MINOAN SOCIETY

A Greece: The Bronze Age – Society in Minoan Crete

1. Geographical environment - Geographical setting, natural features and resources of Minoan Crete

Crete is the largest of all the Greek islands 260 km from east to west – width from north to south, is no greater than 60km Sea: provided Cretans with food (fish, octopus, shellfish), safety (needed a navy to attack, a natural

wall against invaders) Lack of fortifications suggest – they saw the sea as something that would provide them with a

natural defence from invaders, this made Minoan settlements very different from the cities of other people during the Bronze Age

Crete is very mountainous – 3 mountain ranges: Ida range, Mt. Dikte + White Mountains all of which exceed 1800m in height, some reaching as high as 2400m

Lower scopes of highlands covered with cypress rees Caves, southern plains Resources: timber (cypress trees), rocks (limestone – used for buildings, pathways, courtyards),

caves (rituals, refuge, burials, shelter) Coast: good farmland, rich, fertile soil olives, grapes, lemons, pears, almonds, wide range of

vegetables Honey! MOUNTAINOUS Mesara plains in the south Animal husbandry cattle, sheep, goats and pigs Diet had a wide variety than most other societies drank beer, milk, wine + ate cheese

- Significant sites: Knossos, Phaestos, Malia, Zakros, AgiaTriada, Gournia

PALACE HISTORY:

The First Palace Period (c. 2000 – 1700 BC)

Bronze Age saw the rise of palatial buildings in Crete First palace seems to have been built at Knossos, then Phaistos Also first palace period – built at Malia and Zakros These palaces consisted of clusters of buildings – little small blocks

of apartments – placed around a large, paved courtyard 2 storeys Also had large circular pits – placed in open courts communal

storage of grain The Second Palace Period (c. 1700 – 1450 BC)

First Palaces were destroyed in an earthquake c. 1700 BC Grander palaces in the Second Palace Period – retained central

courtyard Buildings completely surrounded by the court Central courts = rectangular and quite large Masonry techniques were much more advanced than those in the

earlier periods Large number of magazines or storage rooms E.g. Linear A – Minoans stored oil, grains, seeds and wine – used for

trade or to pay wages The Third Palace Period (c. 1425 – 1070 BC)

Only palatial buildings at Arkhanes and Knossos appear to have beenreoccupied – other palaces were abandoned

People living in them were Mycenaean’s not Minoans Marked change in the pottery decoration New writing appeared in Linear Blanguage in Ancient Greek Nature of Mycenaean control over Crete is not completely clear – do

not know why they came or to what degree Minoans participated in their government

Mixture of both Minoan and Mycenaean architecture suggests that the two groups became integrated

Suddenly, and for no known reason, the last palatial residence was abandoned in c. 1070 BC

Knossos Arthur Evans excavated Knossos in 1900 and 1932 – he also instigated reconstruction work (he

was also responsible for creating a chronological timeline for Minoan civilization that was based on changing pottery styles)

Has been criticised and commended for his work – raised controversy about archaeological methods

Evans also rebuilt parts of it accuracy is questionable Many parts of the palace restored, concrete and timber frames used

Zakros

Palace of Zakros located on the east coast of Crete – south of Plaikestro Original excavation begun by D.G. Howarth Nikolas Platon resumed excavations in 1961 – able to unearth a palace which had not been looted Lateness of its excavation allowed it to be excavated using modern scientific methods Platon proposed a system of relative chronology used by archaeologists for Minoan history – based

on the development of the architectural complexes

Gournia

Harriet Boyd was the first American to excavate a Minoan site in Crete In 1900 Boyd visited Knossos and met w/ Evans Investigated the Minoan settlement at Gournia, located in the east-central Crete – she excavated

from 1901 – 1905 First woman to supervise a large field crew of 100 workers, first American woman to speak at the

Archaeological Institution of America in 1902

2. Social structure and political organisation Homer – there were many different peoples living in Crete, no fewer than 90 cities Herodotus – states that the Cretans of the 5th century BC were a mixture of the older Cretans and

the settlers who arrived after the famine Thucydides – said that the Cretan king ruled over all the people in the Aegean and maintained

control by the use of his shops ^ Hearsay evidence

- Issues relating to gender and identity of ruler/s Lack of evidence in relation to a Minoan ruler – no evidence of: statues, king’s names, royal tombs,

recognisable iconography Was there a ruler? Was it female or male? Was it a political ruler or a religious one? Was there one or many rulers?

WHAT EVANS BELIEVED

Evans believed: there was a King because Ancient sources (Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides) spoke of King Minos EVIDENCE Prince of Lilies Fresco, Master Impression seal, Throne at Knossos, Chieftan Cup (AgiaTriada)

However Homer was not a historian but a storyteller, Herodotus and Thucydides were POST Minoan civilization, may have not had accurate sources

Believed in the stories of Homer, Herodotus and Thucydides assumed that there had been a living King and his name was Minos – we cannot know this for certain

Master Impression – a clay impression on a medallion seal found at Khania – showing a large figure of a man above either an elaborate shrine or a palace perhaps the King of Knossos

Also holds a staff, represents his role as protector of the site Scholars now accept the idea that Minoans did not have a ruler at all – their society was so

structured and organised, compared to other civilizations that this may have been possible ^ if this is correct, then Minoans would be distinguished from other Ancient civilizations – no

reliefs/frescoes/lack of representation of a ruler, but perhaps a priest king?

GENDER

Most historians today believe that the ruler was female; possibly a priestess EVIDENCE most of the figures depicted in frescoes or seals are female Griffons associated with females, found on the walls on either side of the throne in the Throne

Room at Knossos Scholars suggests that the throne was intended for a priestess who dressed as a goddess for

religious appearance CAMPSTOOL FRESCO + LA PARISIENNE woman in elegant dress, expensive jewellery, hair and

make-up, portrays their power and prestige in Minoan society Goddess found Snake Goddess

Quotes:

Warren – “The ruler could have been as much a religious personage as a politician or economist, and is at least as likely to have been female as male …”

THE RULER

Consider all the palaces in Crete – surely there would be a king living in each? 3 Ancient Greek writers assured that there had been a King Minos However we cannot be sure that Kings even existed in Crete during the Bronze Age Evidence for Kings is uncertain and relies on fresco fragments that were altered by Evans and thus

unreliable (Prince of Lilies Fresco) There are no graves of Minoan rulers community burials Throne Room Mycenaean remodelling, but scholars believe its origins are Minoan The throne said to be intended for a female – due to its proportions of the butt engraved on the

seat Depictions of griffins on either side of the throne fresco, support the idea that this may have been a

female ruler symbol for women Scholars suggest that the throne was for a priestess dressed as a goddess ‘Master Impression’ clay seal found at Khania shows a large figure of a man standing above an

elaborate shrine or palace, his size and pose w/ a staff may also represent him as a protector/king Scholars now do not accept the idea that there was a king living in Crete – distinguishing Minoans

from other civilizations Theocracy: system of government administered by priests or priestesses

- Palace elite: bureaucracy, priests and priestesses

BUREAUCRACY

Administrative, economic and religious activities of palaces would have required an extensive bureaucracy – great number of inscribed clays suggests that this bureaucracy lasted over a long period of time

Pre-Palatial Period

Minoan administrative system was developed and used in various palaces/places Pre-palatial period script used was hieroglyphic and approx. 270 items containing this script

had been discovered Record seems to list goods received System that was used extended for a time across all of Crete

First and Second palace periods

Bulk of these records came from palaces Linear A used Relatively large quantity of tablets in this script – written form of the Minoan language Linear A has not been deciphered Shows formal contracts had been established throughout Crete in the 1st Palace period Trade was also growing

Third Palatial Period

After 2nd Palatial period, Mycenaean’s took over the Minoan system of administration – Mycenaean Greek language was used

From Knossos and Pylos archives, we learn that the purpose of Mycenaean administration was to control the textile and bronze industries in particular – record taxation amounts

Taxes were paid in goods instead of money

PRIESTS AND PRIESTESSES

Archaeologists and historians have noted a strong interrelationship between religion and ceremony in Minoan palace complexes

Ritual areas and cult objects found close to magazines and workshops, as well as clay tablets dedicated and distributed to deities and sanctuaries suggesting that the Minoan government was ruled by a theocracy

Appearance: men with distinctive hairstyles wearing long robes and carrying adytons (double axes) featured on seals may be priests

Leader of the procession on the Harvester Vase has a distinctive cloak and hairstyle which may be interpreted as evidence of priestly status

Female figures identified as priestesses Sarcophagus at AgiaTriadha Representations of women conducting religious ceremonies and performing rituals far outnumber

those of men suggesting that there were more priestesses than priests Sarcophagus at AgiaTriada a priestess is shown carrying out a libation associated with animal

sacrifice

THE WEALTHY CLASS

Most distinguished people appear in the frescoes, seals, rings – both men and women from wealthy/privileged classes

Well dressed and wear jewellery Sacred Tree, Dance Fresco, AghiaTriadha Vase – military class, depicts men as soldiers Harvesters Vase – elderly man leading a band of singing men engaged in an agricultural festival Representation of men wearing long gowns (priests) Many of the upper class had religious duties

SCRIBES

Worked in houses in town, stamped clay nodules with crescent-shaped seal stones used for medallions, nodules and cones

Difficult to know where scribes ranked in Minoan society – not referred to in tablets Scholars identify individual scribes from handwriting Scribes were the most knowledgeable concerned with various industries, scribes would record

all the information relating to any industry Such responsibilities would have ensured that they occupied a fairly high position in the social

ladder

- Roles and status of women Difficult to say for certain what the role and status of women were in Minoan society Little written evidence, however a lot of visual representations In all fresco remains – females are the ones primarily seen as the larger, more important figures

although some men are presented wearing long gowns like a toga (priests) Women of wealthier class prominent in Minoan society – they wear jewellery, ornate hairstyles,

layered skirts, diaphanous tops, extravagant make up Seem to have performed a priestly or adorant role – Gold Ring Priestess and the AghiaTriadha

fresco/sarcophagus, Dancing around the Tree Fresco Linear B – women working in textiles industry Frescoes/seals/figurines show women participating in a range of social and religious activities

degree of freedom and prominence AghiaTriada Sarcophagus woman (priestess) carrying out a ritual sacrifice of a bull, suggesting

women had a high religious status Snake Goddess – possible goddesses Frequent depiction of women involved in ritual activities e.g. Tripartite Shrine fresco Mistress of Animals seal stone – goddess standing supreme over 2 lions, suggesting women had

strength, authority and power Bull Leaping Fresco – male and female athletes equality of women and men (or perhaps

superior?)

- Craftsmen and agricultural workers

ARTISTS AND ARTISANS

Large group of skilled workers – ranged from masons (cutting stone blocks and sheets for building), workers in faience making, smelting/working metal – gold and bronze

Artisans – engraved stone seals, known also as ‘gem cutters’ Scholars believe that these people ranked higher than other groups their work is difficult and

requires skill May have been employed by palace

FARMERS

Economy of Crete = based on agriculture and animal-husbandry (sheep, cows other cattle) From the Neolithic period Cretans have relied on farming and herding Archaeological research by Branigan show that many of the Minoans lived in clusters of houses

in small farming communities scattered throughout the island Products from these farms are listed on the tablets + dockets attached to storage jars written in

Linear A and B Part of palace economy

FISHERMEN

Most likely that fishermen operated throughout all of the Neolithic and Bronze Age Do not read about fish as commodity decorations on Minoan pottery confirm that the Minoans

were very familiar with the sea Proximity of settlements – sea would have ensured that fish was a primary source of protein One place specialised or fishing – Zakro, had a purple dye industry that relied on shellfish (murex

mollusc)

LABOURERS

Others involved in labouring jobs in quarries and forests No info about these people, Harvester’s Vase shows ordinary farm workers enjoying a celebration

of their work

SLAVES

Linear B tablets used a word for ‘slave’ after Mycenaean occupation ‘Slave of the god’ might have meant servant There were thus probably slaves working in Crete during the Mycenaean occupation, unsure about

Minoan period

THE FAMILY

No intensive study no representation of a family group in Minoan art Family shared conditions within the home and tomb – males, females and children were buried

together in a clan in tombs Not a lot known about children in Minoan period – not in Minoan art Children’s bones also fragile – may not last in tombs

3. The economy - Palace economy

Palaces were not only administrative and religious centres, they also had economic functions Nearby farms and settlements provided palaces with agricultural produce and manufactured

goods, used for taxation or tribute Thousands of clay tablets, recording lists of goods received, stored and distributed goods have

been found in the palaces Magazines = storage, as well as pithoi suggesting grain or oil were stored within the palace Koulouras – food storage facilities, large pits that held grains, could hold more than 76000 kg of

grain Portion of these goods dedicated to deities and distributed to sanctuaries, used as offerings or

payment Produce may have also been distributed as payment to palace bureaucrats and artisans, a portion

would have been exported Most palaces also had extensive workshop areas – pottery, textiles were manufactured ^ evidence: loom weights found at Knossos and Phaistos, seal impressions suggesting control

over textile production Petrographic analysis of clay used in pottery show that there was trade among the palaces e.g.

amphorae made in central Crete found in Eastern Crete Six economic functions performed by palaces:

1. Producers – craft productions2. Consumers – consumption of food products, skill and manufactured goods 3. Regulators of internal exchange within the region – administering and organizing exchange of

goods and services 4. Regulators of external trade – trade and exchange with other distant places and other states

5. Accumulators of agricultural produce and other materials of value 6. Redistributors of agricultural produce and other materials of value

- Importance of agriculture Economy was largely based on agriculture Evidence Harvester’s Vase Oil. Wine and grain were the major forms of produce, as well as natural resources like timber for

ship building and construction, wool from sheep and goats and animal hides Animal husbandry was important Storage jars pithoi 246 000 litres Suggested that palaces traded surplus goods outside of Crete First palaces built in places that had a rich agricultural region, supporting a large population Extensive storage areas taxes/tythes Storage capacity at Knossos huge pithoi jars w/ capacity of 246 thousand litres Linear B tablets from Knossos also list quantities of agricultural products such as wheat, barley,

wine, oil, spices, honey, flax and wool Cattles used to pull ploughs/carts + also raised for food archaeologists have found bones of

cattle, goats, pigs etc. Bulls represented in frescoes, rhytons and other crafts, indicating importance – sacrifice of cattle

e.g. Sarcophagus at AgiaTriadha Wool was of considerable importance in the agricultural economy Majority of the Minoan population sustenance farmers Crops include: olives, grapes, cereals, lemons, pears, peas, lentils, cabbages, honey, fish

- Role of towns: Gournia and Zakros Towns developed in Crete before palaces were built and continued to thrive during palatial

periods Fulfilled various roles – residential centres around them and some had specialised functions e.g.

ports as centres for trade or shrines

GOURNIA

Location and how it affected the economy

Situated on the north coast in a commanding position overlooking the Bay of Mirabello- covered an area of 2.43 hectares

Main features of the town

Had access in ancient times to a harbour nearby at Sphoungaras Also situated near the end of the Ierapetra isthmus, overland communication with the south coast

was also possible Location of Gournia suggests that it may have been involved in trade Its location overlooked and had easy access to the harbour, positioned on the main land route

between north and south Crete May have also been a centre for craft manufacture – concentration of workshops in the northern

area of the town e.g. houses of a carpenter, potter and smith have been identified and tools found within

Evidence for the local economy in the town

Palatial building looks south across a courtyard or town that has been interpreted as a civic space

Has about 60-70 houses

Agricultural land nearby and evidence of some craft production Fertile land nearby used for cultivation and grazing animals

Evidence for trade

The town was well placed for trade and communications along the north coast – it is known that it was in communication with Pseira, Mochlos and Zakros

Also evidence Gournia traded with Pseira, Midilos and Zakros

ZAKROS

Location and how it affected the economy

On the south-eastern end of the island of Crete

Main features of the town

Well situated for trade and communication with Cyprus and the Levant (modern day Syria and Lebanon)

Harbour is sheltered from north and west winds Harbour town overlooks the palace of Zakros on the flat land below Conformity to the difficult terrain area Main road led from the harbour to the north-east gate of the palace

Evidence for the local economy in the town

Only the small palace of Zakros that yielded evidence of organized workshops specializing in the carving of valuable vessels from imported stone

Bronze ingots and elephant tusks for ivory carving were found here Evidence of a foundry close by the palace on the side of the road to the harbour Many houses had ground floor areas where grinding of wheat and barley took place, and wine or

oil presses were found

Evidence for trade

No evidence that the town of Zakros was a town of merchants and traders Economic life of the town and its long-distance trading contacts was directed by the ruler of

the palace or the palace elite The town itself has not provided evidence suggesting organized workshops that produced goods

for trade or rooms for the storage of precious materials Trade of Zakros would probably have been highly controlled by the palace elite

- Trade and economic exchange: Mediterranean and Aegean region ‘Command economy’ – where long-distance trade was ‘inter-regal trade’ and conducted through

royal emissaries who were the “kings men” – trade directed by rulers or by temple elites This was the case in Egypt, the pharaoh would conduct ‘foreign affairs’ and obtained raw

material through diplomatic means or warfare Royal armies would go and gain access to raw materials for Egypt Early Bronze Age trade was based on the principle of bartering – swapping an item for

another, no coinage invented yet The Minoans sailed around the Cycladic Islands, Cyprus, through the Mediterranean and

through to Egypt Amphorae – tall Greek/Roman jar with two handles and a narrow neck Pithoi – ancient Greek word for a large storage jar of a characteristic shape

The Cyclades and other Aegean Islands

Throughout the Bronze Age, the Cycladic Islands were chief trading partners with Crete Pumice = Thera Obsidian = Melos Silver and lead = Siphnos Marble = Paros Number of Cycladic pottery and even distinctive Cycladic figurines have been found in

Crete Minoans also sent pottery – probably containing oils for cooking/perfume to many

Cycladic islands Frescoes at the palace of Avaris – bull wrestling against a maze-like pattern and the other

showing bull-leaping this style of artwork is similar to the paintings to Minoan Crete and may suggest interaction and trade between the two cities

Egypt

Minoans were to known to Egyptians as ‘Keftiu’ Appear carrying goods – not depicted as traders or merchants but as ‘gift-bearers’

carrying tribute Egyptian written records refer to ‘gifts’ instead of ‘imports’ 18th Dynasty frescoes of the Theban tombs depict the Cretans as Aegeans, clean shaven,

exotic with long wavy hair characteristic of the Minoan leaf-shaped kilt decorated with common Aegean motifs

Tomb of the vizier Rekhmire pictures of Minoans bringing tribute/gifts of pottery and stone-carved vessels as well as copper ingots

Similarly, Egyptians also exchanged their own goods with the Minoans, leaving numerous stone vessels, pieces of hippopotamus and elephant ivory e.g. scarabs, statues

Much of the gold discovered in Crete is also likely to have been Egyptian in origin Principle goods imported from Egypt = linen as papyrus

Timber

Egypt did not have much timber landscape is primarily desert It is possible that the Minoans traded their plentiful supply of cypress trees Lebanon also traded Cedar with Crete, two Syrian cedar axe-handles found

Copper

Crete possesses naturally occurring deposits of copper However, recent copper-isotope analysis reveal larger supplies of copper have been

imported from Anatolia and Cyprus In exchange for this, Crete smelted copper into bronze and trade bronze artefacts

Pottery

Pottery was a prime object of trade for the Minoans Hood: “Minoan pottery was the finest in the civilised world in its day”

Minoan potter found as far as Abydos in Egypt and Syria and Palestine in the west, Troy in the north

Much of it found in the Cyclades islands – Greek mainland and Cyprus, significant quantities were also discovered in Egypt and Palestine

Aesthetic Trade

Intense trade in ideas took place throughout the Bronze Age From Mesopotamia – Minoans gained many ideas and images expressed in their art e.g.

image of the griffin and concept of god – real and mythical creatures were of Mesopotamian in origin

Egypt contributed the sistrum and idea of the Sphinx in Minoan religion, linen chest in tombs, larnax used in Minoan burial customs

Also adopted some Egyptian style of art/crafts comb handles decorated with crocodiles, sphinxes, bulls, eight-petal rosettes

- The issue of thalassocracy (maritime empire) Seamanship – Thucydides says that the Minoans controlled the seas in the Bronze Age Minoans needed to learn skills of navigation – during the Bronze Age, sailors navigated by the sun

and stars Recent research suggests that the Minoans were advanced in navigation skills – trading posts

found on numerous other places like Thera, Rhodes, Miletos – suggesting that the Minoans needed to know how to navigate through the sea in order to trade

Minoan pottery found on Bates island and in Lybia, along African border Earlier historians suggested that Minaons were a peaceful society – due to lack of fortifications,

however it was later suggested that lack of fortifications meant that the Minoans actually just depended on the sea for natural defence

Which historians were the supporters of Minoan thalassocracy?

Sir Arthur Evans – experience was of a British Empire, focus on a loyal support of King Edward VII – accepted Thucydides’ picture of Minos ruling the waves from his palace at Knossos Evans saw the Minoan Empire as bringing peace and prosperity

Gerald Cadogan, Sinclair Hood, Malcolm Weiner and Wolf-Dietrich Niemeier accept traditional view

Which historians do not support the idea?

Chester G. Starr – most important critic of the ‘imperial model’ who argued that the thalassocracy of King Minos was invented by Thucydides to justify the Athenian takeover of the small Greek states of his time

Argues that Thucydides didn’t know much about Minos, historians suggest that Minoan objects may be the result of trade or exchange of ‘Minoan-style’ artefacts reflecting nothing more than Minoan economic and cultural influence

Minoan styles may dominate but that does not equal an empire or prove the existence of a Minoan empire

- Crafts and industry: pottery, stone, ivory, metal, jewellery, seal stones, purple dye

Pottery

Minoan pottery turns up throughout the Eastern Mediterranean and the widespread distribution of these finds may be used as an indication of the extent of Minoan exchange and cultural contact

Earliest pottery in Crete was probably made by women – slow change of the form and decoration of pottery (lack of outside influence for new ideas)

EM II period of significant change in Minoan civilisation changes in pottery Discovery of potters turntables, invention of the potters’ wheel faster than turntable

Volume of work increased and a greater variety of vessels could be produced Pottery used for preparation of food and textiles, storage (pithoi) and also for burials Today – pottery vital for dating of historical periods

Stone-carving/Jewellery

Exotic stones were obtained from all over the Eastern Mediterranean and fashioned by craftsmen into objects of great utility and beauty

Alabaster and porphyry obtained from Egypt Black obsidian from Melos Veined limestone and marbles obtained from the Peloponnese Minoans made bowls, containers, querns, pounders, rollers and pestles and jewellery Ivory – luxury item obtained from Egypt and the Near East Ivory elephant tusks – obtained for carving: combs, pins, seals, plaques, statuettes and decorative

pieces to embellish wooden furniture

Metal

Minoan bronze industries is evident from furnaces e.g. at Phaistos, Zakro and AgiaTriadha, in addition traces of slag in north western area of Malia, shows bronze-making operations flourished in many of the palaces

Linear A and B tablets found at Knossos – suggesting bronze industry must have produced a lot of material

Other objects made in the bronze industry = bronze mirrors, labrys, votive figurines, knives, cleaves and small bronze tools – huge bronze cauldrons also found in some houses and tombs near the palace

Minoans may have imported copper and tin and made bronze ingots for trade

Purple Dye

Known establishments in Zakro palace feature small basin set into a bench in room XX provide evidence for the purple dye industry

Large deposits of crushed murex mollusc shells show that the purple dye had been extracted in Crete

Purple dye used for clothing/fabrics and household decorations production of many luxury items

Textiles

Myrtos – evidence uncovered for not only wool, but also linen textile manufacturing Large amounts of loom weights were found, along with spindles and spinning bowls Historian Barber claims that the Minoans were engaged in trading their goods to Egypt in 2000

BC Linear B tablets – John Millen discovered that the woollen industry of Crete was based on the

farming of sheep that provided raw wool for the textile industries in Knossos total no. of sheep listed for Knossos was approximately 100 000 per year

Most of the textile industry was run by women – tablets use of word ‘dooelai’ = slave/servant, provide evidence that slaves may have been employed for this industry

Oil

Olive oil production was a major industry Olive presses and pithoi containing olive oil have been discovered Olive oil was an important part of the diet, burnt for lamps, perfumes, cooking, soap

- Technology: building materials, techniques and construction (ashlar masonry), drainage and water supply

Building materials Technology Architecture Thatch, needs roofs Timber – cypress, beams for

support throughout buildings

Mud bricks Limestone walls Plaster (gypsum, lime,

volcanic ash) Ashlar Alabaster Clay

Drainage system Pillars Toilet pipes Vertical posts and

transverse tie-beams, elastic enough to take seismic shocks in earthquakes

Clay pipes Building into hillside Minoan foot 30.36 cm Light wells Roofs not heavy – light

material and for 2nd

storey Pier and door

partitioning

Slightly slope roofs Storeys (between 2-5) Horizontal and vertical

timber beams Large staircases Columns – tapering

down Gateways Magazines underground Lustral basins Pillar crypts Central and west court Second floor – domestic

quarters, banquet halls,textile rooms

Workrooms on groundfloor

Minoan palaces reveal a range of construction technologies Engineers and architects use the advantageous features of the landscape – cutting into

terraces/hillsides Palace complexes feature a combination of construction material – stone used for foundations and

lower stories, upper stories made of sun dried bricks laid within a framework of vertical and horizontal timber beams

^ providing flexibility to withstand earth tremors Used ashlar masonry – smooth rectangular cut stones to construct walls Stone pillars and wooden columns supported upper story Light wells = allowed light and air into inner and lower level rooms Plumbing and drainage technology is evident in many sites At Knossos spring water brought into palace by tapered interlocking terracotta pipes Rain water collected and channelled into a series of settling tanks where sediment sank, clearing

water and other pipes drained water from the palace

4. Religion, death and burial - Nature and identity of deities

Our knowledge of Minoan religion incomplete due to lack of written evidence Nature of the sources: few Linear A tablets, much which has not yet been deciphered + too many

Minoan frescoes and depictions on artefacts are incomplete Able to develop an understanding of some aspects of religion despite this Evidence suggests Minoans = polytheistic (many gods) and that their religion heavily involved the

natural world Seal stones and frescoes men and women in religious rituals Images interpreted as deities most female, represented on frescoes/seal stones/figurines Goddess Demeter – Greek earth mother goddess may have been a prominent Minoan goddess

(Linear A tablets) – shows Greek influences Gold signet rings many portrayals of women – one of whom is always larger than the other –

might represent a goddess Tiny male figure appears in the background

One gold signet ring 2 large males dancing on either side of a larger woman – female goddess central to Minoan worship?

Seal stone shows a female with 3 poppy seed pods in her headdress – opium, made from poppies, may have been used to create a euphoric state in rituals

Eileithyia – Mycenaean goddess associated with childbirth also mentioned in tablets Mistress of the Animals (seal stone) woman depicted standing in between 2 wild animals,

assumed to be a goddess – horns of consecration (religious symbol for the bull) also features in the background

Snake Goddess - two faience figurines uncovered at Knossos shows a bare-breasted woman adorning a flounced skirt, snakes entwined around her arms, upper body and head

^ Snakes were a symbol of immortality as they could shed skin and rejuvenate – they could also protect homes and were associated with domestic worship and the underworld

- Religious symbols: double axe (labrys) horns of consecration, the bull, snakes, trees, birds

Horns of Consecration ‘Horns of consecration appear to be replicas of bulls horns, with religious significance

Often a hole in between the horns suggested that this is where the handle of a double axe could be inserted

Found in religious buildings/areas in Crete – appeared initially in the 1st palace period

Found in many different sizes and used in architectural features, mounted altars, painted on frescoes and larnakes,depicted on rings and gemstones

May be related to the story of King Minos religious Double Axe (Labrys) Double headed axe

Most significant holy symbol in Minoan religion Used by priests/priestesses in cult ceremonies and rituals Various sizes of labrys, made from different materials Stone blocks at Knossos and other sites – labrysinscripted Labrys may have had a religious and ceremonial function –

perhaps in the sacrifice of bulls as suggested by the depictions on the AgiaTriadha sarcophagus

The bull Bulls – in the Ancient world – were one of the most important sacrificial animal – due to its known strength and fertility

In Crete – bulls may have been worshipped due to the mythof Theseus and the Minotaur

Significance of bulls in Minoan society – seen in art/frescoese.g. Bull Leaping Fresco

Seal stones and rhyta Bulls head rhyton Sacrifice of bulls shown in the Agia Trida sarcophagus and

figurines of bulls have been found as votive offerings in sanctuaries

Evidence points to religious significance horns of consecration

Snakes Snakes played an important part of Minoan religion They were believed to travel below the earthly zone into the

supernatural realm, and thus may have been servants of chthonic gods

May have been worshipped due to their ability to shed their skin and rejuvenate becoming a symbol of immortalityand rebirth

Snake tubes dating from LM II period have been retrieved from religious sites

Veneration of snakes also seen in snake patterns decoratedon Minoan items

Also featured figurines of women, e.g. faience statue ‘Snake Goddess’ – snakes entwined around her body

Birds Doves, partridges and other birds are shown in frescoes their appearance purely decorative, however can alsobe seen in religious contexts

Clay votive offerings/figurines found at peak sanctuaries is a triparted shrine w/ doves

Goddess figurine from Knossos has a bird on her head and blackbirds are also shown perched on the horns of consecration and double axes on the AgiaTriadasarcophagus

- Religious places: peak sanctuaries, cave shrines, palace shrines, pillar crypts, lustral basins

PEAK SANCTUARIES Approximately 25 peak shrines have been discovered – located near the top of steep

hills/mountains Most located a short distance away from a palace, in sight of one or more other sanctuaries Most popular types of Minoan religious centres Some open spaced, some had elaborate structures e.g. Peak Sanctuary Rhyton at Zakros Some were elaborately furnished e.g. sacrificial tables, stone lamps and libation vessels Sanctuaries may also be associated with healing, fertility, rite of passage or simple prayer and

thanksgiving Votive offerings were found at these sites e.g. jewellery, figurines of men and women, cattle and

sheep clay models as well as clay models of body parts Most peak sanctuaries contained thick deposits of wood suggesting religious burning/burning

of offerings

CAVE SHRINES Rural Minoan worship Featured fantastically shaped stalagmites and streams or rock pools, associated perhaps with

purification or cleansing Relates back to Minoan’s main focus on the natural world for their religious beliefs Open spaces outside caves may have been used for cult activities e.g. sacrifice, dancing, feasting Skotino and Kamares large quantity of pottery vessels, people left these as offerings, fragments

have been found in caves Diktaian cave at Psychro more than 500 bronze objects have been found, including miniature

human and animal figurines, votive double-axes and personal possessions such as jewellery Bones of domestic and wild animals were also found here e.g. pigs, sheep and wild goats and deer

were also sacrificed Arkalokhori Cave – gold votive double axes found bear the name of the mother goddess

‘Demeter’ Amnisos goddess Eileithyia worshipped evidence from Homer and Strabo

PALACE SHRINES Small rooms have been identified as palace shrines – mainly due to the ritual objects discovered

within them Size of rooms indicates that only a few people would have entered the shrine at any one time Remains of tripartite shrines have been found at Knossos, Gournia and Vathy Petro also

represented in frescoes and on rhytons – such shrines feature columns and horns of consecration

TRIPARTITE SHRINES (PILLAR CRYPTS) Pillars and columns had an important place in Minoan religion Palaces and some of the larger villas had rooms set aside for pillar worship Pillar crypt at Knossos Libations were poured into a libation basin at the base of each pillar

LUSTRAL BASINS (ADYTONS) A small square room, often set down into the floor, with staircases leading down into them Its stone lines show that the basin was often used for washing may have served as a bathroom

in private areas, but in public ones may have been used for ceremonial purification Adyton at Knossos the most elaborate, no paintings have been found, however there are

evidence of painting remains of adytons in AgiaTriada and Khania

- Rituals: sacrifice, libations, processions, dance

SACRIFICE

Minoans practiced animal sacrifices, as shown by the bloodstained altars and animal remains in the ashes at sanctuaries

Bull sacrifices grandest of animal sacrifices AghiaTriada sarcophagus depicts a bull being sacrificed and his blood drained into a container

the priestess conducts the ritual Remains of a sacrificed bull and horse were also found in a tomb in Phourni Evidence of human sacrifice comes from a small temple at Anemospilia earthquake preserved

remains of the victim found on the stone platform, his upper body drained of blood Three others found appear to have been involved in the pouring of a libation of the victims blood

on a mound of sacred stone Cut marks on the bones of two young children found beneath the floor of a house near Little Palace

of Knossos may also constitute as evidence for the practice of human sacrifice

LIBATIONS

Libations are offerings of wine/beer/mead/oil or milk poured on the ground as offering to the gods

Libations also made in pillar crypts suggested by the depressions on the ground in the West palace of Knossos

Libation vessels such as conical rhytons were also used to hold the liquid and came in the form of animal heads such as birds or the ‘Bulls head rhyton’

Small temple at Anesmospilia show blood being collected in rhytons

PROCESSIONS

Ritual processions are depicted in Minoan art e.g. Procession Fresco two lines of male worshippers taking offering to a female figure who may be a goddess

Harvester’s Vase – shows a group of farmers led by a figure, perhaps a priest, wearing distinctive cloaks

Accompanied by musicians with a sistrum (Egyptian influence) and the farmers carry winnowing forks used in the final stage of harvest this animated scene suggests a ritual procession or celebration

DANCE

Ritual dancing represented on frescoes and other objects Sacred Grove and Dance Fresco from Knossos shows a number of female figures engaged in a

stately dance A gold ring from Isopata depicts four female figures in what appears to be an ecstatic dance of

worship Clay model shows four women dancing in a circle

VOTIVE OFFERINGS

Presents given by a worshipper in honour of his/her god and goddess, and were frequently used by Minoans

Most popular were models of the labrys made from a variety of materials e.g. gold, bronze, ivory or lead

Clay or lead models of bulls were also commonly offered + as well as models of other farm and wild animals

A pottery sistrum was found in a child’s grave in Phourni cemetery

- Funerary customs and rituals: larnax, ossuary; tombs: rectangular, tholos and chamber Minoans practiced

- Myths and legends relating to the Minoans: Theseus and the Minotaur, Icarus and Daedalus

5. Cultural life - Art: frescoes, figurines, pottery, seals, metalwork

Frescoes:

Bull Leaping (KNOSSOS) The most completely restored of several stucco panels Originally sited on the upper-story of the east wall of the

palace Religion Religious ceremonies in Minoan society – bull seen as a

sacred animal Prominent appearance of bulls at Knossos reinforced Evans

view of myths’ faithfulness to the bull Leisure Activity/Everyday life Believed the bull also represented a sport Women’s role Women also participated in these religious rituals – shows

they are equal to men The Priest King (KNOSSOS) Located in the southern portion of the complex – interpreted

by Evans as the depiction of King Minos Believed however that Evans used a variety of different

frescoes in order to create this one – constructed majorityof the figure

Ruler Evans interpreted this as the portrayal of King Minos – it

thus agreed with Ancient sources Headdress signifies kingship

La Parisienne (part of the Camp Stool Fresco)

Women’s role/status Women – high status, evident from her makeup/elaborate

jewellery and dress Everyday life – clothing Diaphanous top Elaborate make up Evans states that this woman looked like any other woman

walking streets of Paris today Adornments Religious Sacral knot worn at the back of the neck indicates that she

may be a priestess/goddess

Cup Bearer Fresco (Knossos) Religious Depicts a figure/man holding a conical rhyton, a ritual

vessel used to pour libations part of a larger group of processional figures

Dolphin Fresco ThalassocracyFood Shows that Minoans were familiar with the animals of the

ocean/sea Suggests that they had a capable navy Seamanship

Griffin fresco (Throne Room at Knossos) Ruler Two griffins depicted in the Throne Room at Knossos Was a symbol for women Supports the notion that the ruler was a woman + the

shape of the seat of the throne Mycenaean influence

Campstool Fresco/Ladies in Blue Women’s role/status Women dressed elaborately – make up, elaborate hair and

jewellery, diaphanous tops May have had a better or equal status to men – unique for

Ancient civilizations Everyday life – clothing Diaphanous tops, women dressed well

AgiaTriada sarcophagus Religion Gives understanding of funerary customs and religious

ceremonies during Minoan period Divided into three panels: one depicts a female procession,

another a bull sacrifice, third one a man making offerings to an altar in front of a shrine – crowned with horns of consecration and a sacred tree

Gives evidence of symbols used in religion Second long side: one part – a procession of men and

women between columns topped by double axes and birds Procession of male figures in animal hides offering animals

and a boat to the deified deceased Importance of the bull – sacred animal Women’s role/status Women are depicted processing priestess may have

been a role they had to play Woman pouring libations Everyday life/Culture A man depicted playing a lyre – earliest picture of a lyre

in classical Greece Snake Goddess Women’s role and status

Women could be deities importance of women in Minoan religion

Religion They believed in snake – rebirth, symbol of the underworld Arts and crafts Depicts their skill and the resources they had access to

Tree Dancing seal Religion Depicts Minoans worship of the natural world – ceremonies Women’s role and status

Also depicted as a priestess in this seal, stating that women had an important part to play in Minoan religion

Grandstand Fresco Women’s role and status Groups of wealthy Minoan women are depicted wearing

elegant dress, jewellery and having elaborate hairstyles They are in the front of the fresco – women’s presence

emphasised Elegant appearances Religion Crowds of men and women watching some sort of court

festival – proves that there may have been religious/entertainment events at the theatre area of the palaces

Everyday Life Perhaps proof of Minoan entertainment

Ruler Seal Ruler Depicts the idea that there was a singular ruler of Crete Staff = power Standing above the city

Phaistos Disc Writing From the palace of Phaistos Hieroglyphics Not yet deciphered Composed of a number of symbols

- Architecture of palace complexes: Knossos, Phaistos, Malia, Zakros and other palace sites - Writing: Linear A and Linear B, the Phaistos disc

6. Everyday life - Daily life and leisure activities - Food and clothing

Food

Diet influenced by the fact that they were close to the sea, agriculture of grazing land available and environmental factors e.g. rain and soil quality

Scientific study of pottery containing food reveal that Minoans ate and drank wine, barley beer, honey mead as well as olive oil, leafy vegetables, fruits and meat

Other findings also consumed almonds, peas, figs, wheat, lentils and beans Grazing of sheep, goats, cattle and pigs would have provided Minoans with milks and different types of

meat and poultry Seafood would have been a big part of their diet due to their close proximity of the sea Coriander and other herbs are listed on clay tablets and may have given flavouring to the food A range of pots, pans, pans, braziers and hearths suggest that Minoans – fried/baked/barbequed their

food

Clothing

Frescoes, seal stones and figurines give us an idea of what Minoans looked like – though this may have been what they wanted to see of themselves, rather than the accurate depiction

Figures familiar to us are most likely from the upper levels of society Men shown with athletic physiques, broad shoulders and slender waists Women shown with slender waists and full hips and breasts Most men and women shown with long dark hair hanging in culrs/ringlets some depictions of

partially shaved heads, perhaps to indicate some sort of initiation Men generally clean shaven, although some have a moustache or beard Males minimum clothing, revealing most of the body = cod pieces, loin cloths and kilts of various

lengths are worn, but rarely any garments on the upper body Women long skirts, often flounced or multilayered, drawn in at the waist, close fitting short sleeve

bodices – diaphanous tops Both men and women appear barefooted, although there are some examples of men wearing calf

length boots Women LA PARISIENNE wear dark eyeliner, rouge and lip colouring eyebrows also shaped and

emphasized Archaeologists have found a number of objects e.g. tweezers, bronze mirrors, wood and ivory combs

and cosmetic containers from alabaster and ivory suggests that women wore makeup Frescoes men and women wearing jewellery e.g. necklaces, rings, bracelets, earrings, armlets, bead

collars and anklets Jewellery found in palaces and tombs made of gold/silver/bronze and semi-precious stones

- Housing and furniture Before Minoans built houses they lived in caves, caves often contained their own water supply and

were also good insulators from bad weather Huts may have been built before their first houses – due to Crete’s wet climate, no organic remains of

such structures have survived Knossos the earliest place in which housing remains have been preserved – the remains date from

the Late Neolithic period and consist of one whole and two partial houses – each sharing communal walls

Typical building method: lower row of undressed limestone pieces and above this, walls of mud strengthened with tree branches

Phaistos houses were of different construction outer face of walls comprised of roughly shaped large stones and small stones mixed with mortar constituting the inner part of the walls upper walls = likely to be made of mud but none survived

Earliest Bronze Age houses = single rooms opening onto a courtyard, later designs featured but-and-bend principle – large rectangular houses were divided into two and second door was at right angles with the first

EMII – houses became more complex, featuring a whole maze of add-on rooms communal purposes? = AGGLUTINATIVE

Living standards improved as well as houses Small ivory and faience models show local houses may have had 2/3 storeys and a flat roof with a

structure on top windows in the upper floors but very few on the ground level Harriet Boy Hawes excavation shows that in Gournia – houses were built closely together and shared

common walls, opening directly onto the street Some houses 2 storeys with rooms on the ground floor used for storage, cooking and workshops Some also featured an internal court near the entrance w/ doorways and staircases leading to stone

rooms, work rooms and living and sleeping rooms VATHYPETRO = large villa was excavated, containing residential quarters, a hall and open court,

ceremonial areas and shrines as well as weaving and pottery workshops, storage magazines and large rooms equipped with wine or olive presses

Sophisticated plumbing and drainage system evident in some towns, rain water and spring water were stored in cisterns to ensure water supply during summer months

Knossos = sewage was carried away by water in covered stone drains - Occupations - Health

Difficult to get an accurate picture of general health most of the human remains had been mixed together in ossuaries, rather than left as complete skeletons

Remains do not give a complete picture = bones of the very young and those bearing evidence of certain diseases have less chance of surviving than healthy adults, not all illnesses and diseases are left in bone

British Archaeologist Tina McGeorge conducted studies of skeletal remains, and has drawn the following conclusions about health of Minoans:

- Average life expectancy = 30, higher for men than women a small number lived until their 40s/50s

- High incidence of osteoporosis - Greater number of female death around age of 20/25 – associated with hazards of

pregnancy/childbirth and lactation - Evidence of diseases associated with animal husbandry and milk products e.g. brucellosis and

tuberculosis - Evidence of a number of diseases in children associated with mineral and vitamin deficiencies e.g.

anaemia, rickets and scurvy - Dental health deteriorated from MM to LM periods as a result of a change of diet?

McGeorge also suggests women were less healthy than men higher incidence of tooth loss and a shorter life expectancy – Linear B tablets also record that female textile workers were provided with half rations of men working the same job

Also suggested that the general health of the Minoans deteriorated in the LM period more people concentrated in and around towns, greater portion of the diet was made up of foods that could be stored for long periods rather than fresh food

Also Minoan health decreased after the Mycenaean occupation