44
MK. Land Use Planning: Integrated Coastal Zone Management Smno.pdip.ppsfpub.nop2013

MK. Land Use Planning: Integrated Coastal Zone Management

  • Upload
    camden

  • View
    47

  • Download
    4

Embed Size (px)

DESCRIPTION

MK. Land Use Planning: Integrated Coastal Zone Management. Smno.pdip.ppsfpub.nop2013. Introduction. Natural resources Over-utilization/Under-utilization Lack of guidelines for natural Resource utilization Major Conflicts Evaluation of resources - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

Citation preview

Page 1: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

MK. Land Use Planning: Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Smno.pdip.ppsfpub.nop2013

Page 2: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Introduction1. Natural resources2. Over-utilization/Under-utilization3. Lack of guidelines for natural Resource

utilization4. Major Conflicts5. Evaluation of resources 6. Land/Resourse use zoning-Suitability Criteria

Page 3: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Coastal Resources

http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?

Environmental effects of overexploitation for fuelwood in nearshore coastal resources

Page 4: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Coastal Resources

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

MAJOR COASTAL RESOURCE PROBLEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES-

Natural resources degradation:(a) beach erosion; (b) conversion of mangrove swamplands into other land uses; (c) landfill or reclamation of foreshore areas; (d) dynamite fishing; (e) overfishing; and (f) over-exploitation of mangrove forests.

-Pollution: (a)industrial sources (industrial waste); (b) domestic sources (household wastes and solid wastes); (c) agricultural sources (pesticide and fertilizer runoff); and (d) other sources (dredging activities).

-Land-use conflicts: (a) absence of access to foreshore lands due to human settlements encroachment; (b) unusable beach areas due to excessive pollution; and (c) conservation and preservation of mangrove areas versus conversion of the same into fishponds, or reclamation of the same for human settlements and commercial purposes.

- Destruction of life and property by natural hazards: (a) flooding due to storms; (b) tropical cyclones; (c) earthquakes; and (d) tsunamis.

Source: NEPC (1983)

Page 5: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Coastal Resources

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

Examples of Positive and Negative Relationships Among Sectors. Source: Sorensen and McCreary (1990)

SECTORS RECEIVING IMPACTS

SECTORS GENERATING POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE IMPACTS

Ports and Shipping Transportation Public Works Fisheries TourismAdditional Sectors Can Be Portrayed

+ Passenger liner facilities

Airports and roads to tourist areas

Infrastructure for tourism development

Conservation of habitat areas vital to both recreational and commercial species

TOURISM - Ship pollution in

beaches and swimming areas

Encroachment of urban dev. produced by roads

Encroachment of urban dev. from fish processing produced by public works

Air & water pollution Industries & boats

+ Harbors and processing faclllties

Roads and rallroads to ship products

Sewage from processing Sportfishing opportunities

FISHERIES - • Ship pollution • Wetland fill Wetland fill for

development • Pollution from fish

processing

• Wetland fill • Estuary fragmentation produced by provision of public works

• Flll of wetlands for tourist facilities

+ Docks & channels enabling evacuation before storm & flooding

Roads & bridges for evacuation before storm & flooding

Public works such as dams & revetments to reduce or ellmlnate hazards

Fisheries development increases both amount & healthful- &/or sewage

Improvement in quality of public water supply treatment

PUBLIC HEALTH & SAFETY

- Port development in hazard-prone areas

Provision of transportation stimulates development of hazard-prone areas

Provision of public works stimulates development of hazard-prone areas

Water pollution from fish processing industries & bosts

Development of tourist faclllties in hazardprone areas

Additional Sectors Can Be Portrayed

Page 6: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) STATUS IN INDONESIA

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

The main problem with existing CRM in Indonesia [in 1985] is that a central integrated and coordinated programme has not yet been

established, although the basic legislation has been passed, the lead ministry identified

(Population and Environmental Affairs) and a coordinating committee among the ministries

proposed.

Single purpose sectoral projects advocated by one line ministry (or subordinate counterparts at

provincial or kabupatens level) presently do not consider the adverse CRM and environmental

effects and can conflict with the programmes of other ministries (or subordinate equivalents). As a consequence, poor, uninformed, decision-making results, and coastal use options are unnecessarily

compromised and resources lost.

Page 7: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) STATUS IN INDONESIA

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

The goals of CRM programme would be to provide the framework for resolving conflicts among single

purpose proposals in a specific region, by evaluating the consequences of individual projects on other activities and selecting alternatives that

maximize multiple and compatible use and minimize unnecessary foreclosures of option or

losses to coastal resources.

The components should be included in the programme: policy and plan formulation, training,

research and development, pilot-level implementaion, dissemination of information, periodic adjustment of programme goals, and

gradual expansion of the programme throughout the provinces of the country.

Page 8: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) STATUS IN INDONESIA

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

All the above components would be a part of both national and provincial initiatives, but most of the actual management and

decision-making would occur at the provincial level while most of the important

policies and guidance including those of national significance would be developed

and monitored at the national level.

The above components also serve as the general sequence for programme evolution.

Page 9: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

COASTAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (CRM) STATUS IN INDONESIA

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

Policy and plan formulation would refine existing policies, develop new ones, and

develop implementing procedures (regulations).

Coordination with conservation and development agencies would be

accomplished until an integrated national plan and process is adopted.

Gradually this would filter down to the provincial level. After specific regional plans

and a process is established, day-to-following day CRM would be initiated at the

provincial and lower levels.

Page 10: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

A FOUR-TIER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR THE COASTAL ZONE

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

The following tiers are used to subdivide the coastal zone into management sub-units that are compatible with existing natural and jurisdictional boundaries:

Tier 1) Marine and coastal waters - The open water part of the coastal zone beyond the transitional area of wetlands, tide flats, etc.; permanently submerged resources. High level of central government interest and authority.

Tier 2)Transitional area - The edge of the sea which is intertidal may include coastal lowlands subject to flooding during seastorms as well as intertidal mangroves, tideflats and beaches. Central government interest; high level of interest regionally and locally.

Tier 3) Shorelands - The lands directly adjacent to the transitional area which generate significant impacts to coastal resources; high value for many purposes; urban waterfront develop- ment usually disrupts the edge zone and generates pollution. High level of local interest.

Tier 4)Uplands - A fourth tier should be added to include “uplands”, if the ICZM programme is designed to address the effects of watershed clearing and soil erosion, pesticide or herbicide runoff, and alterations of hydro-period caused by dams and reservoirs.

Page 11: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

A SEVEN-TIER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM FOR THE COASTAL ZONE

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E07.htm

1. Upland areas of major influence;

2. All coastal lands subject to storm flooding by the sea;

3. All intertidal areas of mangrove, marsh, deltas, salt flats, tideflats, and beaches;

4.All permanent shallow coastal water areas such as bays, lagoons, estuaries, deltaic waterways, and nearcoast waters that include seagrass meadows, coral reefs, shellfish beds, and submerged bars;

5. All the sovereign nearshore coastal waters (territorial waters), usually to a distance of 12 miles offshore;

6. All small coastal islands and offshore reefs; and

7. The country's declared Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

Page 12: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Objective

1. Basis for the communication and exchange of ideas

2. To encourage development in the most suitable areas

3. To define areas to promote the development 4. To provide a focus for research or monitoring 5. To define environmental capacity 6. To develop area-based certification7. Basis for sectoral EIA or Cost Benefit analysis

Page 13: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

EXAMPLES OF ICZM GOALS AND STRATEGIES

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E06.htm

Maintain A High Quality Coastal Environment: The coast is a major national resource, providing commerce, food, recreation, spiritual refreshment, and security. These values will not last forever without conservation. ICZM would provide the means for maintaining the quality of the coastal environment.

Protect Valuable Species: Many coastal species need special protection. ICZM would preserve their breeding and feeding areas through protected reserves and the use of regulations.

Conserve Critical Coastal Habitats: Habitats of special importance to species and the functioning of coastal ecosystems - mangroves, seagrass meadows, coral reefs, beaches, lagoons, and certain tideflats - would be protected in ICZM programmes.

Conserve Critical Ecological Process: Certain ecological processes are critical - supply of nutrients, penetration of light through the water (avoid excessive silt and turbidity) and water circulation - and need protection through regulations.

Control Pollution: Pollution from point sources and from land runoff as well as accidential spills of pollutants which foul coastal waters (human health problems and ecological disruption) would be addressed by ICZM programme.

Provide Development Guidance: Much of the ecological and scenic disruption of the coast is from inadvertent side effects of coastal development. An ICZM programme would provide advisory services to development entities to help them reduce impacts.

Provide Planning Guidance: To avoid development initiatives which would be damaging to the coast, advice would be provided to various planning entities - physical planners, economic planners, development planners - through ICZM. Of particular importance is infrastructure; highways should be properly routed and water and power not provided to sensitive places.

Identify Critical Lands: Certain areas of the coast have a special potential for recreation, housing, nature protection, economic development, and so forth, The ICZM programme would identify lands optimum for development an dfor nature.

Restore Damaged Ecosystems: Many otherwise productive coastal habitats have been damaged but are restorable. The ICZM programme would offer opportunities to identify and restore such habitats.

Public Awareness: ICZM can play an important role in creating public awareness of coastal values and needs for conservation.

Page 14: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E06.htm

Forces at work on coastal resources

include a variety of economic sectors and political powers, each with a stake in levels

of exploitation.

Creation of management

measures to control exploitation and rehabilitation of

coastal resources are the role of ICZM

programmes.

Source: Chua (1986)

Page 15: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Methodology

1. The required criteria for the objectives have been considered during the Remote Sensing and GIS analysis.

2. The diagnostic factors considered for suitability assessment for different vital activities depending on their respective parameters

3. The land suitability map was prepared to identify the suitable area for each activity

Page 16: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Location of Cox’s Bazar

Hydrology

• These rivers swell rapidly and flow in spate for a few days at the time after heavy pre-monsoon or monsoon rainfalls in the Chittagong Hill Tracks

Page 17: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Mangrove

The swamp consisted

of innumerab

le low-lying

islands, which were

mostly submerged at high

tide

• Responsible factors: Removal of forest product for fuel, shrimp farming, human settlement, salt

production……………

Time 1903 1929 1952-75

1977-88

2001

Activity

Reserved Mangrove forest

Allowed human settlement

Human settlement expanded

Shrimp and salt encroachment

The entire mangrove forest altered in shrimp farms with minor salt bed and human settlement

Table:Historical changes of Chokoria Sunderban mangrove forest in Cox’s Bazar coast for 100 years time scale

Page 18: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Land Use Map

Most of the suitable areas for mangrove afforestation are currently

being used for shrimp and salt

production

Page 19: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Present Result

Most of the salt beds are used for extensive

shrimp culture during monsoon

month

Land use type Present finding

Existing land use(Reference)

Mangrove afforestation 718.49

(Coastal Afforestation Division)Suitable 1929.06

Moderately suitable

1895.13

Not suitable 1524.24

Shrimp farm15,987.74(District Fishery Office)Suitable 3274.74

Moderately suitable

1256.40

Not suitable 237.42

Salt production8153.27(Bangladesh Small and Cottage Industries Corporation)

Suitable 6230.16

Moderately suitable

906.48

Not suitable 343.17Table:Present result and the existing land use pattern in the Cox’s Bazar coast

Page 20: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Mangrove & Shrimp

• Slope• elevation• soil texture• soil pH• organic

matter• tidal area • disease

problems

• Soil type• Tidal

area• soil pH• soil

salinity• Land use

pattern

Page 21: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Salt Production & Tourism

1. beach type

2. tourist accommodation

3. transportation facilities

1. soil texture2. tidal area 3. land use

pattern

Page 22: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Management Process

Page 23: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Conclusion

• Public awareness • participation of local people, government

and others………• coastal community must be involved in the

decision, planning and management processes

• appropriate feedback

Page 24: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Typical Economic Sectors of Coastal Countries Source: Sorensen and McCreary (1990).

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E06.htm

Sectors that are often coastal zone or ocean specific

Sectors that are rarely coastal zone specific but have direct impacts

1. Navy and other national defense operations (e.g., testing, coastguard, customs

1. Agriculture - Mariculture2. Forestry

2. Port and harbour development 3. Fish and wildlife management

(including shipping channels) 4. Parks and recreation

3. Shipping and navigation 5. Education4. Recreational boating and harbours 6. Public health - mosquito control and food

5. Commercial and Recreational fishing

7. Housing

6. Mariculture 8. Water pollution control7. Tourism 9. Water supply8. marine and coastal research 10. Transportation

9. Shoreline erosion control 11. Flood control12. Oil and gas development13. Mining14. Industrial development15. Energy generation

Page 25: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Development Activities That Can Effect Selected Important Coastal Tropical Ecosystems. Source: Maragos (1983).

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0708e/T0708E06.htm

o Significant adverse effects likely• Adverse effects possible

Type of Ecosystem

Development Activity Marshes Deltas Estuaries Mangrove swamps Seagrass beds Coral reefs and

lagoons Beaches Islands

Agriculture and farming • • • o o •

Feedlots, ranching and rangelands o o • o • • Forestry o • oAquaculture and mariculture o o • • • o

Neashore-catch fisheries o • o • • o

Dredging and filling • • • • • • o oAirfields o o o o • • • •Harbours • • • • • • o •Roadways and causeways o • • • • • o o

Shipping • • o o o o oElectric power generation o • o • • o o

Heavy industry (onshore) o • • • • • •

Upland mining o • • o • • o Coastal mining o • • o • • • •Offshore oil and gas development o o • • • • Military facilities, training and testing o • • •Land clearing and site preparation o o o o o • • •

Sanitary sewage discharges o • o o • •

Solid waste disposal • o o • o • Water development and control • • • • • Shoreline management and use o • • •

Coastal resource uses • • o • • o • •

Page 26: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

…..COASTAL ECOSYSTEM...

http://coastalcare.org/2010/10/un-meeting-aims-to-set-species-saving-goals-nagoya-japan/

Page 27: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Temperate Coastal Ecosystems.

http://ian.umces.edu/discforum/index.php?topic=107.0

Page 28: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Tropical Coastal Ecosystems.

Page 29: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

1. Apply risk-spreading strategies to address the uncertainties of climate change.: classify scheme of mangrove types and habitat zones, and categorize these by their biodiversity.Identify and protect critical areas that are naturally positioned to survive climate change.: ex. the presence of sediment-rich, macrotidal environments,and the availability of freshwater to compensate for increased salinity.

For example, set priority to protect mangrove areas that demonstrate persistence including a range of small young and large old trees or mangrove roots with

dense epibiont communities such as oysters, sponges, tunicates, and corals.

Page 30: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

Factors that allow for peat building to keep up with sea-level rise:

a. Association with drainage systems including permanent rivers and creeks that provide freshwater and sediment

b. Sediment rich-macrotidal environments to facilitate sediment redistribution and accretion

c. Actively prograding coast and deltad. Natural features (bays, barrier islands, beaches,

sandbars, reefs) that reduce wave erosion and storm surge .

Page 31: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

Factors that allow for landward migration:

a. Mangroves backed by low-lying retreat areas (for example, salt flats, marshes, coastal plains) which may provide suitable habitat for colonization and landward movement of mangroves as sea level rises

b. Mangroves in remote areas and distant from human settlements and agriculture, aquaculture, and salt production developments

c. Mangroves in areas where abandoned alternate land use provides opportunities for restoration, for example, flooded villages, tsunami-prone land, unproductive ponds .

Page 32: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

Factors that enhance sediment distribution and propagule dispersal:

a. Unencumbered tidal creeks and areas with a large tidal range to improve flushing, reduce ponding and stagnation, and enhance sediment distribution and propagule dispersal

b. Areas with a large tidal range may be better able to adjust to increases in sea level due to stress tolerance

c. Permanent strong currents to redistribute sediment and maintain open channels

Page 33: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

Factors that indicate survival over time:

a. Diverse species assemblage and clear zonation over range of elevation (intertidal to dry land)

b. Range in size from new recruits to maximum size class (location and species dependent)

c. Tidal creek and channel banks consolidated by continuous dense mangrove forest (which will keep these channels open)

d. Healthy mangrove systems in areas which have been exposed to large increases in sea level due to climate induced sea-level rise and tectonic subsidence.

Page 34: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

Factors that indicate strong recovery potential:

a. Access to healthy supply of propagules, either internally or from adjacent mangrove areas

b. Strong mangrove recruitment indicated by the presence, variety, and abundance of established mangrove propagules

c. Close proximity and connectivity to neighboring stands of healthy mangroves

d. Access to sediment and freshwatere. Limited anthropogenic stressf. Unimpeded or easily restorable hydrological regimeg. Effective management regime in place such as the control of

usual threats like dredging and filling, conversion to aquaculture ponds, construction of dams, roads, and dikes that disrupt hydrological regime etc.

h. Integrated Coastal Management Plan or Protected Area Management Plan implemented and educational programs to make a better understanding of mangrove benefits as shown in figure below should be implemented.

Page 35: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

3) Manage human stresses on mangroves.Land-use practices should be improved to decrease

nutrient and sediment run-off, limit unregulated felling, eliminate the use of persistent pesticides, and increase filtration of effluent to improve water quality.

4) Establish greenbelts and buffer zones to allow for mangrove migration in response to sea-level rise, highly intense storms, and to reduce impacts from adjacent land-use practices, such as soil erosion. For example, sea dyke was built in the Red River Delta, Vietnam for the buffer zone.

5) Restore degraded areas that have demonstrated resistance or resilience to climate change.

Page 36: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

6) Understand and preserve connectivity between mangroves and sources of freshwater and sediment, and between mangroves and their associated habitats like coral reefs and seagrasses.

Via optimal hydrological and geomorphological conditions, mangrove restoration can theoretically be achieved.

There is evidence that replanted mangrove forests can approach the biomass and productivity of undisturbed mangroves within 20-25 years

Page 37: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

7) Establish baseline data and monitor the response of mangroves to climate change.

Page 38: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

8) Implement adaptive strategies to compensate for changes in species ranges and environmental conditions.

For example, in a rehabilitation project, a selection of proper species to be plant in the area with lower mangrove richness is needed to be well-monitored. For example, it is preferable to replant

mangrovesthat adapt to change in soil salinits over time. Moreover, natural replenishment requires that sufficient

undisturbed forests reside nearby to serve as sources of seed stock.

During replanting, the characteristics of sustainable mangrove reintroduction include the poly-cultures and highly diverse

cultures, resembling to the original habitat as much as possible. One of the successful scenario of mangrove rehabilitation

projects along tropical coastline is the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Mangrove ecosystem in the Sunderbans is affected by the

change in precipitation with severe cyclone damage. Up until 1993, bearly 120,000 ha were planted along the bank of the

Ganges and Brahmaputra Rivers. The dominant replanting trees were Sonneratia apetala and Avicennia officinalis. Although there

are difficulties with adaptation to change in sediment salinity, benefits have been substantial because of the reduce impact to

inland areas during severe cyclone.

Page 39: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

9) Develop alternative livelihoods for mangrovedependent communities as a means to reduce mangrove destruction.

a. Charcoal production from coconut shells instead of from mangroves as well as traditional honey harvestingin mangroves, which encourages agroforestry and conservation of existing mangrove forests .

b. Vietnam: seaweed farming is an income generating alternative to mangrove destruction .

c. In North Sulawesi, Indonesia, sustainably harvested bamboo provides an alternative to over-harvesting of mangrove wood.

Page 40: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. Mitigation: Ten Strategies Promote Mangrove Resilience.

https://web.duke.edu/nicholas/bio217/spring2008/klinsawat/mitigation.html

10) Build  global, regional, and local partnerships with a variety of stakeholders ( agriculture, tourism, water resource Management, conservation and infrastructure development) to generate the necessary finances and support to respond to the impacts of climate change.

Each nation should assign one or other of the following caegories to mangroves: conservation reserve, forest reserve, fisheries reserve, and alienable mangrove land.

Page 41: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

http://www.waikato.ac.nz/fass/about/staff/maximus/tidal-graphics

.Jaring-jaring Makanan dalam Ekosistem Mangrove.

Page 42: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

. how to measure areas of mudflats and mangrove..

http://www.waikato.ac.nz/fass/about/staff/maximus/tidal-graphics

Page 43: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

.... Ekosistem Mangrove ….

http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?

Page 44: MK. Land Use Planning:  Integrated Coastal Zone Management

Mangrove: Ecological and economic importance.

a. Provide food and shelter for a large and varied group of fishes and shellfish. The leaf detritus (fallen and decaying leaves) provides the base of the major mangrove community food chain.

b. Provide protection from storm surges and high winds associated with tropical typhoons. This is important in a country that is hit by an average of 20 typhoons a year.

c. Serve as protection against soil erosion. Soil erosion and sedimentation causes in the ocean is the number one cause of coral reef degradation.

d. Serve as land builder through soil accretion. Sediment from the land collects among the dense roots building up the land.

e. Trap coastal pollutants which may otherwise severely damage adjacent marine ecosystems.

f. Serve as wildlife sanctuary.g. Offer aesthetic, educational and scientific values.h. If used on a sustained yield basis (proper harvesting), can provide

timber, firewood, charcoal, pulp and paper, extractives, nipa sap, nipa shingles, cellulose xanthate, oil, medicine, resin, tea and livestock supplements.

http://www.nzdl.org/gsdlmod?