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Mnemonic Strategies. Chunking Method of Loci Peg Word Mnemonic. Chunking. Grouping elements into “chunks” Chase and Ericcson’s subjects Chunked digits into running times Remembered up to 82 digits! Not as effective as more elaborative strategies. Method of Loci. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
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Mnemonic Strategies
Chunking
Method of Loci
Peg Word Mnemonic
Chunking Grouping elements into “chunks”
Chase and Ericcson’s subjects Chunked digits into running times Remembered up to 82 digits!
Not as effective as more elaborative strategies
Method of Loci Based upon visual imagery
Imagine a grocery list (eggs, milk, cheese, bread, butter)
Imaging items placed in a common scene
To recall, mentally stroll through scene
Bizarreness / distinctiveness
Peg Word Mnemonic Uses prememorized list (e.g., rhyme)
One is a bun ==>
Two is a shoe ==>
Three is a tree ==>
Four is a door ==>
Acronyms
Create “word” from beginning letters
Create a limerick from beginning letters
OOOTTAFAGVAH – 12 Cranial nerves
Why Do Mnemonics Devices Work? Provide structure for learning
Provide durable trace (less interference)
Provide retrieval structure
Which Mnemonic is the Best? Roediger (1980)
Interaction of Encoding and Retrieval Processes
Anderson & Pichert (1978) Participants read a story about the activities of
two boys at home either from the point of view of a burglar or a homebuyer
Later the participants were asked to remember as much as possible about the story they read
The point of view affected what participants recalled
Homebuyers were more likely to remember that the basement was musty
Burglars were more likely to remember the coin collection and color TV
To Understand Memory Processes Need to understand encoding
processes, retrieval processes, and how they function together for short term storage (STM) and long term storage (LTM)
Encoding Processes
Creating an acoustic codeWhat it sounds like
Creating a semantic codeWhat it means
Creating a visual codeWhat it looks like
Encoding Types and STM
Type of code may rely on type of task STM refers to memory that needs to be
held temporarily Evidence exists for a variety of encoding
types for STM
Evidence for Acoustic Encoding in STM
Conrad (1964)Visually present a series of lettersAsk participants to write the order letters are
presentedWhat types of errors are made?
Conrad (1964) Found evidence for the use of an acoustic code
in STM Participants made acoustic errors
F for S, B for V, P for B Not visual errors
E for F, O for Q, R for P Participants encoded items acoustically even
though stimuli were presented visually
Shulman (1970) Evidence for semantic encoding in STM Participants viewed 10-word lists Given a recognition test using visually
represented "probe words" which were either: Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball" Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak" Identical to the original word
Shulman (1970) Results
The Homonym and Synonym probes produced similar error rates - this suggests that an equal amount of acoustic and semantic processing must be taking place Homonyms - e.g. "bawl" for "ball"
Synonyms - e.g. "talk" for "speak"
Identical to the original word
Posner & Keele (1967) Evidence for visual encoding in STM
Letter matching taskTwo letters separated by brief intervalParticipant had to indicate if same letter
A-a Yes A-A Yes A-M No
Measure reaction time
Posner & Keele (1967) Results
If letters were the same visually (a-a) participants were faster than if the letters were not the same visually (A-a)
Results indicate that visual code was also present for STM
Encoding Types & LTM
Type of code may rely on type of task LTM refers to memory that may be held
permanently Evidence exists for a variety of encoding
types for LTM
Semantic Encoding in LTM Grossman & Eagle (1970)
Study 41 different wordsGiven recognition test after delay9 of the distractors were semantically
related to words on list9 of the distractors were not False alarms for each type: 1.83 of
synonyms, but only 1.05 of unrelated
Visual Encoding in LTM Frost (1972)
Participants studied 16 drawings Manipulated visual orientation and semantic category After a delay, participants were asked if they had
studied an object with the same name as the test object Reaction time was measured Participants responded faster to identical drawings than
drawings in a different orientation This result indicates visual encoding occurred
Acoustic Encoding in LTM
Evidence of very long-term memory for songs
Rubin (1977) Participants recall more of the text when
provided with the melody of a well-learned song ("Star Spangled Banner") than when given no cue
Transfer from STM to LTM Consolidation
Integrating new information into stored information
Disruption of consolidation is studied in amnesiacsECT patients (Squire)
Principles to Strengthen Memory
Elaborative rehearsal is better than maintenance rehearsal
Distributed practice is better than massed practice Spacing effect
Organizing information to enhance memory
Why Does Distributed Practice Work?
REM Theory The more REM sessions
following study sessions, the more consolidation that occurs
Multiple encoding contexts theory Multiple study sessions lead to
multiple types of encoding, thus more possibility of matching during test conditions
Prospective Memory
The ability to remember a future intentionBuying bread on your way home from workGoing to the dentist on Wednesday
Retrospective memory is memory of the past
Retrieval Processes
Getting information back out Multiple processes can be used to enhance
retrieval Different strategies are used for short term
storage and long term storage Matching the type of processes done during
encoding with the type of processes done at retrieval increases success
Retrieval from STM
Is the search serial or parallel? Serial indicates one by one search Parallel means all items are processed at once
Is the search exhaustive or self-terminating? Exhaustive indicates that all items in the set are
examined Self-terminating means that after target is found the
search stops
Studying Searching in STM Saul Sternberg (1967) Memorize a set of
numbers (6,3,8,2,7) Shown a probe digit Participant must
indicate if the probe was in the set
Reaction time to respond is measured
6,3,8,2,7
2
Yes
Sternberg (1967)
3 critical factors manipulatedHow many items were in the set the
participants had to memorizeWhether the probe was in the listThe probe’s location in the set
Sternberg (1967) Possible Result Patterns
A represents parallel processing
B illustrates serial processing
C illustrates exhaustive serial processing
D illustrates self-terminating serial processing
Sternberg’s Conclusion
A serial exhaustive model But….
Corcoran (1971) proposed that a parallel model could also explain the pattern found
Townsend (1971) stated it was mathematically impossible to distinguish parallel from serial
Thus, both models still exist
If You Do Not Retrieve from LTM…
Has the memory disappeared? or
Is the memory still there but cannot retrieve it (available, but not accessible)?
Evidence Supporting “Still There” Theory Nelson (1971)
Paired associate List43-house67-dog38-dress77-sissors
Cued recall test43- ________67- ________
Two week delay
Subjects recalled 75% of items on list
But focus was on 25% they forgot.
Nelson (1971) Critical Manipulation
If participants forgot “38-dress” and “77-sissors” then participants relearned either same pairs or changed pairs
25% “forgot” Relearned Results
Same 38-dress 77-sissors
38-dress 77-sissors 78%
Changed 38-dress 77-sissors
38-apple 77-kettle 43%
The better performance of participants in the same condition indicate that there was some memory left for “forgotten” items. Otherwise both groups would remember the same amount.
What Contributes to Forgetting?
Decay theoryMemory is weakened with disuse
Interference theory Proactive: old memories interfere with recall
of new informationRetroactive: new memories interfere with
recall of old information
Retroactive Interference from LTM
Experimental group
Learn List A Learn List B Delay Test for Memory A
Control group
Learn List A ------------ Delay Test for Memory A
The experimental group will remembers less material from the tested list A compared to the control group
Information learned afterwards interferes with retrieval of List A.
Proactive Interference from LTM
Experimental group
Learn List A Learn List B Delay Test for Memory B
Control group
No study Learn List B Delay Test for Memory B
The experimental group remembers less material from the tested list B than the control group
Information previously learned (list A) interferes with retrieval of List B
Your Cheatin’ Heart
Damn that Proactive
interference!
Using a similar scenario, what would retroactive interference look like?
Melissa?! Who’s
Melissa?!
Flashbulb Memories
Some researchers propose that events that are particularly surprising or arousing will yield flashbulb memories
Where were you when the…Challenger explosion occurred?OJ verdict was read?JFK was assassinated?Bombing of the twin towers?
Flashbulb Memories Some research proposes good memory for
Place where you learned of informationWhat you were doing when you heard itWhere you heard the information fromEmotions in self and othersThe aftermath
Emotion and Memory
There is a strong relationship (.90) between the emotionality and vividness of memory This does not mean that the memory is accurate
Emotional events seem to be less resistant to forgetting over time… Perhaps they are perceived betterPerhaps we think about them more
Flashbulb Memory ResultsNeisser and Harsch (1992)
Tested immediate memory for Shuttle Explosion, and then tested it again 3 years later
There was little agreement with the two “memories” despite the confidence of the participants
Encoding Specificity Memory is improved when information
available at encoding is also available at retrieval
Encoding Specificity Tulving (1983)
People encode the context with the target material
Physical match (class, diving, smell) Emotional match (happy, depressed) Understanding match (childhood amnesia,
under the influence of drugs match)
State Dependent LearningDeep Sea Divers
Recall
% C
orre
ct R
ecal
l
20
24
28
32
36
40
Learn on LandLearn UnderWater
Land UnderWater
State Dependent LearningHypnotic Mood & Memory
Recall Mood
% R
eten
tion
40
50
60
70
80
90
Learn SadLearn Happy
Happy Sad
State Dependent LearningDrunk vs. Sober
Recall
% E
rror
s
1
2
3
4
5
Learn SoberLearn Drunk
Sober Drunk
State Dependent learning, why is it important?
Content addressable memory
Partial information helps in retrieval
Adaptive function of memory
Most relevant memories are most accessible
Nancy arrived at the cocktail party. She looked around the room to see who was there. She went to talk with her professor. She felt she had to talk to him but was a little nervous about just what to say. A group of people started to play charades. Nancy went over and had some refreshments. The hors d’oevres were good but she was interested in talking to the rest of the people at the party. After a while, she decided she’d had enough and left the party.
Some participants also heard that passage, but w/ this theme:
Nancy woke up feeling sick and she wondered if she really were pregnant. How could she tell the professor she had been seeing? And the money was another problem.
Participants were then asked to recall as much about the story as they could
Owens, Bower and Black (1979)
Owens, Bower and Black (1979) Results
Theme No ThemeStudied Propositions 29.2 20.3
Inferred Propositions 15.2 3.7
The “theme” offered some background information and some retrieval cues, which increased recall.
However, the background info also led to more intrusions (memory for information not present), such as “The professor got Nancy pregnant.”
The 7 Sins of Memory Daniel Schacter
Transience Absent Mindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence
Seven Sins of Memory
1) Transience - The tendency to lose
access to information across time, whether through forgetting, interference, or retrieval failure
Transience
Occurs with all memory modalities Memory fades from the specific to the
general or gist Typical memories are overlaid Aberrant memories stand out Thanksgiving meal
What accounts for Transience?
•Shallow initial encoding•Reduction in strength of neural connections•Retroactive interference•Inappropriate retrieval cues
How to mitigate transience
• Elaborate on incoming memories
• Multiple short exposures
• Keep a journal
• Seek unique experience
Seven Sins of Memory
2) Absent-mindedness - Everyday memory failure in remembering information and intended activities, probably caused by insufficient attention or superficial, automatic processing during encoding.
Absent Mindedness
Keys Weapon blindness Cell-phones and driving Pizza guy Mail letter Medicine
Why does it occur
Insufficient processingSecondary task
Insufficient environmental cue Prospective Memory
Event based- When x happens yTime based- Do x at y time
How to counteract
Attend at encoding Use environmental cues
TeapotCoffee makerStickies
Seven Sins of Memory
3) Blocking - Temporary retrieval failure or loss of access, such as the tip-of-the-tongue state, in either episodic or semantic memory.
Pop Quiz! Name that word Metal or metal-tipped spear used in a contest of distance throwing Yarn-died cotton fabric woven in stripes, checks, plaids, or solid
colors. Mild or hot, red condiment often used on deviled eggs Inscription on a tomb Incombustible, chemical-resistant, material used for fireproofing Navigational instrument used for measuring the angular elevation of
the sun or a star above the horizon Heavy, broad-bladed knife or hatchet used especially by butchers Crystalline sugar occurring naturally in fruits, honey, etc.
Blocking
Most common with names or abstract obscure words
Can often remember Gender (Spanish, Italian, French etc.)First and Last lettersSyllablesUgly stepsister
Forget it!
Seven Sins of Memory
4) Misattribution Remembering a fact correctly from past experience but attributing it to
an incorrect source of context.
She looks familiar, but how do I know her...?
Misattribution
John Doe 1 and John Doe 2 Elliot’s body shop, Junction
City, Kansas “Robert Kling” AKA Timothy
McVeigh 1 day later Army Sereant Michael Hertig
and Private Todd Bunting
Seven Sins of Memory
5) Suggestibility - The tendency to incorporate information provided by others into your own recollection and memory representation.
Eyewitness testimony
Loftus -- subjects watched a video of a car accident and then were asked “how fast was the car going when it”
Smashed 40.8 Collided 39.3 Bumped 38.1 Hit 34.0 Contacted 31.8
Eyewitness testimony
Leading questions may bias the estimates
The questions may literally change the way people remember the event
Exp 2: Subjects saw the video and were asked “Smashed” or “hit”Smashed est'd mph > Hit estd mph
Eyewitness testimony
1 Week subjects were later asked “did you see any broken glass”?
Most answered “no” correctly, but32% said yes if asked “Smashed”14% said yes if asked “hit”12% said yes in control group
The memory of the video and the question were fused together into one memory
Eyewitness testimony
As time increased the memory was integrated so that subjects couldn’t distinguish the event from effects of questioning
Typical eyewitness testimony: Occurs after long interval from event After repeated questioning After repeated retellings
Eyewitness testimony
How reliable is eyewitness testimony?
Difficult to know for sure, but people can’t distinguish between “real events” and “reconstructed memories”
Implications for “recovered memories” & legal system
Should eyewitness testimony by itself be considered sufficient to establish guilt?
Seven Sins of Memory
6) Bias - The tendency for knowledge, beliefs, and feelings to distort recollection of previous experiences and to affect current and future judgments and memory.
Schemata What we have experienced effects what will experience
Stored framework or body of knowledge
Aids interpretation
Biased information processing to relate new material to what we already know
Alters way we perceive things
Individual differences in perception and memory
Reproductive vs. Reconstructive
Reproductive memory -- verbatim reproduction of information
Reconstructive memory -- we remember by combining the original material with existing schemata
If you hear a speech and later tell someone what was said, can you report “verbatim” what was said?
Reconstructive Memory
Omissions - loss of information in recall due to schemata; often specific, important details are missing
Rationalize or Normalize - tendency to add material to make recall more reasonable fill in missing pieces often fill in with correct info, but may fill in faulty
infoSplit brain research
Seven Sins of Memory
7) Persistence - the tendency to remember facts or events, including traumatic memories, that one would rather forget, that is, failure to forget because of intrusive recollections and rumination.
Persistence
“Hot” Memories- charged with emotion
Positive and Negative intrusions Amygdala Norepinepherine-Yohimbine!
Vices or Virtues?
Transience Absent Mindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence
The 7 Sins of Memory Daniel Schacter
Transience Absent Mindedness Blocking Misattribution Suggestibility Bias Persistence