MINORITYLANGUAGERENEWAL:GAELICIN

NOVASCOTIA,ANDLESSONSFROMABROAD

AStudybyDr.RobertDunbar,

ReaderinCelticandLaw,

TheUniversityofAberdeen

ForFIOS

May,2008

1.ScopeoftheStudy

FIOShasaskedforastudyexploringinternationalprinciplesoflanguagerenewal.Thestudyisintendedtoactasanintroduction,placingtheGaeliccommunityofNovaScotiaincontext,byreferencetominoritylanguagegroupsinternationally.InadditiontofamiliarisingFIOSBoardmemberswithlanguagesinasimilarstateofdecline,thestudyseekstoidentifylanguagerenewalprogramsandmethodologiesthathavebeensuccessful.

Inordertodoso,thestudywillbeginwithadescriptionofthepresentstateofGaelicinNovaScotia;thiswillbekeptshort,asmanyreaderswillalreadybefamiliarwiththesituation,whichhasinanycasebeenwelldescribedelsewhere(e.g.Kennedy,2002).ThiswillbefollowedbyabriefconsiderationofwhatexpertshavetosayaboutwhatmightbedonetoachievetherenewalofminoritylanguagesincircumstancessimilartothoseofGaelicinNovaScotia.Then,arangeofothercasesofthreatenedminoritylanguageswillbeconsidered,inordertoidentifythosewhichmighthavemostrelevancetotherenewalofGaelicinNovaScotia,andrenewalmethodologiesthathavebeenappliedinsuchcaseswillbehighlighted.ThestudywillconcludewithaconsiderationofhowallofthesetheoreticalandpracticalapproachesmaybeappliedtoGaelicinNovaScotia.

2.GaelicinNovaScotia

Itisestimatedthattherearenowlessthan500nativespeakersofGaelicinNovaScotia(GaelicDevelopmentSteeringGroup,2004,10;the2001Canadiancensusindicatedthattherewere415nativespeakersof‘Gaeliclanguages’(whichwould

presumablyincludeIrish)inNovaScotia:www.statscan.ca),althoughthisnumberissupplementedsomewhatbypeoplewhohavelearnedGaelicasasecondlanguage(generallyasadultsor,occasionally,asteenagers),andwhohaveachievedareasonablelevelofconversationalfluency.NumbersofGaelicspeakersintheprovincehavedeclinedquiteconsiderablyoverthelastonehundredorsoyears;ithasbeenestimatedthatnumbersofspeakershavehalvedabouteverytenyears.Often,attentionisfocusedonoverallnumbersofspeakersofaminoritylanguage.Numbersofspeakersareimportant,buttheydonottellthewholestory.Expertsinminoritylanguagerenewalalsolooktoseehowfrequentlyaminoritylanguageisusedandinwhatsettingsindailylife(e.g.,withfamilymembers,intalkingtofriendsandneighbours,indealingwithpublicinstitutions,instoresandotherlocalinstitutionssuchasbanks,involuntaryorganisationssuchaschurches,inorganisedsocialactivitiessuchassportingevents,etc.)inordertodetermineitshealth.Formanyminoritylanguages,thelanguageisnotonlyspokenbyfewerandfewerpeople,butisalsousedlessandlessfrequentlyforfewerandfewerdailyactivities.

NativeGaelicspeakersinNovaScotiatendincreasinglytobeelderlyorinlatemiddleage.ItwouldappearthatinonlyasmallnumberoffamiliesinafewcommunitiesinCapeBretonhasthelanguagebeenpassedoninthehome;however,inthelargemajorityofhouseholdsinNovaScotiainwhichanyGaelicisspoken,itwouldappearthattheoldestgenerationistheonlyonewhichspeaksit.Mostexpertsinminoritylanguagerenewalagreethattheextenttowhichalanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextinthehome(referredtobysuchexpertsas‘intergenerationaltransmission’ofthelanguage)isacrucialindicatorofthestrengthofanyminoritylanguage,andthatwheresuchpassingonofalanguageinthehomeisnotoccurring,theprospectsforitssurvivalasaspokenlanguagearebleak.Morewillbesaidaboutthisbelow.

ItwouldappearthatforthosewhospeakGaelicinNovaScotia(bothnativespeakersandwhosewhohavelearneditasasecondlanguage)theopportunitiestospeakittoothers,tohearitspoken,andtowriteandreadit,areextremelylimited.Thisislargelyduebothtolowoverallnumbersofspeakersandtolowconcentrationsofspeakers(i.e.speakerstendnottoliveclosetoeachother,resultinginverylimitedopportunitiestousethelanguageindailylife).InNovaScotia,therearenolongeranycommunitiesinwhichGaelicisspokenbyaconsiderablepercentageofthelocalpopulation;thisisincontrastwiththesituationin1901,whenGaelicspeakerscomprisedover75%ofthelocalpopulationinlargepartsofeasternNovaScotia(GaelicDevelopmentSteeringGroup,2004).TherearestillsomeconcentrationsofnativespeakersinafewcommunitiesinCapeBreton,butGaelicspeakersaregenerallyfairlydispersedoveralargeterritory,andevenwherethereareconcentrations,mostGaelicspeakerswillnecessarilyhavetouseEnglishinmostaspectsofdailylife,becausetheymakeupasmallproportionofthelocalpopulationeveninthoseareas.

Itshouldbenoted,however,thatwestilldonothaveaclearenoughpictureofboththereasonsforthedeclineofGaelicinNovaScotia(boththeoveralldecline,andthedifferentpatternsofdeclineindifferentcommunities)andofthecurrentsituation(howmanyspeakers,whatlevelsofcompetenceinreading,writing,speakingandunderstandingthosespeakershave,howfrequentlyisGaelicspokenandinwhataspectsofdailylife,attitudestothelanguageanditsspeakers,etc.).Althoughsomeusefulresearchonthesesortsofquestionshasbeendone(see,generally,Kennedy,2002,foranoverview,aswellasMacKinnon,1983,1996,2001,Mertz,1989,Edwards,1991,Edwardsetal,1993,Dembling,1997,”hIfearn·in,2002,”NÈill,2003,Watson,2004andBaker,2005),moreisneeded.Thequestionofresearchisonethatwillbediscussedintheconcludingpartofthisstudy.However,althoughourpictureisincomplete,itisquiteclearthatGaelicinNovaScotiaisanextremelythreatenedminoritylanguage.

3.WhattheExpertsSay:‘ReversingLanguageShift’

Thestudyofthecausesofdeclineinminoritylanguagesonlybeganrelativelyrecently,andtheseriousconsiderationofwhatmightbedonetoaddresssuchdeclineisanevenmorerecentdevelopment.ByfarthemostimportantfigurehasbeenProf.JoshuaFishman,anAmericansociologistwhohasdevelopedhisideasonminoritylanguagerenewal,whichhereferstoas‘reversinglanguageshift’(RLS),inanumberofarticles,whichhavebeendistilledintoaground‐breakingbook(Fishman,1991)andfurtherrefinedinamorerecentcollection(Fishman,2001).

Fishmanusesaneight‐stagescalebothtocharacterisethedegreetowhichaminoritylanguageisthreatenedandtoidentifythetypesofactionthatareneededtoreversethesituation.AtStage8(languagesatthisstagearethemostthreatened)mostspeakersoftheminoritylanguageareelderly,liveinisolationfromeachother,andthereforeseldomusetheirlanguage.AtStage7,speakerscanincludemiddle‐agedaswellaselderlypeople,andtheyarenotnearlyasisolatedfromeachotherandarethereforestillabletousetheirlanguage,atleasttosomeextent.ForFishman,thenextstage,Stage6,isthesinglemostimportantone.Atthisstage,‘intergenerationaltransmission’ofthelanguageistakingplace(youngeradultsspeakthelanguageandpassitontotheirchildreninthehome)andthereissomeconcentrationofsuchspeakersinparticularcommunitiessothatthelanguageisalsoheardandusedbythemandbytheyoungoutsideofthehomeinthelocalcommunity.Atsubsequentstages,speakersofthelanguagelearntoreadandwriteitaswellasspeakit(Stage5),itisusedasthemediumofinstructioninprimary(andsecondary)schools(Stage4),itisusedcasuallyintheworkplace(Stage3),itisusedinprovidinglocalgovernmentalservicesandinlocally‐basedmedia(Stage2),andultimatelyitisusedinsocially‘prestigious’settings,suchashighereducation,

nationalorprovincialgovernments,themassmedia,andsoforth(Stage1).InFishmanísview,minoritylanguageswhichhaveattainedStage1arethosewhicharemostlikelytobesecure.

FishmaníscrucialinsightisthatunlessStage6isreached,alleffortstorenewtheminoritylanguagearedoomedtofailure.ForlanguageswhichareatStage8or7,thekeyistogettoStage6óthestageatwhichthelanguageisbeingpassedontochildreninthehomeandisbeingusedinformallywithinthecommunity.Fishmanarguesthatifthisisnotachieved,initiativesdirectedatotherstages(suchasgettingthelanguagetaughtintheschoolsystem(Stage4),usedinlocalradioand/ortelevisionandonlocalsignageandsoforth(Stage2)orinmajornationalmedia,inthecourtsandintheLegislativeAssemblyortheParliament(Stage1))willhavelittlehopeofsuccess.Hedoesnotsuggestthatplacingtheminoritylanguageintheschoolorinthemediaoronsignage,aswellasothersimilarinitiatives,shouldnotbeused(farfromit)butthateffortsshouldfirstbedirectedatgettingpeopletouseitinthehome,toraisetheirchildreninthelanguage,andtouseitininformal,day‐todaysettingsinthecommunity.Oncethisisbeingachieved(andonlyoncethisisbeingachieved)shouldinitiativesatsubsequentstages,suchasuseofthelanguageintheschool,beemployedtoreinforceandbuildonwhatishappeninginthehomeandcommunity.

WhatstagebestdescribesGaelicinNovaScotia?Basedontheinformationsummarisedinthefirstpartofthisstudy,itappearstobesomewherebetweenStage8andStage7,dependingonthecommunity.ItisimportanttonotethatsomeGaelicisnowtaughtinafewschoolsinCapeBreton,inTotalImmersionPlus(TIP)coursesinvariouscommunities,inthreeuniversitiesintheprovince(St.FrancisXavier,CapeBretonUniversity,andSt.Maryís;indeed,St.FrancisXavieroffersaB.A.andanM.A.inCelticStudies),andshortcoursesinthelanguageareofferedattheGaelicCollegeofCelticArtsandCrafts.However,thesesortsofinitiativesaresomewhatdifferentfromwhatFishmanenvisagesatStage4(whichfocusesonteachingthroughthemediumofthelanguageinpre‐schools,primaryandsecondaryschools).Thesevariousinitiativeswillbediscussedfurther,below,inrelationtowhatmightbedonetorenewthelanguage.GaelicinNovaScotiawouldhavetobeplacedatStage8or7mainlybecause,asnotedabove,intergenerationaltransmissionhas,withveryfewexceptions,ceased,andevenincommunitieswheretherearesomeconcentrationsofGaelicspeakers(ChristmasIsland,GlendaleandtheMaboudistrictcometomind)speakersare,asnotedabove,mostlymiddleagedorelderly,andhaveonlylimitedopportunitiestouseGaelicinacasualwayindailylife.

WhereaminoritylanguagefindsitselfatStage8or7,whatdoesFishmansuggestshouldbedone?AtStage8(wherethereareonlyafewelderly,isolatedspeakersleft)Fishmanarguesthatattentionshouldbedirectedatcollectingthespokenlanguagebyrecordingfromtheremainingspeakersconversations,oraltraditionssuchassongs,proverbs,andotherformsoffolklore,andsoforth;thismaterialcanthenbeusedasthebasisforteachingthelanguageanditsrelatedculture,aswellasfordevelopingdictionaries,grammarsandsimilarmaterialswherenoneexist.

NovaScotiaisfortunateinthataconsiderableamountofthissortoffieldworkhasalreadybeendone‐notablythroughtheNovaScotiaGaelicFolkloreProject,butalsothroughongoingcollectingbyacademicssuchasProf.KennethNilsenandatinstitutionssuchastheNovaScotiaHighlandVillage,throughprivatecollecting,andsoforth.ComhairlenaGàidhligísëCainntmoMhatharíprojectispreciselythesortofprojectthatFishmanwouldrecommendforGaelicinNovaScotia,andisahighlycommendablecontemporaryinitiative.Inadditiontosoundandvideorecordings,NovaScotiaisalsofortunatetohavealargeamountofwrittenmaterial,includingbooks,newspapers(e.g.Mac‐Talla),andvarioustypesofmanuscripts.Suchworkshouldcontinue‐ëCainntmoMhatharíhasdemonstratedthatthereisstillalargeamountofveryusefulmaterialtobecollected,andthatsomeexcellentGaelic‐speakinginformantsareleft.Whatisnowcrucialistoorganiseandcataloguethismaterial,andtouseitinthedevelopmentofeducationalmaterials;theseissueswillbediscussedfurther,below.

AtStage7(wheretherearemorespeakers,includingmiddle‐agedaswellaselderlypeople,andwheretheystillinteract,albeitinfrequentlyandirregularly,intheminoritylanguage)Fishmanarguesthatthemainchallengeistoincreasethenumberofyoungerpeople(primarilyyoungadults,althoughthoseintheirlateteensshouldalsobeincluded)wholearntheminoritylanguageasasecondlanguageandwhoarecommittedtousingitasameansofcommunication,particularlyinthehome.Itisthisgroupofpeoplewho,whentheyhavechildren,willbeabletorecommencetheprocessofpassingthelanguageontotheirchildreninthehome.ThisiswhathappensatStage6,which,asnoted,Fishmanviewsasthecrucialstage:thereestablishmentofthepresenceofyoungfamilieswhousetheminoritylanguageasthemediumofcommunication,oroneofthenormalmeansofcommunicationinthehome,infamilysettings,andinthelocalcommunity.ThegoalatStage7,therefore,istocreatetheconditionswhichwillallowintergenerationaltransmissionwithinthehomeandcommunitytobere‐established.

Inordertosupporttheuseofthelanguageinthehome,Fishmanmakesreferencetotheestablishmentofyouthgroups,youngpeople’sassociations,youngparent

groups,and,wherepossible,neighbourhoods,inwhichthelanguageisregularlyused.

However,themainfocusofStage7activitiesshouldbeconcernedwithgettingadultstoacquirefluencyinthelanguage.Thus,effortsmustconcentrateonwhatexpertsinminoritylanguagerenewalrefertoaslanguage‘acquisition’;simply,theteachingandlearningoftheminoritylanguageasasecondlanguage.Itisimportanttore‐emphasisethatStage7focusesonacquisitionbyyoungadults(asFishmandescribesthem,peopleof‘child‐bearingage’)ratherthanchildren.Hesayslittleaboutthepre‐school,primaryandsecondaryschoolsystematthisStage‐thisheleavesforalaterstage,Stage4.Acquisitionbysmallchildrenoftheminoritylanguageisimportant,andispartofwhatFishmanhasinmindatthenextstage,Stage6‐thepassingalongofthelanguagetothenextgenerationofsmallchildreninthehome.Suchacquisitionshouldtakeplacenaturally,inthehome,sothatthechildreneffectivelyacquiretheminoritylanguageasafirstlanguage,or‘nativelanguage’,or‘mothertongue’.

Whyisacquisitioninthehomeratherthaninthepre‐school,primaryschoolorsecondaryschoolsoimportanttoFishman?Basedonalifetimeofobservationoflanguageacquisitionanduse,Fishman(andheissupportedbymanyotherexpertsinthis)feelsthatwherethelanguageislearnedinthehomeasafirstlanguage,speakingthelanguageissimply‘secondnature’.Thespeakerfeelsmostcomfortableinthelanguagefirstlearnedinthehome,anditsusegenerallydoesnotrequireaconsciousdecisionoranyspecialeffort.Also,thelanguageisassociatedbythechildwiththemostintimatesettingsandtheclosestrelationships,andthereforetendstobecomeaninnatepartofthechild’sidentitythroughouthisorherlife.Becausethelanguageformspartofthechild’sidentity,ratherthansimplybeingaskillthatthechildhappenstohaveacquired,itismorelikelythatthechildwillcaremorepassionatelyaboutthelanguage,andwillwantitandthecommunitywhichspeaksitandtowhichheorshebelongstosurvive.AccordingtoFishman,thissortofcommitmentisveryimportantinkeepinganyminoritylanguagealive.

Where,bycontrast,alanguageislearnedatalaterageintheschool(andevenwhereitislearnedtofluency)Fishman,andothers,arguethatthelanguageisstilla‘secondlanguage’whoseuserequiresaconsciousdecisionandsomeeffort.Thus,unlessthepersonishighlycommittedtospeakingthatlanguage,heorshetendsnottodoso,andtendsnottospeakittohisorherownchildrenoruseitindailylife.Itisalso,ofcourse,muchlesslikelythat,wherethelanguageislearnedintheschool,itwill,infact,belearnedtothesameleveloffluencyaswhenitisacquiredasafirstlanguageinthehome.Researchtendstobearouttheseobservations,andreadersofthisreportwillknowfromtheirownfirst‐handexperienceoflearningFrenchinschoolthatFishman’sconcernsherearegenerallywell‐founded.Frenchimmersion

educationinCanadahasingeneralbeenquitesuccessfulinproducingalargenumberofchildrenfromEnglish‐speakinghomeswhocanspeakreasonablyfluentFrench,andwhocanstudyandevenworkinthatlanguage.SuchlevelsofcompetencearemuchlesslikelytobeachievedwhereFrenchistaughtsimplyasasubject,whichisstillthenormformostEnglish‐speakingCanadians(mostofwhom,evenafterseveralyearsofFrenchcoursesinschool,havetroublespeaking,understanding,readingorwritingFrench).ButevenforstudentswhohavegonethroughFrenchimmersioneducationandhaveattainedsomefluency,Frenchisstilla‘secondlanguage’‐onethatisuseful,perhaps,inafuturecareer,butonethattendsonlytobeusedwhenneededforwork.Ittendsnottobepassedoninthehome,orusedwherethereisnopracticalneedtodoso.

Significantly,initiativesarealreadybeingtakeninNovaScotiathatwouldbeappropriateatStage7,andthisisveryencouragingandhighlycommendable.Gaelicis,asnoted,taughtatthreeuniversitiesintheprovince,allowingyoungadultstobeginonthepathofacquiringfluencyinGaelic.Gaelicisalsotaughtasasubjectatsecondaryschoollevel(albeitonalimitedbasis)andthisalsoallowsteenagersatleasttobegintoacquirethelanguage.ItispossibleforyoungadultstotakeGaeliccoursesattheGaelicCollege.Gaelicisalsotaughtthrougheveningclasses.Perhapsthemostnotablerecentinitiativehasbeenthedevelopmentofadultimmersionprogrammesusingamethodology,TIP,thatwasdevelopedbyFionnlaghMacleÚidofComhairlenanSgoiltean¿raich(CNSA,theGaelicPre‐SchoolAssociation);thismethodologywillbeconsideredfurther,below.Withrespecttotheforegoing,thekeyissuesnowaretheextenttowhichthenumberoflearnersusingtheseandothermethodsofacquiringGaeliccanbeincreasedand,crucially,enhancingtheabilityofallofthesemethods(andothermethodsoflanguageacquisitionwhichmaybeIntroduced)inactuallybringinglearnerstofluencyinthelanguage.

Finally,expertsinminoritylanguagerenewalhavebeenseekingtobuildontheworkofFishman,bothincriticallyassessinghistheoreticalapproachandinlookingmorecloselyataspectsoftheprocessoflanguagerenewaltowhichFishmanhasgivensomewhatlessattention.ScholarssuchasMiquelStrubell,whoplayedacrucialroleinthedevelopmentofCatalanlanguagepolicyinthe1980sand1990s,have,forexample,beenexploringthelinkagesbetweeneconomicandotherincentivesandminoritylanguageacquisitionanduse(Strubell,2001).ConsiderationofthisworkwouldalsobeappropriateinaNovaScotiacontext;however,itissetagainstthebackdropofminoritylanguageswhichhaveprogressedtohigherstagesalongFishman’stypologythanStages7and8.Untilthereisareasonablenumberofadultsofworkingagewhohavethelanguage,implementingmeasurestopromoteGaelicintheworkplace,inthecivilservice,andsofortharepremature,simplybecausethereareinsufficientnumbersofpeoplewhocandothework.Thisisoneproblemwithtryingtointroducetheminoritylanguageprematurelyintotheschoolsystem:inordertodoso,teachersareneededwho

speakthelanguage,andwithfewadultsofworkingagewhohavebothlanguageskillsandprofessionalqualifications,itisdifficulttomakemuchprogresshere.Developingacorebaseofyoungadultspeakersshouldthereforecontinuetobethepriority.

4.InternationalComparisons,and‘SuccessStories’

GaelicinNovaScotiaiscertainlynotinauniqueposition.Linguistsestimatethatbetween50%and90%oftheworld’s6,000orsolanguageswillceasetobespokenbytheendofthiscentury(see,forexample,NettleandRomaine,2000).Whilethreatenedminoritylanguagesoftensharemanycharacteristics(anageingpopulationofspeakers,littleorno‘intergenerationaltransmission’,lowconcentrationsofspeakers,lessuseforfeweractivities)andhaveoftenbeensubjectedtosimilarforcescontributingtotheirdecline,itisalsoimportanttorememberthatnotwominoritylanguagesareinidenticalpositions,andthatlessonslearnedfromcomparisonswithotherthreatenedminoritylanguagesmustbehandledwithcare.

ThisisevidentifweconsiderotherCelticlanguages.LikeGaelicinNovaScotia,allarethreatenedminoritylanguages;indeed,two,ManxGaelicandCornish(whichiscloselyrelatedtoWelsh),ceasedtohaveanynativespeakers(inthe1970sandnineteenthcentury,respectively).EachoftheCelticlanguageshasbenefitedfromattemptsatlanguagerenewal.Thesociolinguisticpositionofeachis,however,quitedistinct,and,significantly,inimportantwaysdifferentfromthesituationfacingGaelicinNovaScotia.Welsh,forexample,isspokenbyalmost600,000people,representingabout20%oftheWelshpopulation.Itissupportedbyarangeoflaws,includingtheWelshLanguageAct1993(the‘WelshAct’).TheWelshActcreatedtheWelshLanguageBoard,andgaveitthepowertorequirepublicbodiestoprepareWelshlanguageschemesunderwhichpublicbodiessetoutthemeasuresbywhichtheywillprovideservicestothepublicthroughthemediumofWelsh.Mostpublicbodieshavedevelopedsuchplans,andWelsh‐Englishbilingualismisnowfirmlyestablishedinthepublicsector.AlthoughtheWelshLanguageBoarddoesnothavethepowertorequireprivateandvoluntarysectororganisationstopreparelanguageschemes,manyhavedonesovoluntarily,andhaveconsultedtheWelshLanguageBoardonhowthey,too,canprovidebilingualservices.Asaresultofbroadcastinglegislation,aWelsh‐languagetelevisionstation,S4C,hasbeencreated,andtheBBChascreatedaWelsh‐languageradioservice.Finally,Welshisfirmlyembeddedintheeducationalsystem.TheEducationAct1988createdanationalcurriculumforWales,andmadeWelshacore(andthereforearequired)subjectinthatcurriculumforallprimaryandsecondarystudents.Furthermore,Welsh‐mediumeducationiswidelyavailable.

Sinceitsindependence,theRepublicofIrelandhassupportedtheIrishlanguageinavarietyofways.Forexample,IrishisrecognisedintheIrishconstitutionasthe‘nationalandfirstofficiallanguage’,andthishasbeeninterpretedtomeanthatIrishmaybeusedintheIrishParliament,thatallIrishlegislationmustbetranslatedintoIrish,andthatIrishmaybeusedinthecourtsystem.Intheearlydaysoftherepublic,Irishwasmadeacompulsorysubjectinallgovernment‐fundedschools,anditremainssotoday,althoughtherequirementthatstudentshadtopassIrishinordertoreceivetheirsecondaryschoolgraduationcertificatewasabolishedin1973.Partlyasaresultofthiseducationpolicy,almost1.66millionpeople,orabout42%oftheentirepopulationoftherepublic,claimedtobeabletospeakIrishinthemostrecent2006census.This,however,greatlyoverstatestheactualstrengthofthelanguage,andamuchsmallernumberofpeoplearefullyfluentinitandactuallyuseit.Forexample,over1millionofthosewhoclaimedinthe2006tobeabletospeakIrishreportedthattheyneverspokeitorspokeitlessfrequentlythanonceaweek.OfthosewhoreportedspeakingIrishonadailybasis,alargemajority,485,000,wereintheeducationsystem(again,Irishremainsacompulsorysubjectingovernment‐fundedschools)andalmostallofthem(453,000)saidthattheydidnotusethelanguageoutsideoftheschool.Onlyabout72,000reportedthattheyspokeIrishonadailybasisoutsidetheeducationalsystem.TheprecisenumberofnativespeakersofIrishisnotknown;however,thenumberisestimatedtobebetween20,000and50,000.Whileintergenerationaltransmissiondoestakeplace,thosecommunitiesinwhichIrishisstillusedasadailymediumofcommunication(theso‐calledGaeltachtaÌ,orIrish‐speakingareas,locatedprimarilyonthewestcoast)continuetobeundergreatpressurefromEnglish.ItisquiteclearthatthecompulsoryteachingofIrishasasubjecthasnotsucceededinproducinglargenumbersofpeoplewhocanordousethelanguage.OneimportantdevelopmentinthisregardhasbeentheexpansionofIrish‐mediumeducationattheprimaryandsecondarylevelinIrish‐mediumschools(Gaelscoileanna).Presently,thereare168Irish‐mediumprimaryschools(135intheRepublicofIreland,and33inNorthernIreland)and43Irish‐mediumsecondaryschools(39intheRepublic,and4intheNorth),withalmost31,000childrenenrolled.Insuchschools,Irishisthemediumofinstructionandstudentsarefullyimmersedinaminority‐languageenvironment;thestudentsgenerallyachievesignificantlygreaterlevelsoffluencythanwheretheminoritylanguageismerelytaughtasasubject.AnotherimportantdevelopmenthasbeentheexpansionofIrish‐mediummedia,includinganationalIrish‐languageradiostation,R·dionaGaeltachta,andanIrish‐languagetelevisionstation,TG4.AlsosignificantistheOfficialLanguagesAct2003,whichcreatedasystemofIrishlanguageschemesforpublicsectorbodies,whicharesubjecttoenforcementbyalanguagecommissioner.ItishopedthatthislegislationwillexpandtheuseofIrishinthepublicsector,andwillinstitutionalisethelanguageinawaythattherecognitionofitintheIrishConstitutionhasfailedtodo.

ScottishGaelicisspokeninScotland,butevenhere,comparisonswithGaelicinNovaScotiaaredifficulttomake:Gaelicisspokenbyabout58,000inScotland,and

therearestillmanycommunities(theWesternIslesandpartsofSkye,forexample)whereamajorityofthelocalpopulationspeakthelanguage.Gaelic‐mediumeducationisfirmlyestablished,GaelicisnowsupportedbyalanguagelawwhichisinsomerespectssimilartotheWelshAct,andtheScottishGovernmentestimatesthatitspendsover£20million(over$45million,Canadian)onthelanguageeachyear.

EvenIrishinNorthernIrelandandManxintheIsleofMandifferfromGaelicinNovaScotiainimportantrespects.AsinNovaScotia,inNorthernIrelandthereareveryfewnativespeakersleft.However,IrishisfirmlyestablishedintheNorthernIrishschoolsystem:itiswidelytaughtasasubjectinCatholicschools,and,asnoted,thereare33Irish‐mediumprimaryand4Irish‐mediumsecondaryschools(Gaelscoileanna)intheNorth.AndalthoughthenumberofpeoplewhocanspeakIrishfluentlyiscertainlymuchlessthantheapproximately167,500whoclaimedinthe2001UKcensustospeakit,thosespeakers(perhaps10,000)arebothmorenumerousandmoreconcentrated:theyliveprimarilyinurbanareasratherthaninthecountryside,allowingforgreaterdailyuseofthelanguageandmoresupportforIrish‐mediumservicesandevents.Inadditiontotheurbannatureofthelanguagemovement,itisalsocloselyassociatedwiththepoliticalstruggleinNorthernIreland.Therefore,thepositionofIrishinNorthernIrelanddiffersinimportantrespectsfromGaelicinNovaScotia.

Insomeways,amongsttheCelticlanguages,ManxisthemostusefulcomparatortoGaelicinNovaScotia.Asnoted,thelastnativespeakerofManxGaelicdiedin1974;however,thereisanactiverevivalmovement,andinthe2001census,1,689peopleontheIsleofMan(about2.2%ofthetotalpopulationof76,315)canspeakatleastsomeManx.Indeed,GaelicinNovaScotiaisinsomewaysinamorefavourablepositionthanManx:therearestillnativespeakersinNovaScotia,thereisaconsiderableGaelicliteratureandsongtradition,thereareexcellentaudiocollectionsofGaelicmaterial,andGaelicistaughtatthreeUniversities(oneofwhich,St.FrancisXavier,offersaB.A.andanM.A.inCelticStudies)andthroughshortcoursesattheGaelicCollegeofCelticArtsandCrafts.Nevertheless,theManxrevivalmovementhashadsomeimportantsuccessesbyconcentratinginthefirstinstanceonlanguage‘acquisition’;indeed,mostofthose1,689peopleclaiminganabilityinManxacquiredthelanguageasadults.MorewillbesaidaboutManxbelow.

Thequestionof‘successstories’inminoritylanguagerenewalisitselfacomplexone.Fishmanhaspointedtowhathereferstoasthreequalified‘successstories’(Fishman,1991):HebrewinIsrael,FrenchinQuebec,andCatalaninCatalonia(inSpain).However,noneoftheseareparticularlyusefulexamplesforGaelicinNovaScotia.Hebrewisgenerallyrecognisedasaspecialcase:Jewishsettlersmovedto

whatisnowIsraelinthelatenineteenthcenturywiththeintentionofformingcommunitiesinwhichHebrew,thelanguageoftheBible,wouldbeused,asapreludetoformingaJewishstate.FrenchinQuebecandCatalanarealsonotveryusefulascomparators:botharespokenbymillionsofpeople(and,inthecaseofQuebec,amajorityofFrench‐speakerstheredonotspeakthemostwidely‐spokenlanguageoftheCanadianstate,English);bothareofficiallanguagesintheirterritories,bothreceiveconsiderablestatesupport,arethemainlanguageofeducationintheschoolsystem,haveradioandtelevisionstations,dailynewspapers,andenjoystrongpoliticalsupportfromallparties,includinganationalistpartywhichisofteninpower.

However,muchdependsonhowwedefine‘success’.Formany,includingFishman,IrishintheRepublicofIrelandis,forexample,a‘failure’,partlybecauseithasnot,unlikeHebrewinIsrael,FrenchinQuebecorCatalaninCatalonia,becomethemainlanguageofdailycommunicationinthestate.However,asnoted,Irishisstillspokenonadailybasisbyasignificantnumberofpeople,foraconsiderablerangeofpurposes.ManyIrishpeopleusethelanguageasthelanguageofthehome,and‘intergenerationaltransmission’isstilltakingplace,atleastinsomeplacesandinsomehouseholds.‘Success’canonlybemeasuredagainstthegoalswhichlanguageactivistssetforthelanguage.Itisalsoimportanttorememberthatmostattemptsatminoritylanguagerenewalarerelativelyrecent,andtheprocessofrenewingalanguagecantakealongperiodoftime.Asdiscussedabove,expertsinminoritylanguagerenewalsuchasJoshuaFishmanindicatethatthecrucialmeasureistheextenttowhichaminoritylanguageispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextinthehome‐thus,wearetalkingaboutmeasuringchangeoverarelativelylongperiodoftime.Inmanycasesofminoritylanguagerenewal,itisstilltooearlytotellwithcertaintywhetheraparticularrenewalstrategyis‘working’orwhethertherenewaleffortisa‘success’.

Foraminoritylanguagethatisinarelativelyweakposition,likeGaelicinNovaScotia,itwilltakealongtimetodeterminewhetherrenewaleffortshave‘succeeded’insavingthelanguageasaspokenlanguageoftheprovince.So,attentionshouldbedirectedattheparticularmethodsbeingemployedataparticulartime,andassessingonanongoingbasistheextenttowhichtheyareproducingthedesiredoutcome.RatherthanthinkingofwhetherTIPprogrammes,forexample,are‘savingGaelicinNovaScotia’,attentionshouldbedirectedatidentifyingwhattheTIPprogrammeswereexpectedtoproduce,intermsoflanguageskillsacquiredbyacertainspecifiednumberofpeople,andoverwhatperiodoftime,inordertoassesshowwelltheTIPprogrammesareperforming.Evenifitturnsoutthattheyarenot,infact,producingexpectedoutcomes,itmaynotmeanthattheinitiativeisa‘failure’;however,itdoesmeanthatthereasonswhyitisnotproducingthoseoutcomesneedtobeassessed,andmethodsofaddressingsuchproblemsthenneedtobeidentifiedandputintoaction.

WhenspeakingofcomparableminoritylanguagesituationstothatofGaelicinNovaScotia,inadditiontoManx,itisusefultoconsidercertainaboriginallanguages,particularlyintheUnitedStatesandCanada,asmanyoftheselanguagesalsohavesmallnumbersofspeakersandcouldalsobeplacedatbetweenStages7and8,withinFishman’sframework:languagessuchasHawaiian,whichisthoughttobespokenbylessthan1,000,mostlyelderly,peopletoday(Warner,2001,p.133)orMohawk,whichbythe1970swasspokenbyonlysmallnumbersofmostlyelderlypeopleonseveralreservesinCanadaandNewYorkState(GrenobleandWhaley,2006,p.86),seemtobeparticularlyusefulexamples.Again,however,cautionmustbeusedevenwiththeseexamples.First,aboriginalreservelandstendtobefairlygeographicallyconcentratedandfairlydenselypopulated,creatingpossibilitiesofconcentrationsofspeakersinlocalareasthatwouldbemuchmoredifficultforGaelicinNovaScotiatomatch,givenhowdisperseditsspeakersnoware.Second,aboriginalpeoplesalsonowhaveameasureofself‐governmentorotherlegalorconstitutionalrecognitionnotenjoyedbyGaelicspeakersandactivistsinNovaScotia.Athird,andcrucial,differenceisthataboriginalpeopleshavetendedtosuffermuchgreaterlevelsofexclusionfrom‘mainstream’dominantEuropeansocietythanGaelsorthoseofGaelicdescenthavefaced;asinNorthernIreland,thatsenseofseparatenessorevenexclusionfromthemainstreamcan,ironically,helpbyencouragingmembersofthecommunityinturningtotheirancestrallanguage.

ForlanguageswhichfindthemselvesatFishman’sStage7,themostimmediateissueis,ashasalreadybeendiscussed,acquisitionofthelanguage.Thereare,however,differentapproaches,astowheretheemphasisinlanguageacquisitionshouldbeput(GrenobleandWhaley,2006,ch.4).Asdiscussedabove,Fishman’sapproachwouldsuggestthatthefocusshouldfirstbeonyoungadults.Inthisapproach,oldernativespeakerseffectivelyprovidesomeofthecontentforand,insomecases,assistancewithactualinstruction.Theadultlearnerswillthenideallypassthelanguageontotheirchildreninthehome,sothatthosechildrenineffectbecomeagenerationofnativespeakers.Schoolsremainimportant;however,insteadofusingschools(thatis,pre‐schools,primaryandsecondaryschools)asthemeansofacquiringthelanguage,undertheapproachFishmanseemstocontemplate,schoolsaremeanttoreinforceandextendthesolidbaseofnativelanguageskillsthatshouldfirstbeacquiredathome.

Inadditiontocontributingdirectlyandimmediatelytothereestablishmentofintergenerationaltransmissioninthehome,anotheradvantagethatcomeswithfocusingfirstonadults(andinparticularyoungadults)isthattheseadultsarealsotheninthepositiontobecomeinstructorsintheformalschoolsystemwhenthelanguageisultimatelyintroducedintoit.Adultsarealsoabletocreateaminority‐

languagespeakingenvironmentinthehomeitself‐childrenwholearnasecondlanguageintheschoolbutwhoreturntoahomeinwhichthatlanguageisnotspokentendnottobeabletochangethelinguisticenvironmentinthehome.Furthermore,whenitcomestolobbyinggovernmentandotherinstitutionsforminority‐languageservices(includingpre‐schools,primaryandsecondaryschoolclasses,andsoforth)itisusuallyadults,ratherthanchildren,whoneedtobeengaged.Youngadultswhocometofluencytendtobeamongstthemosteffectiveadvocatesforthelanguage.However,therearealsodisadvantagesinfocusingfirstonadultlearners,themostimportantonebeingthatitsimplytendstobemoredifficultforadultsthanchildrentobecomefluentinasecondlanguage:languagestendtobemoreeasilylearnedinchildhood,partlybecauseadultstendtohavelesstimetosetasideforlanguageacquisition.Thereisstillno‘magic’,quickwaytolearnalanguage‐thereisnowawidevarietyofmethodologies,butallrequireconsiderableamountsoftimeandcommitment.

InspiteoftheemphasisthatFishmanplacesonadultlearners,manysignificantlythreatenedlanguagecommunitiestakeasecondapproach,onewhichfocusesonteachingthelanguagetochildren,usuallystartinginpre‐schoolprogrammes.Thepre‐schoolmovementhasbeenveryimportantinScotland,andontheIsleofMan.Indeed,campaignersfortherenewalofManxadoptedtheScottishapproachinthemid‐1990sbysettingupapre‐schoolnetwork,which,asinScotland,ledtotheestablishmentofprimaryschoolsinwhichclassesweretaughtthroughthemediumoftheminoritylanguage.Similarapproacheshavebeenemployedwithhighlythreatenedaboriginallanguages.Inmostofthesecases,thedecisiontofocusfirstonchildrenratherthanadultlearnerswasbasedlargelyonthepremisethatlanguageproficiencyismosteasilyacquiredbyyoungchildren.OneimportantexampleinaNovaScotianGaeliccontextisthatofHawaiíi,whereasnotedearliernumbersofnativespeakersofHawaiianarethoughttohavefallentolessthan1,000,concentratedheavilyinolderagegroups.DrawingonthemodelfirstemployedbytheMaoriinNewZealand,Hawaiianrenewalactivistsestablished‘languagenests’,knownas‘PunanaLeo’inHawaiianoras‘TeKohangaReo’inMaori.Languagenestsarepre‐schools(inHawaii,forchildrenbetweentheagesof2and5)whichusea‘totalimmersion’methodologyinwhichHawaiianistheonlylanguagethatisused.AsundertheMaorilanguagenestmodel,oldernativespeakersareacrucialresource,andareexpectedtoparticipateineachlanguagenest,alongwithtrainedearlychildcareworkerswhowillgenerallyhaveacquiredHawaiian(orMaori)asasecondlanguage.Inadditiontoimpartingthelanguage,animportantaspectoftheLanguageNestphilosophyistoinstructchildreninimportantaspectsoftheculture,includinggenealogy,traditionalsongs,beliefsystems,andsoforth.

InHawaiíiandNewZealand,stronguptakeofplacesinthelanguagenestsledtopressuretoextendimmersioneducationattheprimarythenatthesecondaryschoollevel,asthechildrenmovedthroughtheeducationsystem.In1987,‘Kula

Kaiapuni’,orHawaiianImmersionSchools,wereintroduced,anditisnowpossibleforchildrentobeeducatedthroughtheendofsecondaryschoolinHawaiian.EnglishinstructionisintroducedonlyatGrade5,andonlyforonehourperday;otherwise,studentsreceivetheirentirecurriculumthroughthemediumofHawaiian.WhiletheyarebasedontheCanadianFrenchimmersionschoolsforEnglish‐speakingchildren,theirgoalsdifferinimportantways:likeCanadianFrenchimmersionschools,theKulaKaiapuniaimtodevelopahighproficiencyinthesecondlanguage(i.e.Hawaiian),buttheyalsoaimatdevelopingastrongfoundationinHawaiiancultureandvalues,withtheaimofcreating‘empoweredindividuals’whoarealso‘responsibleandcaringmembers’oftheHawaiianlanguagecommunity.Theimmersionschoolsdifferfromthelanguagenestsinthat,astheteachersmustbequalifiedteacherswhohavegraduatedfromUniversityandhaveobtainedateachingcertificate,theytendoverwhelminglytobepeoplewhohaveacquiredHawaiianasasecondlanguage;mostoftheschoolsdo,however,hireanativespeakerasapart‐timeteacher’sassistantorresourceperson(generallyforlessthan20hoursperweek)(ForadescriptionoftheHawaiianandMaorimodels,see,respectively,Warner,2001,andKing,2001).

OntheKahnawakereserveinQuebec,theMohawkcommunityhassincetheearly1980sdevelopedanimmersioneducationalmodelthatissimilartothoseoftheHawaiiansandtheMaori.Inparticular,liketheKulaKaiapuni,theimmersionschoolsdevelopedatKahnawakealsoaimsataneducationthatnotonlydevelopslanguageskills,butwhichalsoaimatpreparingchildrentocontributetothecommunityandthatreinforcesthechild’sculturalidentity(see,generally,GrenobleandWhaley,2006,86,at90).Indeed,adistinguishingfeatureofalloftheseimmersioneducationmodelsistheemphasisthattheyplacenotonlyonlanguageacquisitionbutonthephilosophicalprinciplesandcurricularframeworkoftheeducationbeingprovided;theseschoolsallaimexplicitlytoimpartculturalvaluesandtodevelopacurriculumthatreflectstheworldviewandinterestsofthelinguisticminority.Inthisrespect,thesemodelsdifferfromFrenchimmersioneducationofferedinCanadatoEnglish‐speakingchildrenor,forthatmatter,fromGaelic‐mediumeducationofferedinScotland.

TheHawaiian,MaoriandMohawkmodelshavehadsomerealsuccessesinproducingchildrenwhoareabletospeak,understand,readandwritetheminoritylanguage.However,theprimacygiventochildhoodlanguageacquisitionhashadsomedownsides.First,inNewZealandandHawaiíiandatKahnawake,thelargemajorityofchildrencomefromhouseholdsinwhichtheparentorparentsdonotspeaktheminoritylanguageandinwhichthelanguageisnotused.Thisisasignificantproblem,becausethegoaloftheseinitiativesistoproduceanewgenerationofminoritylanguagespeakershavingnearnativespeakercompetencewhonotonlyareabletospeakthelanguage,butwillspeakitandpassitontotheirchildren.Becausetheminoritylanguageisusedalmostexclusivelyintheschool,the

contributionthesemethodsoflanguageacquisitionwillmaketotheoverallrevitalisationprojectispotentiallycompromised.AshasbeennotedwithrespecttoMaori,inorderforit‘totrulyregainitsstatusasacommunitylanguage,childrenneedtohearadultsspeakingMaori,notjusttothem,butamongsteachother’(King,2001,126).Aseconddifficultyisthatsincetherearefewyoungeradultswhospeaktheminoritylanguage,findingqualifiedteachersandpre‐schoolcareprofessionalswhoarealsofluentintheminoritylanguagebecomesverydifficult.OntheIsleofMan,forexample,thetinynumberofadultlearnershasmeantchronicteachershortages,andthishaslimitedgreatlytheabilityofthesystemtoexpand.AsimilarproblemexistsinScotland,wheretherearestillabout58,000speakersofGaelic;thesameproblemexistwithMaori.Third,becauseoflackofreinforcementoutsidetheschoolandbecausemanyofthosewhoarecalledupontoteachhavenotthemselvesbecomefullyfluentinthelanguage,thequalityofthelanguagethatisbeingacquiredcanoftenbepoor.Theseproblemsbecomeworsewhen,asisoftenthecase,thereislessthanfullimmersionintheminoritylanguage(themajoritylanguageoftencreepsintotheclass‐room,andimmersionisthoughttobeessential).Finally,becauseoflackofreinforcementofthelanguageoutsideoftheschool,limitedlanguageskillsandthefactthatthechildrendidnotchoosetolearntheminoritylanguagethemselves(theparentsgenerallychoosesucheducationforthem),thereisthedangerthatmanyofthechildrendonotultimatelyendupusingthelanguageinadulthoodand,crucially,decidingtopassitonthemselvestotheirownchildreninthehome.

InthecontextofNovaScotiaGaelic,itseemstotheauthorofthisstudythatadultacquisition(andinparticular,youngadultacquisition)offersthesomewhatbettershort‐termalternative.First,thisapproachis,asnoted,inlinewiththatrecommendedbyFishmanforlanguagessuchasGaelicinNovaScotiawhichareatStage7.Second,giventheverysmallnumbersofyoungadultsinNovaScotiawhospeakGaelic,therewouldberealdifficultiesinproducingasufficientnumberofqualifiedteachersandinstructorsnecessarytogetasignificantpre‐schoolandprimaryschoolsystemforGaelicgoinginthenearfuture.Gaelicis,ofcourse,stillspokeninScotland,anditwould,intheory,bepossibletorecruityoungGaelicspeakersfromthere.However,itshouldbeborneinmindthatthereareinsufficientnumbersofteachersandpre‐schoolinstructorstomeetdemandinScotland(partlybecauseoftheever‐increasingnumbersofcompetingjobs(inmedia,etc.)inScotlandrequiringGaelicspeakers)anditis,intheviewoftheauthorofthisstudy,highlyunlikelythatmanycouldanylongerberecruitedfromScotland.Third,asalreadynoted,thereisalreadyasignificantnumberofadultlanguageacquisitionmethodsbeingemployedinNovaScotia,anditwouldseemsensibletobuildonandcontinuetoimprovethese.Thisisnottosaythatanapproachwhichfocusesonchildhoodacquisitioninpreschoolsandprimaryschoolscouldnotalsobeemployedatsomepoint‐indeed,developmentofGaelicacquisitionintheschoolsystemshouldbecomeapriorityasnumbersofadultspeakerscapableofteachingthe

languagegrows.However,boththeoryandexperiencesuggestthatchildhoodacquisitionshouldnotprecedeorreplaceadultacquisitionprogramming.

Withregardtomethodologiesforbringingadultlearnerstofluency,therehavebeenveryinterestingandpromisingprogrammesputinplaceinCaliforniawithregardtotheacquisitionofindigenouslanguagesofCalifornia.ThesociolinguisticcontextisagainsomewhatdifferentfromthatwhichfacesGaelicinNovaScotia,andthishastobeborneinmind.Inparticular,inCaliforniathereisalargenumberofindigenouslanguages(historically,over100werespokenandstillabout50survive)butwithvirtuallyallofthemspokenbyverysmallnumbersofpeople,allofwhomareelderly;onlyfourarespokenbymorethan100people,withover30spokenbylessthan10people.Inmostcases,thelanguagesareunwritten,andhaveseldombeenrecorded.Thus,theselanguageswouldgenerallybeatStage8onFishman’sscale,andtheyaregenerallyinasignificantlyweakerpositionthanGaelicinNovaScotia.Inthesecircumstances,thesortsofchildhoodimmersionstrategiesdescribedabovearesimplynotpossible,andthefocusisonensuringtheacquisitionofthelanguagebyadultswhowillthenbeinapositiontoteachittoothers.Themethodemployed,the‘Master‐ApprenticeLanguageLearningProgram’,wasdevisedtodealwiththespecificcircumstancesfacingtheindigenouslanguagesofCalifornia.

The‘Master‐Apprentice’methodinvolvesaone‐on‐onerelationshipbetweena‘master’,whoisausuallyelderlynativespeaker,andan‘apprentice’,whoisusuallyayoungerlanguagelearner.Themasterandapprenticewillworktogetherintensively,followingcertainkeyprinciples:noEnglishisused(themastermusttrytousehisorherlanguageatalltimes,andtheapprenticemustuseittoaskquestions);theapprenticemustshareequalresponsibilityfordecidingwhatistobelearnedandinkeepingcommunicationgoing;theprimarymodeoftransmissionisoral,notwritten;learningtakesplacethroughreal‐life,day‐to‐daysituations,suchascooking,cleaning,gardening,goingforwalks,participatingintraditionalceremonies,andsoforth;and,theactivityitself,togetherwithnon‐verbalcommunication,willprovidethecontextbywhichtheapprenticecanunderstandthelanguage.Themaster‐apprenticeteamsselectthemselves,andoftentheyarefamilymembers(e.g.agrandparentandagrandchild).Eachmaster‐apprenticeteamisgivenaninitialintensiveweekendtrainingsessioninordertointroducethemtothemethodologyandgetthemusedtoapplyingit.Boththemasterandapprenticearepaidasmallstipendof$3,000for360hoursoflanguageimmersionworktogether;inspiteofthefactthattheapprenticeisderivingaconsiderablebenefitfromthetraining(theyacquirethelanguage)itisconsideredimportantalsotogivetheapprenticeastipend,astheapprenticewilloftenhaveafull‐timejobandothercommitments,andastipendmayhelpinfinancingsomeadditionalfreetimeforlanguageimmersion.Generally,theteamsareexpectedtospend10hoursperweektogether,meaningthattheyworktogetherfor36weeks.Themasterandapprenticeareexpectedtoworktogetherforathree‐yearperiod,andwillreceivethestipend

threetimes.Thus,theteamwillideallyhavespent1,080hourstogetheronintensiveimmersiontrainingoverathree‐yearperiod.Thegoalisthatbytheendofthethree‐yearperiod,theapprenticewillbeatleastconversationallyproficientinthelanguage,andreadytoteachthelanguagetoothers.

Thesemaster‐apprenticeprogrammeshavehadsomesuccessinmeetingthisgoal,inthattheyhavesucceededinbringingsomeapprenticestoatleastareasonableenoughlevelofconversationalproficiencytoallowthemtobeginteachingthelanguage.However,someproblemshaveemerged.Theprogrammesaredemanding,intermsoftime,energyanddedication,onboththemasterandtheapprentice,andonlyaboutonethirdoftheteamscompletethefullthree‐yearperiod.Also,asnoted,theteamsworktogetherforusuallyonlyalittleoverhalftheyear,limitingthecontinuityoftheprogrammes(see,generally,Hinton,2001).

Anotherimportantimmersiontechniqueisthe‘TotalPhysicalResponse’(TPR)methodologydevelopedbyDrJamesAsher,whichismeanttobeappropriateforlanguagelearnersofallages,includingadults(see,generally,www.tpr‐world.com).Likethemaster‐apprenticeapproach,TPRisanorally‐basedmethodologywhichrequirestheinstructortouseonlythelanguagebeinglearned,togetherwithnonverbalformsofcommunication,tocommunicatewithstudents.TheTIPmethodologydevelopedbyFionnlaghMacleÚiddrawstoaconsiderabledegreeontheprinciplesofTPR.MacleÚidisthefounderandDirectorofComhairlenanSgoiltean¿raich(CNSA),theGaelicPre‐schoolCouncil,andhasplayedafundamentallyimportantpartintheGaelicrevivalmovementinScotland.LiketheMaoriexamplediscussedabove,CNSAstartedintheearly1980sbyplacingemphasisonacquisitionofthelanguagethroughearlychildhoodimmersion,andtheestablishmentofGaelic‐mediumpre‐schooleducationbyCNSAledtoademandforandsupplyofGaelic‐mediumprimaryandlatersecondaryeducation.AsintheMaoriandothercasesconsideredabove,however,thechildrencamefromhomeenvironmentsinwhichthelanguagewasnotbeingused.MacleÚiddevelopedtheTIPmethodologyasameansofaddressingthisproblem;inparticular,thegoalistoassistparentsincomingtofluencyinGaelicasquicklyaspossiblesoastoprovidealinguisticallysupportivehomeenvironmentforchildrenlearningthelanguage.AmongthekeyprinciplesoftheTIPprogrammearethat:tutorsarefluentGaelicspeakers(thoughnotnecessarilynativeGaelicspeakers);learningtakesplaceinthehome;onlyGaelicisused(studentssigna‘Gaeliconlydeclaration’atthestartoftheprogramme);and,reading,writingandgrammararenottaught,andnowritingisused.TheTIPprogrammesintendthatstudentswillhaveconversationalfluencywithin200hours.Theauthorofthisstudyunderstandsthat,sinceMacleÚidcametoNovaScotiatointroducetheTIPmethodologyin2004,almost400peoplehaveparticipatedintheTIPprocess.About34differentclasseshavebeenofferedin12communitiesinNovaScotia,andtheProvinceofNovaScotia’sGaelicActivities

Programhasinvestedover$120,000invariousTIP‐relatedprojects(personalcommunicationfromFrancesMacEachen,OfficeofGaelicAffairs,NovaScotia).

Asalreadynoted,theauthorofthisstudyisoftheviewthattheemphasisofGaelicdevelopmentinNovaScotiashouldinitiallybeplacedonexpandingthenumbersofadults,particularlyyoungadults,whocometofluencyinGaelic.Onceacoreofadultlearnershasbeenproduced,thebuildingofchildhoodimmersionmethodologies,includingschool‐basedones,canbedeveloped.Thus,TIPprogrammesarepreciselythesortofinitiativeswhicharenecessaryatthisstageinthelanguagedevelopmentprocess,andarepotentiallythesinglemostimportantinnovationthathasbeentakenintheprocessofrevitalisationofGaelicinNovaScotia.Aswillbediscussedinthenextsection,theattentionofFIOS,andofNovaScotiaGaelicpolicy‐makers,shouldnowbedirectedtoensuringthattheseTIPprogrammes,aswellasotheradultlearningmethodologiesdeliverontheirpotentialandareaseffectiveaspossible.

Beforeturningtothistheme,itmaybeappropriatetocommentbrieflyonpotentialpitfallsinlanguagedevelopmentforminoritylanguageslikeGaelicinNovaScotia,andinparticularontheneedforlanguagelegislation.BasedontheworkofJoshuaFishman,themainpitfallsarethreefold:first,failuretorecognisethestageonhiseight‐stagescaleatwhichthelanguageissituated;second,takingstepswhichareinappropriatetothestageonthescaleatwhichthelanguageissituated;and,third,failingcontinuallytofocusalldevelopmentactivitiesontheall‐importantStage6,thestageatwhichintergenerationaltransmissionofthelanguageistakingplacewithinthehomeandinthelocalcommunity.Fishmannotesthatcertaininitiatives,suchasgettingthelanguageinthepublicschoolsystem,thedevelopmentofpublicsignage,gettingthelanguageinlocalmedia(newspapers,radioandtelevision),anddevelopingtheprestigeofthelanguagethrough,forexample,conferringuponitsomeformofstatusintermsofitsofficialrecognition,areperenniallyattractivetolanguagecampaigners.Hedoesnotinsistthatsuchinitiativesareinappropriate.Hedoes,however,warnthatsuchmeasurescanbetakenprematurely.Inadditiontodivertingtimeandenergyfromtheallimportanttaskofre‐establishingintergenerationaltransmissioninthehomeandlocalcommunity,successesinsuchinitiativescancreatethefalsesensethatprogressisbeingmade.

Languagelegislationcan,ofcourse,beimportant.Itshouldbenoted,forexample,thatthedevelopmentofbothlanguagenestsandimmersionschoolsinNewZealandandHawaiiwasfacilitatedbytheexistenceofasupportivelegalregime.Inthe1980s,theNewZealandcourtsruledthatthegovernmentofNewZealandhasspecialobligationstotheMaorilanguage(asaresultofanineteenthcenturytreaty,theTreatyofWaitangi,signedbytheMaoriandtheBritish),andthisledtothe

passagein1987oftheMaoriLanguageActandthecreationoftheMaoriLanguageCommission.In1978,HawaiianwasdesignatedasoneoftwoofficiallanguagesofthestateofHawaiíi,astatuswhichwasconfirmedbyaseparatelawofthatyear,andtheNativeAmericanLanguagesActsof1990and1992,Americanfederallegislation,haveallowedforincreasedfundingforaboriginallanguagesingeneral.ForbothMaoriandHawaiian,theexistenceofsupportivelegislationhasplayedaroleinensuringaccesstogreaterfundingforthebenefitoftheimmersionprogrammesdiscussedearlier.Legislationhasalso,asnoted,playedasignificantroleinIreland,ScotlandandWalesintherevivaleffortsforIrish,GaelicandWelsh.However,whilelegislationcanbeimportant,gaininglegislativesupporttendstobeatime‐consumingprocessthatrequiresmuchactivismandorganisation,andcampaignsforlegislationarenotalwayssuccessful.Legislationoftencomesafterandasaresultofsustainedlocalactivismaroundthedevelopmentofthingslikeeducationprojects,andintheshortterm,itwouldseemadvisableforGaelicactivistsinNovaScotiatocontinuetoconcentrateonsuchinitiatives,allthewhilebuildinggrass‐rootsorganisationswhichmayonedaybeabletocontributetoacampaignforlegislation,aswellasdevelopmentsappropriatetostages1to5inFishman’smodel,includingimmersioneducationinpublicschools.

5.PrioritiesforGaelicinNovaScotia:Acquisition

Basedontheforegoing,theauthorwouldventurethefollowingrecommendationsforconsiderationofthereadersofthisstudy:

1.Asnoted,NovaScotiaalreadypossessesaconsiderablerangeofGaeliclanguageresources,andtherecentCainntmoMhatharprojectisanextremelyvaluableadditionalcontribution.AslongastherearenativeGaelicspeakersonwhomtodraw,effortstorecordtheirlanguageandGaelicculturalskillsshouldcontinue.ThesearetheStage8buildingblocksonwhichacquisitionandbroaderrenewalprogrammesarebuilt.Furthermore,suchspeakersshouldalsobeusedirectlyinallacquisitionmethodsemployed;theyareanextremelyvaluableresource,notonlyintermsoflanguageskills,butalsointermsofbroaderculturalskillsandawarenessthatshouldformacentralpartinlanguageacquisition.Itisnowcrucial,however,bothtocatalogueandthentoputmaterialssuchasCainntmoMhathar,thedigitisedGaelicFolkloreProject,thesignificantwrittenresources,andotherexceptionalGaelicresources,touseinlanguageacquisitionprogrammingintheprovince.ThoseinvolvedinGaeliceducationintheprovince,particularlythosepresentlyteachingGaelicinschools,attheUniversityDepartments,attheGaelicCollegeandinTIPprogrammesandonnightclasses,shouldcometogethertodevelopacquisitionprogrammingthatcantakefulluseofthesevariousresources.FIOSwascreatedwithamorelimitedmandatethanthis,butcouldplayaroleinbringingtogethertheinstitutionsreferredtoaboveandfacilitatingthedevelopmentofeffectivestrategiesforthepracticaluseofsuchmaterialinlanguageacquisitionprogramming.

2.Asnoted,therearealreadyarangeofGaeliclanguageacquisitionprogrammesinNovaScotiathatareopentoadultandteenagelearners.ItisimportantnowtodeterminehowsuccessfultheseprogrammeshavebeenindevelopingfluencyinGaelic,withaviewtodevelopingstrategiestofurtherenhancetheireffectiveness.

3.WithregardtoGaeliclanguagecoursesatsecondaryschools,itisextremelydifficultforsuchcoursestobringverymanystudentsuptofairlyhighlevelsoffluency.Thisisnotmeantinanywayasacriticismofsuchcourses;rather,itisaproblemthatiscommontoallsuchcourses,anditisduesimplytotherelativelylimitedamountsoftimethatstudentsspendlearningthelanguage,andapplieswithequalforcetosecondaryschoolcoursesinallmodernlanguagessuchasFrench.Inordertobeeffective,allsuchcoursesneedtobesupplementedwithadditionalstrategies.

4.ThesameistruetoaconsiderableextentofUniversitylanguagecourses.Generally,studentstakingGaeliclanguagecoursesatUniversityinNovaScotiahavelittleornopriorexposuretothelanguage,anditisdifficultforastudenttocometoahighdegreeofspokenfluencyonaUniversitycoursewherethestudenthaslittleornopreviousexperienceinthelanguage.ThishasbeenmyownexperienceandthatofcolleaguesatbothAberdeenandatotherScottishUniversitieswhichteachGaelictostudentswithlittleornobackgroundinthelanguage.Itisalsotheexperienceofcolleaguesinothermodernlanguagedepartments,suchasFrench,GermanandSpanish.Thisisprimarilyduetotherelativelylimitednumbersofcontacthourswhichuniversityinstructorshavewiththeirstudents.ItisforthisreasonthatUniversityexchangeprogrammeshavebeendevelopedforstudentsstudyingmodernlanguages‐forstudentswishingtolearn,say,Italian,ayear’sstudyatanItalianUniversityinanItalian‐speakingenvironmentdoesmuchtoenhancelanguageskills.BecausethedifficultiesthatwehaveinbringinglearnerstofluencythatmycolleaguesatAberdeenUniversityrecentlyinstitutedanadditionalfourweekintensivesummerimmersioncourseattheGaelicCollegeinIslay;thishasgenerallystrengthenedconsiderablyourstudents’fluencyandconfidenceinGaelic.SimilarsupplementarymethodsshouldbeconsideredinNovaScotia.GovernmentcanplayaroleasasourceoffundingtoassistUniversitystudentswhoarestudyingGaelicandwhowishtoimprovetheirlanguageskillstoattend.Somecoordinationbetweenuniversityproviderscouldbebeneficialhere.Intheopinionoftheauthorofthisreport,addressingthelearningneedsofuniversitystudentsisparticularlyimportantinthecontextofGaelicinNovaScotia.Suchstudentsclearlyhaveaninterestinlearningthelanguage,ortheywouldnothavechosentotakethecourse.Inmyexperience,manyofthesestudentshavebeenamongstthemostenergeticandeffectiveadvocatesandcampaignersforthelanguage,andareoftenwillingtogetinvolvedinteachingofthelanguageandinhelpinginvariouslanguage‐relatedeventsandorganisations.Finally,iftheydocometofluency,theyaretheoneswhowillsoonberaisingthenextgeneration,andarethereforeperhapsbestplacedtobegintheprocessof‘intergenerationaltransmission’.FIOS,togetherwithUniversityCeltic/Gaelicdepartments,andotherinstitutionsactiveinNovaScotiasuchastheGaelicCollegeandtheNovaScotiaHighlandVillageshouldworktowards

developingintensivesummercoursestosupplementtheGaelicinstructionthattakesplaceduringtheacademicyear.FIOScouldhaveaparticularlyimportantroletoplayhereifsuchcoursesweretobecommunity‐basedratherthanbasedatanexistinginstitution.ThecoursescouldbeextendedtostudentsstudyingGaelicatthesecondarylevel.AnumberofexcellentmodelsalreadyexistinCanada;particularreferencecouldbemadetotheFrenchCampswhichrunforfourtosixweeks(‘CanadianParentsforFrench’,anorganizationwhichrepresentsparentswithchildreninFrenchimmersionprogrammes,maintainsausefuldatabaseofsuchsummercamps:seehttp://www.cpf.bc.ca/site/modules/news/article.php?storyid=3).Itshouldbenotedthatsuchcampsareintendedtosupplementthelearningwhichisgoingoninschools,ratherthantoactasanindependentmethodoflanguageacquisition.

5.WithregardtoTIPcourses,itwouldbeappropriatetocriticallyassesstheiroveralleffectiveness.InScotland,theTIPcoursesonwhichtheNovaScotiacoursesarebeingmodelledareinmanyrespectsexperimental.Othermethodologies,includingtheUlpanmethodthatwasfirstdevelopedinIsraelforHebrewandwhichhashadsomesuccessinWalesforWelsh,arealsobeingusedinScotlandandarereceivingfundingsupportfromBÚrdnaGàidhlig(theScottishGovernment‐establishedGaelicLanguageBoard).Acrucialissueisthelevelsoflanguagecompetencethatarebeingdevelopedbyallsuchmethodologies.SuchresearchinNovaScotiashouldbedirectedatstrengtheningtheabilityofTIPcoursestodeliverontheirstatedobjectives.TherewillalmostcertainlybeanumberofissueswhichwillneedtobeaddressedastheTIPmethodologydevelops,andthesewouldincludethefollowing:thetrainingneedsofcourseleaders;thedevelopmentofconsistentandrigorouscoreteachingmethodologiesandcurricula,witharticulatedandclearlearningoutcomesatvariousstages;thecreationofsupportmaterialsforthecourses;thenumberofcontacthoursareinvolved,andwhethertheyaresufficienttoattaindesiredlevelsoffluency(itshouldberememberedthatTIPaimstoproduceconversationalabilityinonly200hours,anditmaybethattheseexpectationsneedtobereassessed(recallthattheMaster‐Apprenticeprogrammesanticipatethatover1,000hoursofintenseone‐to‐oneimmersionisrequiredtogettoaminimumlevelofconversationalfluency).Also,itisimportanttoconsidertheidentityofthosetakingthecoursesóasnotedabove,youngadultsareofparticularimportanceinanyattempttorenewGaelicinNovaScotiaóandwhatbarriersexisttowardsgreaterparticipation,particularlybyyoungadults(e.g.lackofmoney,othercommitmentswhichlimitattendancesuchasworkcommitments,familycareobligations,andsoforth).Asnotedintheprecedingsection,TIPprogrammesareofcrucialimportance,andFIOS)andNovaScotiapolicyingeneral)shouldbedirectedatmaximisingtheeffectivenessoftheseprogrammes.Finally,itisnotedthatFrancesMacEachenoftheOfficeofGaelicAffairsisintheprocessofcompletingastudyofTIPcoursesinNovaScotia;intheauthor’sview,thisreportwillmakeasignificantcontributiontothecriticalassessmentthatisbeingreferredtohere,andFIOSshouldconsidercarefullythisresearchandliaisewiththeOfficeofGaelicAffairstodevelopastrategytoaddressanyproblemareashighlightedinthestudy.

6.Asnotedabove,concentrationsofspeakersareofconsiderableimportance,particularlyatStage6,thecrucialstage;asnoted,inadditiontopassingonthelanguageinthehome,Stage6involvestheuseofthelanguageinthecommunityforavarietyofpurposes.Thisrequiresacommunityofspeakers.GiventhatmostspeakersofGaelicinNovaScotiaarenowquitescattered,considerationmustbegiventohowconcentrationsofspeakersmightbebuilt.StrengtheningthepresenceofGaelicinthosefewcommunitiesinwhichtherearestillsomeconcentrationsofspeakerswillbeveryimportant.Usingtheseareasasabaseforadultacquisitioncoursesandsummercourses,aswellasotherGaelic‐language‐basedeventsshouldbeconsidered.Suchenvironmentsareveryimportantindevelopinghighlevelsoffluency.ThishasbeenrecognisedinIreland,forexample,whereintensivesummerimmersionexperiencesinvolvingclassesandresidenceinIrish‐speakinghomeshavebeenused,particularlyforprimaryandsecondarystudentsofIrish,buttheseapproachescouldeasilyberemodelledforuniversitystudentsandotheryoungadults.Inadditiontoclasses,Gaelic‐basedstructuredsocialactivitiesandothermoreinformalnetworksneedtobebuiltinlocalcommunities.

7.Thefinalpointwhichshouldbeconsideredisthequestionofresearch.Asnotedatthebeginningofthisstudy,thereisstillagreatdealthatwedonotknowaboutGaelicinNovaScotiaatpresent,includingtheprecisenumbersofnativespeakersandlearners.Wedonotknowwhypeoplewhohavethelanguageceasespeakingitorpassingitontotheirchildren,andwealsodonothaveasufficientideaofwhatcausespeopletolearnit.Wedonotknowenoughaboutattitudestothelanguage,orofhow,whenandhowoftenthelanguageisusedbythosewhodospeakit.Wedonothaveadetailedknowledgeofwhichlearningmethodologiesaremosteffective.Wearenotsurehoweffectiveexistinglearningmethodologiesemployedintheprovinceareinproducingfluentspeakers.Wedonotknowinsufficientdetailthebarriersfacedinlearningthelanguage,orhowinstitutions,includingthegovernment,canhelpaddresstheseproblems.Allofthissortofresearchcanbeexpensive,andcantaketime.However,university‐basedandotherresearcherscanmakeacontributionhere.ItwouldbeusefulforthoseinterestedinthesesortsofquestionstobegintodeveloparesearchstrategyforGaelicinNovaScotia,partofwhichwouldincludeanidentificationofpossiblesourcesoffundingtosupportsuchresearch,suchasfromtheSocialSciencesandHumanitiesCouncilofCanada,andothersimilarfundingbodies.

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