cognitive tools to facilitate students' inquiry-based learning

on environmental issues. About 480 students from six schools in Singapore

participated in the project, which spanned over two weeks. Chen et al. conducted a

study on 79 primary grade-4 students from one of the participating schools to

evaluate what students had learned and how students had applied their

understandings. Their data showed that the students overall conceptual

understanding increased significantly. [72]

Also Hwang and Chang [85] evaluated the learning effectiveness of the students

with the pre-test and post-test. They used a formative assessment-based approach

for improving the learning achievements of students in mobile learning

environment. An experiment was conducted on a local culture course in southern

Taiwan and the participants were two classes of fifth grade students of an

elementary school. 29 students were assigned to be the experimental group and the

other 32 students was the control group. Actual mobile learning activity was only

120 minutes in length. Their results showed that the average learning achievement

of the experimental group was significantly better than that of the control group.

[85]

Hwang et al. [41] also used pre-test and post-test. A mobile learning

environment was developed for students to observe the local cultural heritage. The

participants were two classes of sixth grade students of an elementary school in

Taiwan. One class (26 students) was assigned to be experimental group, while

other class (30 students) was the control group. The learning activity was

conducted in the Sheng-Mu temple in Tainan city, and the learning content was the

"local culture" unit of the social science course. Hwang et al. [41] noticed that the

difference in the post-test scores of the students resulted from the different

teaching methods. Results showed that the mean score of the experimental group

was higher than that of the control group, which means that after the experiment,

the learning achievement of the experimental group was significantly higher than

that of the control group. [41]

Looi et al. [30] compared the students' general science final examination scores

after the mobilized lessons. They designed a mobilized primary grade-3 science

curriculum which was enacted in a class in a primary school in Singapore where

49

the students had a total of 21 weeks of the mobilized lessons in science. Looi et al.

[30] results showed that there was significant difference on year-end science exam

scores among classes after controlling the exam score before the introduction of

mobilized lessons constant. The class difference explained 41.1% of the variance in

the year-end exam scores. [30]

Shih et al. [65] analyzed the students' test scores before and after the mobile

learning activity. Shih et al. [65] presented a mobile exploration activity that

guided elementary students to learn during a social science activity with support

from mobile devices. 32 fifth grade students were arranged to carry out

investigations in the Peace Temple of southern Taiwan with the inquiry-based

mobile learning system. Shih et al. [65] found that students made significant

improvement in learning achievement.

Wu and Lai [12] asked instructor about students' performance in the PDA-

enhanced practicum versus the more traditional method. PDAs were loaned to

students for the three-week practicum period. Wu and Lai [12] implemented a

handheld learning environment which was used to support a clinical nursing

practicum course. The clinical practicum setting was a private middle-size mental

hospital located in central Taiwan. Instructor considered that students became

engaged and self-directed in learning, attained better theory knowledge, and had

stronger self-confidence. [12]

Liu et al. [88] studied the effects of mobile natural-science activities on students'

performance of learning aquatic plants. Their study took place in an elementary

school in Taiwan. Liu et al. [88] used the 5E Learning Cycle model combined with

mobile computing. A total of 46 fourth-grade students were considered the case to

be studied and the seven learning activities which each took 160 minutes were

arranged. Students took a knowledge test regarding their knowledge levels of

aquatic plants before and after the mobilized activities. Students also took an

understanding test regarding their understanding levels of aquatic plants before

and after the mobilized activities. Data was collected also from observations,

interviews, and reflective journals. Students' mean scores after learning activities

were significantly higher than students' mean scores before learning activities and

this confirms that students' knowledge of aquatic plants increased. Also students'

understanding of aquatic plants increased after their engagement in the learning

activities. Liu et al. suggested that support of mobile devices might have helped

the students to correct their related misconceptions. [88]

Huizenga et al. [76] studied the effects of a mobile city game. They investigated

pupils’ engagement in the game, historical knowledge, and motivation for History

in general and the topic of the Middle Ages in particular. 458 pupils from 20 classes

from five schools in Amsterdam participated. The pupils in 10 of the classes played

50

the mobile history game whereas the pupils in the other 10 classes received a

regular lesson series. Game involved the entire day whereas regular lessons

involved only two class hours (of fifty minutes each). Motivation was measured

with pre-test and post-test questionnaires. Historical knowledge was measured

using multiple-choice questions and open-ended questions. The notes from 110

observation forms were used to detect the engagement. Huizenga et al. [76] found

that technical problems might have negatively influenced the engagement of the

pupils but that overall most of the pupils appeared to like the game and were

engaged by the game. No significant differences were found between playing the

game versus attending regular lessons with respect to motivation for the subject of

history in general or the topic of the Middle Ages in particular. A significant effect

was found for knowledge. The pupils who played the game generally attained

higher scores on the knowledge test than the pupils who received regular

instruction. The results also showed that pupils from the higher levels of education

benefit more from playing the game than pupils from the lower levels and that

those pupils with an initially low History ability benefited more from playing the

game than pupils with higher level of initial History ability. Huizenga et al. [76]

noted that it is not clear which elements of the game contributed to pupil learning.

But Huizenga et al. [76] claimed that mobile games constitute an excellent means to

combine situated, active and constructive learning with fun. [76]

Chen et al. [72] evaluated the effects of mobile technology on an outdoor

experiential learning. Students from two fifth-grade classes (a total of 34 students)

at an elementary school participated in activity (90-minute learning activity). One

class used PDAs and the other class used papers and pencils. Before the field-trip

students were given a pre-test and after the learning activity, students took a post-

test. Also an attitude questionnaire was composed. No significant difference

existed between two groups' pre-test scores but the learning achievement scores of

the with-PDA group were significantly higher than those of the without-PDA

group. The with-PDA group retained and created more knowledge than the

without-PDA group. PDAs and their embedded functions, however, did not

sustain engagement. Chen et al. [72] argued that it seemed that most of the

disadvantages of PDAs in the learning environment stem from their novelty and

unfamiliarity. [72]

Attewell et al. [89] reported that in the MoLeNET programme (UK's largest and

most diverse implementation of mobile learning involving 20000 learners and 4000

staff in 115 colleges and 29 schools) a number of colleges found improvements in

retention rates and improvements in achievement but in some cases researchers

commented that it is difficult to attribute changes to mobile learning as they need

51

to be seen in conjunction with the other strategies for improvement taking place in

academies. [89]

Costabile et al. [90] reported that there were no significant differences between

learning outcomes with the two game conditions paper-based and mobile.

Costabile et al. [90] evaluated Explore! the excursion-game. Their study involved

two second year classes at the Italian middle school. A total of 42 pupils

participated as part of their school-work. Data collection took place at the

archaeological park and followed up session to evaluate learning. 19 students,

divided into 5 groups, played the paper-based version and 23 students, divided

into 6 groups, played the mobile version. The two game conditions gave rise to

different behavioural and social patterns but no significant difference in learning

outcomes of the two game conditions were found. [90]

However, learning is reported to be more constructive, deeper, personal,

interesting, motivating and engaging (e.g., [30, 41, 72]). Mobile learning

applications have the potential for motivating learners to study in different

environments (across formal and informal settings) as their individual

requirements are also taken into consideration. Learners can feel more

personalized and content and learner can learn their own preferred pace and route.

So overall learning can be more learner-centered and learning process can be more

individualized [65, 72].

When we discuss about mobile technologies effects on learning outcomes we

have to remember that one big limitation which also Cheung and Hew [38]

highlighted is the limited duration of studies (ranging from as short as a few hours

to one semester). Also Zhang et al. [54] stated that the longitudinal studies have

been scarce. Future studies should be longitudinal in nature. Doing longitudinal

studies provides opportunity to examine whether perceptions of mobile devices

undergo changes and also to examine if the reported positive impacts on learning

outcomes hold over time [38].

As pointed out with mobile technologies and with coherent mobile curriculum,

learning can be more learner-centred. But how learning changes?

Attewell [91] analyzed the evidence collected during research (a total of 128

learners in the UK, Italy and Sweden) and found that mobile learning may have a

positive contribution to make in the following areas:

Mobile learning helps learners to improve their literacy and numeracy skills

and to recognize their existing abilities;

Mobile learning can be used to encourage both independent and

collaborative learning experiences;

52

Mobile learning helps learners to identify areas where they need assistance

and support;

Mobile learning helps to combat resistance to the use of ICT and can help

bridge the gap between mobile phone literacy and ICT literacy;

Mobile learning helps to remove some of the formality from the learning

experience and engages reluctant learners;

Mobile learning helps learners to remain more focused for longer periods;

Mobile learning helps to raise self-esteem;

Mobile learning helps to raise self-confidence.

Attewell [91] suggested by the research evidence that mobile learning can make

a useful contribution to attracting young people to learn, maintain their interest

and support their learning and development.

Attewell et al. [89] identified key benefits of mobile learning from their research

findings. Their identified benefits for learners were ‘engagement/motivation’,

‘competence/achievement’, ‘personalization’, ‘enjoyment/confidence’, ‘mobility,

accessibility, convenience and communication’.

Attewell et al. [89] suggested by their findings that using mobile technologies in

teaching and learning can:

encourage and support learning at anytime and anywhere (e.g., in college or

school, at home, in the workplace, on field trips, in transit);

make learning more convenient, accessible, inclusive and sensitive to

learners’ individual needs and circumstances;

make learning more interesting, more enjoyable and more attractive to

learners;

encourage different learners to engage in learning and to improve their self-

confidence and self-esteem;

help to provide differentiated learning activities to suit different learning

styles or preferences and different ability levels;

support dialogue between teachers and learners;

improve access to learning resources and guidance for learners;

encourage and support both independent and collaborative learning;

support revision;

53

include formative assessment that is more enjoyable for learners and

facilitate peer assessment and self-assessment;

improve the speed and quality of feedback to learners during learning;

improve learners’ concentration, focus and behaviour;

improve evidence-gathering.

Tuomi et al. [92] studied a mobile social video sharing services' (MoViE’s) use in

part of the 8- and 9-graders biology and cultural geography lessons. 50 students

responded to their survey and almost half of the students (44%) felt that with

mobile videos it was easier to demonstrate learning and outcomes. 21% of students

thought that it was easier to express oneself and know-how with videos than with

text. This supports the idea that mobile learning is suitable for at least some

different types of learners and that mobile learning enables variety of ways to

participate and learn.

In study by Tuomi and Multisilta [93] students justified their positive learning

experiences with convenience of the use of information technology in comparison

reading books. They felt that learning (e.g., exploring new things) was easier with

devices. Positive user experiences created successful learning experiences. But at

the same time technical difficulties and adversity contributed to a desire to learn.

[93]. Also Ching et al. [94] emphasized that poorly designed mobile technologies

can adversely affect usability and distract the user from his/her learning goals. But

overall in study by Tuomi and Multisilta [93] students held positive attitudes and

felt that learning was more pleasant and that mobile technology can bring expected

change in everyday learning.

Zhang et al. [54] noticed that learners had more flexibility in controlling their

own pace and sequence for the task. Students could open files in any order and

freely switch among the different files. They also observed a shift in the classroom

behaviour. Students became more engaged and motivated and they were self-

disciplined and managed to complete their tasks independently. There was an

emergence of participatory culture among the learners and a change towards

collective knowledge construction. [54]

Hwang et al. [41] discovered that mobile devices in the real-world environment

can reduce cognitive load. Chen et al. [72] emphasized that mobile devices allow

learners to construct knowledge and that mobile devices can support self-reflection

and on that account mobile devices can help amplify learners’ thinking. Also

positive shift on collaboration, interaction and problem solving skills has been

reported (e.g., [12, 77]).

Kukulska-Hulme et al. [95] gathered examples of mobile technology use in

relation to life and learning during 2006—2009 in Australia, Hong Kong, Portugal,

54

Sweden and United Kingdom (a total of 270 students, mostly aged 25–44,

completed the questionnaire). Their examples showed that learners are actively

using their mobile devices (cell phones, smart phones, PDAs, mp3 players) to

create, collect and access useful resources, to communicate inventively in a variety

ways with other individuals and communities. Considering the expectations that

educators have of 21st century learners (e.g., creativity, critical thinking, problem

solving, communication, collaboration, media and ICT literacies, initiative and self-

direction, social and cross-cultural skills), personal use of mobile technologies

might support these aspirations. There are indications that mobile devices could be

instrumental in giving learners scope to adopt an active stance in relation to the

process of learning and to develop their initiative, digital competence, knowledge

production and communication. [95]

So overall, learning with mobile technologies can be personalized (e.g., provide

different learning activities suit to different learning styles and preferences and

different ability levels), situated (e.g., learning at anytime and anywhere, a shift

from one-to-one to many-to-many communication, a shift from virtual to physical

environments) and authentic (e.g., learning in informal contexts). Mobile learning

at best can bridge formal and informal learning, make learning more student-

centred and meaningful and encourage creativity and innovation by both learners

and teachers.

7 Challenges

Now we have some evidence that mobile technologies overall can be very effective

tools for learning. But why mobile technologies have not integrated to education?

There are still some challenges that need to be exceeded. In this section I

summarized some main challenges of m-learning.

There are still cultural norms that define mobile devices as primarily

entertainment and lifestyle implementers [94]. Primary and secondary schools in

United States have, for the most part, banned mobile devices from classrooms.

Also United Kingdom banned cell phones in 2008 from primary and secondary

schools [96]. Ford and Leinonen [97] pointed out that there is a lot of “under the

table” use of mobile phones in classrooms and that they can have distracting

influences. Ford and Leinonen [97] also added that the appropriate use of devices

can be encouraged through value based principles. But Ching et al. [94] came to a

conclusion that in some cases it seemed to be easier to ban the cell phones

completely rather than create policies and punishments.

One of the biggest challenges is to understand what content should be delivered

with small devices and how it should be adapted [90]. One great problem is that

55

there is the lack of platform and operating system standardization and that existing

applications tend to employ design and evaluation principles taken from

traditional or e-learning theories. This design approach doesn’t take into account

the distinct aspects of learning through mobile technologies [94]. Mobile learning

has specific characteristics and the potential for mobile technologies rests on the

establishment of principles that highlight and exploit these characteristics [98].

Serrano-Santoyo and Organista-Sandoval [99] stated that it is necessary to continue

developing a solid and cohesive theoretical mobile learning framework. Taking

these facts account it seems that the best practices of using mobile devices in

teaching and learning are still undefined. Traxler [5], however, stressed that theory

of mobile learning may be problematic since mobile learning is inherently a ‘noisy’

phenomenon where context is everything.

Moreover the technological constraints, another major issue are differentiated

access. For example, one student may bring an iPhone with many features whereas

next student may have older cell phone with just calling and text messaging

capabilities and some students may enter with no device at all. The mobile learning

approaches that can accommodate this flexibility will have the best chance of

success [98] One great concern is how we can reduce the digital divide, the gap

between those with access to information technology and those without such

access. In academic context one solution is that academy will buy devices for each

student or participating team. But then teacher has to keep track of the devices. The

use of student owned equipment can remove the security issue for the academics

but then new problems can arose. All students don’t have devices and those who

have, don’t always know what to do with their devices or how to adapt their

personal devices to the educational settings [100] But if we suppose that each

student is equipped with handheld device and know how to use it, in this scenario

it is possible for the teacher to launch ICT-based activity directly in the classroom

or whenever it is necessary and switch from one approach to another without

disruption or that the class needs to transfer into the computer laboratory [101].

Even though there now are new technologies and learning opportunities, the

classroom of today is much like the classroom of 200 years ago [102]. ICT in school

settings has become quite common but in most cases it is more a supplemental

resource that is occasionally exploited than integrated part of learning activities

[101]. Mobile learning has not yet taken an important role in teaching practice. But

in the future, it is expected that learning will move outside the classrooms and

lecture halls into the learners’ environment both real and virtual and then mobile

learning has the potential to enhance learning. Mobile learning experiences are

well suited to supporting active exploratory activities [61]. Such activities can help

learners to learn skills that they will need later in life. So even more learning

56

scenarios with innovative practices should be designed and implemented in

schools than before [103].

8 Conclusions

In this paper, I have reviewed articles to summarize the current research

concerning the mobile learning. There are diverse set of researches and blended

trials and experiments from all over the world. All of them have diverse aims,

pedagogical approaches, different contexts, and diverse target groups.

The most commonly emerged themes seemed to be personalization and context

awareness. The main concern seemed to be learners’ mobile learning needs and

goals and how to adapt these to design. Another concern seemed to be how to

develop pedagogically proper opportunities and environments that enhance

learning. There still is not cohesive theoretical mobile learning framework or set of

best practices of using mobile devices in teaching and learning. Maybe because of

this the use mobile devices in learning have not taken an important role in teaching

practices yet. It simply takes too much teachers’ time and energy to interweave all

crucial aspects together. So teachers alone will be unlikely to bring the width of

implementation needed.

Many studies mainly focused on the investigation of motivations, perceptions

and attitudes of students toward mobile learning. In my review I found that

overall student perception of mobile learning was positive and students’ intention

to adopt m-learning was reported to be high but that the “novelty effect” was not

considered. Pollara and Broussard [50] emphasized that although there are studies

about learners’ motivation and comfortable to use mobile devices as a part of

learning there still is not clear understanding how mobile devices and mobile

applications can increase learners' skills, comprehension, and knowledge [50].

Several studies have reported positive learning outcomes or achievements and

many more mobile learning’s potentials. Overall, mobile technology seems to have

the enormous potential to enhance learning across formal and informal settings,

allowing learners to lead at somehow. Learning at best can be very learner-centred,

especially when we focus more on the learners than the technologies. But when we

discuss about mobile learning research and learning outcomes we have to

remember that several studies have the limited duration and some of them have

used a weak experimental method to examine student learning outcomes. There

should be more rigorous and longer-term evaluations.

It is important to start exploring both how to support learning with mobile

devices and how they can be best used. In other words theories and approaches

should be linked to concrete mobile learning practices. And as So et al. [103]

57

emphasized future research should move the current focus of content delivery-

centred mobile learning to learner-centred participatory mobile learning. And for

this we have to design and implement more learning scenarios with innovative

practices [103].

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