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Minoan Archaeology
Perspectives for the 21st Century
Sarah Cappel
Ute Günkel-Maschek
Diamantis Panagiotopoulos
© Presses universitaires de Louvain, 2015 Registration of copyright: D/2015/9964/24ISBN: 978-2-87558-394-9ISBN PDF version: 978-2-87558-395-6Printed in Belgium by CIACO scrl - printer number 91617 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, adapted or translated, in any form or by any means, in any country, without the prior permission of Presses universitaires de Louvain
Graphic design: Marie-Hélène Grégoire Cover image: © Ute Günkel-Maschek
Distribution: www.i6doc.com, on-line university publishers Available on order from bookshops or at Diffusion universitaire CIACO (University Distributors) Grand-Rue, 2/141348 Louvain-la-Neuve, BelgiumTel: +32 10 47 33 78Fax: +32 10 45 73 [email protected]
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This book has been printed with the inancial support from the Institute of Aegean Prehistory (INSTAP)
I
Contents
Preface and Acknowledgements III
“Minoan Archaeology”: The Heidelberg Conference Between Past and Future
Sarah Cappel, Ute Günkel-Maschek, Diamantis Panagiotopoulos V
Conference Programme IX
Dealing with “Minoan”: 111 Years of Minoan archaeologY
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology: From the Renaissance Until the Arrival of
Sir Arthur Evans in Crete
Nektarios Karadimas 3
Exhibiting the Minoan Past: From Oxford to Knossos
Yannis Galanakis 17
Data in Progress: exPloring the cretan lanD- anD citYscaPe
Chryssi Island: New Evidence on the Bronze Age Settlement Patterns of the Ierapetra Area
Konstantinos Chalikias 37
Making the Invisible Visible: Ground Penetrating Radar at Papadiokampos, Crete
Antonia Stamos 53
Capturing the Dynamics of the Minoan Mortuary Space in South Central Crete
Sylviane Déderix 61
Minoan Cityscapes: Urban Planning in Neopalatial Crete
D. Matthew Buell 77
let’s coMe together: Places anD sPaces of social anD ritual interaction
The Places and the Role of Consumption in MM II Phaistos
Giorgia Baldacci 95
Deining Minoan “Cult Rooms”: Past and Present Approaches to the Archaeology of CultKathrin Müller 109
Between the Physical and Metaphysical: Exploring Aspects of Communication in the
Temple Tomb at Knossos
Mark S. Peters 125
(De)Constructing Identities Through Architecture in LM III Crete
Panagiota A. Pantou 135
Peer Pressure: social structures froM a “Minoan” PersPective
For an Archaeology of Minoan Society. Identifying the Principles of Social Structure
Jan Driessen 149
All Aboard: The Longboat and a Heterarchical Interpretation of the Mochlos Cemetery
Steven T. Karacic 167
Social Complexity and Gender Inequality in Prepalatial Crete: An Argument of Reason
or a Reason for Argument?
Maria Mina 181
Connecting with Selves and Others: Varieties of Community-Making across Late Prepalatial Crete
Emily S.K. Anderson 199
II
Social Variation in Middle Bronze Age Knossos: Palaeodietary Evidence
Argyro Nafplioti 213
On the Household Structure of Neopalatial Society
Emmanouela Apostolaki 223
Manpower and Neopalatial Architecture: The Architectural Project as a Meaningful Experience
Maud Devolder 241
Be(hav)ing “Minoan”: negotiating life anD Death through Practice anD PerforMance
Recreating the Past: Using Tholos Tombs in Protopalatial Mesara
Ilaria Caloi 255
The Body Brand and Minoan Zonation
Anna Simandiraki-Grimshaw 267
Cultural Performances at the Beginning of the Bronze Age: Early Minoan I and II Cemeteries as
Stages for Performance
Katy Soar 283
Performance Theory in Minoan Rituals and the Ambiguity of Minoan Symbols
Maria Chountasi 299
(A) Choreographed Frenzy: A Sequence of Steps Towards Understanding Movement and Dance
in Aegean Bronze Age Iconography
Céline Murphy 311
A Portable Goddess: On Performative and Experiental Aspects of Figures and Figurines
Katarzyna Zeman-Wisniewska 319
“Minoan” Material entangleMents: DocuMenting anD interPreting “Minoan” (?) craftsManshiP
Minoan Pottery: From Materials to Materiality
Carl Knappett 329
Pots and Potters: Thoughts on Ceramic Technology and the Craftsmen behind the Product
Sebastian Traunmüller 341
Transmediterranean Knowledge and Minoan Style Reliefs in Tell el Dabca: An Attempt at
Paradigm Shift
Constance von Rüden 355
Minoan Archaeology: The Pretence of Being Through Perception, Retention and Recollection
Iro Mathioudaki 367
closing reMarks
Formulating Minoan Research in the 21st Century
Peter Warren 377
List of Contributors 381
3
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
From the Renaissance Until the Arrival of Sir Arthur Evans in Crete*
Nektarios Karadimas
To Nicoletta Momigliano α ω φ α
The article aims to systematically present the period from the Renaissance until the be ginning of the 1890s, when
ArthurΝEvansΝirstΝarrivedΝinΝCreteέΝItΝdiscussesΝhowΝscholarsΝdiscoΝveredΝandΝidentiiedΝprehistoricΝsitesΝinΝCrete,ΝdeinedΝcultures andΝcoinedΝterms,ΝwhichΝinspiredΝEvansΝinΝtheΝconstructionΝofΝhisΝMinoanΝparadigmέΝInΝdoingΝso,Νit resurrects the work of scholars, such as Buondelmonti, Müller, Hoeck, Pashley and Spratt, and it assesses their
importanceΝinΝtheΝdeveΝlopΝmentΝofΝMinoanΝstudies,ΝshowingΝtheΝintellectualΝdebtΝthatΝEvansΝowedΝtoΝthemέΝMoreover, this article aims to show that the period before the 1890s was no tabula rasa for Mi no an archaeology, but an
important and interesting phase, in which important discoveries and theo ries took place, some of which continue
toΝinluenceΝcurrentΝscholarshipέ
Arguably, most works on the history of Minoan archaeology begin with Sir Arthur Evans’s ex cava tions at Knossos,
thus implying that the period before him represents for Minoan studies some kind of tabula rasaέ1 However, while
Evans remains the main discoverer of the material re mains of what he called “Minoan civilisation”, in terms of his
interpretations,ΝheΝisΝmuchΝindebtedΝtoΝpreviousΝscholarshipέΝόorΝcenturiesΝbeforeΝEvans,ΝotherΝscholarsΝwereΝinterested in what we now call the prehistoricΝtimesΝofΝCreteμΝonΝtheΝoneΝhand,ΝphilologistsΝandΝhistorians,ΝwhoΝneverΝviΝsiΝtedΝtheΝisland,ΝworkedΝthroughΝtheirΝlibrariesΝandΝstudiedΝtheΝancientΝhistoryΝofΝCreteνΝonΝtheΝotherΝhand,Νtravellers,ΝwhoΝactuallyΝsetΝfootΝonΝtheΝisland,ΝmadeΝtheΝirstΝtopographicalΝandΝarΝchaeΝoΝlogicalΝobservationsέΝThisΝarticleΝdiscusses this long period of “Minoan studies” before Evans, which lasted almost 500 years, and is divided into
fourΝmainΝsectionsμΝ1)ΝfromΝtheΝReΝnaisΝsanceΝtoΝ1κβίνΝβ)ΝtheΝdecadeΝbetweenΝ1κβίΝandΝ1κγί,ΝwhichΝsawΝtheΝemergenceΝofΝveryΝinΝluentialΝstudiesΝonΝancientΝCreteΝbyΝscholarsΝbasedΝatΝtheΝuniversityΝofΝGöttingenνΝγ)ΝtheΝperiodΝofΝ1κγί–1κιη,ΝwhichΝsawΝtheΝirstΝarchaeologicalΝandΝtopographicalΝresearchesΝonΝtheΝislandνΝandΝ4)ΝtheΝperiodΝofΝ1κιθ–1κλ4,ΝrepresentingΝtheΝphaseΝbetweenΝSchliemann’sΝdiscoveriesΝatΝMycenaeΝandΝEvans’sΝirstΝvisitΝtoΝCreteέ
I. The Unseen Foundations of Minoan Archaeology (From the Renaissance Until 1820)
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that deeply shaped modern thinking largely through the renewed studyΝofΝancientΝclassicalΝ textsΝandΝancientΝcivilisationέΝAsΝfewΝ“preDorian”ΝmaterialΝ reΝmainsΝwereΝknown,ΝmostΝscholars,Ν philologistsΝ andΝhistoriansΝ exclusivelyΝbasedΝ theirΝ ideasΝonΝ anΝcientΝwrittenΝ sourcesέΝByΝmeticulouslyΝexamining the Homeric poems and other ancient works, they endeavoured to describe the religion, politics, ethics,
socialΝorganisationΝofΝCreteΝduringΝtheΝώeΝroicΝorΝώomericΝtimes,ΝasΝtheΝprehistoricΝtimesΝwereΝcommonlyΝcalledΝatΝthatΝperiodέ
InΝtermsΝofΝreligionΝandΝsocialΝorganisation,ΝitΝisΝinterestingΝtoΝnoteΝthatΝscholars,ΝsuchΝasΝWilliamΝMitford,ΝbelievedΝthat kings in Heroic and Homeric times exercised supremacy in matters of re li gion in addition to their political obligationsέβΝKingsΝwereΝeffectivelyΝconsideredΝtoΝbeΝPriestKings,ΝaΝtermΝthatΝwasΝfrequentlyΝemployedΝinΝώomericΝdiscussionsΝofΝtheΝ1κth–1λthΝcenΝturiesέΝTheΝbestΝexampleΝwasΝMinosΝhimself,ΝasΝsuggestedΝbyΝύottfriedΝώerrmannΝ
* MostΝpartΝofΝtheΝpresentΝarticleΝisΝbasedΝonΝmyΝunpublishedΝPhέDέΝdissertationΝ“ProlegomenaΝtoΝAegeanΝArchaeologyνΝfromΝtheΝRenaissanceΝuntilΝ1κιθ”Ν(UniversityΝofΝBristol,Νβίίλ)έΝIΝwouldΝlikeΝtoΝthankΝmyΝsupervisorΝDrΝσicolettaΝMomiglianoΝforΝherΝhelpΝandΝcontinuousΝsupport,ΝasΝwellΝasΝmyΝexaminersΝProfέΝύeraldΝCadoganΝandΝDrΝSilkeΝKnippschildέ1ΝSee,ΝforΝexampleμΝMcDonaldΝ1λθι,ΝchaptersΝI–IVνΝWarrenΝ1λιη,Ν1–1β,ΝespέΝ1βνΝStiebingΝ1λλγ,Ν1β4–4βνΝόittonΝ1λλθ,Νλ–4θέβΝMitfordΝ1ικ4,Νθη–θέ
4
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
inΝ1κίβμΝ“PriesΝterΝundΝKönigΝbestandenΝbeiΝdenΝύriechenΝinΝeinerΝPersonέΝMinosΝwarΝKönigΝundΝPriesterέ”γ The
notionΝofΝaΝPriestKingΝwasΝalsoΝadoptedΝbyΝArthurΝEvansΝhimself,ΝwhoΝsoughtΝtoΝidentifyΝportraitsΝofΝPriestKingsΝinΝaΝseriesΝofΝLateΝBronzeΝAgeΝseals,Νand,ΝmostΝfamously,ΝinΝaΝreliefΝfrescoΝknownΝasΝtheΝ“PriestKing”έ4
TheΝigureΝofΝMinosΝisΝalsoΝimportantΝforΝotherΝissuesΝconcerningΝtheΝreligious,ΝsocialΝandΝpoliticalΝorganisationΝofΝprehistoricΝCrete,ΝwhichΝfoundΝtheirΝwayΝintoΝtheΝworkΝofΝtheΝ“father”ΝofΝMinoanΝarΝchaeologyέΝManyΝcontradictoryΝancientΝύreekΝmythsΝexistedΝaroundΝKingΝMinosμΝmostΝancientΝauthorsΝsupportedΝtheΝexistenceΝofΝaΝsingleΝperson,ΝwhileΝothersΝspokeΝofΝtwoΝMinosesέ5 To solve this problem, most scholars suggested that there had been
twoΝMinosesμΝtheΝirstΝwasΝtheΝlawgiverΝandΝtheΝsecondΝtheΝmasterΝofΝtheΝseasέθ The problem became more acute
towardsΝtheΝendΝofΝtheΝ1κthΝcentury,ΝwhenΝIndoEuropeanΝstudiesΝbegunέΝSomeΝscholars,ΝsuchΝasΝJacobΝBryant, WilliamΝώolwell and WilliamΝJonesΝnoticedΝmanyΝsimilaritiesΝbetweenΝMinosΝandΝotherΝmythicalΝiguresΝfromΝotherΝcultures,ΝsuchΝasΝtheΝEgyptianΝMenes,ΝtheΝIndianΝMenus,ΝandΝtheΝύermanΝMannousέι Other scholars preferred
comparisonsΝwithΝtheΝJewishΝMoses,ΝwhoΝhadΝclimbedΝMountΝSinaiΝtoΝreceiveΝtheΝlawsΝfromΝhisΝύod,ΝinΝtheΝsameΝwayΝasΝMinosΝhadΝclimbedΝMountΝIdaΝtoΝreΝceiveΝtheΝlawsΝfromΝZeusέ8 Besides their almost identical names, these
iguresΝsharedΝaΝnumberΝofΝfeaturesμΝtheyΝwereΝsonsΝofΝgods,ΝirstΝkings,ΝandΝhadΝintroducedΝlawsΝandΝartsΝtoΝtheirΝpeopleέΝBeΝcauseΝofΝthis,ΝsomeΝscholars,ΝsuchΝasΝAllwoodΝandΝPlass,ΝarguedΝthatΝMinos’sΝnameΝindicatedΝaΝtitleΝorΝaΝdynastyν9ΝandΝthisΝbecameΝaΝcrucialΝtenetΝinΝEvans’sΝreconstructionΝofΝMinoanΝCreteέ10
WhileΝ philologistsΝ andΝhistoriansΝ triedΝ toΝ understandΝCrete’sΝmostΝ distantΝ pastΝ throughΝ theΝ availableΝwrittenΝevidence,ΝCreteΝwasΝ becomingΝ theΝ centreΝ ofΝ intenseΝ archaeologicalΝ interestέ11Ν όromΝ theΝRenaissanceΝ onwards,ΝtravellersΝvisitedΝtheΝislandΝinΝincreasingΝnumbersέΝUnsurprisingly,ΝduΝΝringΝthisΝperiodΝinterestΝinΝnonclassicalΝsitesΝorΝmonumentsΝwasΝveryΝlimitedέΝClassicismΝpreΝvailedΝinΝEuropeΝduringΝtheΝ1ηth–1κthΝcenturies,ΝandΝthisΝcausedΝtravellersΝtoΝviΝsitΝmainlyΝclassicalΝmonumentsέ1β This phenomenon was further accentuated by the publication of
WinΝckelmann’sΝGedanken über die Nachahmung der griechischen WerkeΝ (1ιηη),1γΝandΝfromΝ1ιθβΝonwardsΝbyΝStuart’s and Revett’s magnum opus, The Antiquities of Athensέ
TwoΝCretanΝsites,ΝwhichΝwereΝdatedΝtoΝMinos’sΝtimes,ΝwereΝtheΝmostΝpopularΝattractionsμΝKnossosΝ(orΝύnossusΝasΝitΝwasΝusuallyΝcalledΝatΝthatΝperiod)ΝandΝtheΝLabyrinthΝofΝMinosέΝTheΝrenewedΝinΝteΝrestΝinΝtheseΝsitesΝwasΝdueΝtoΝtheΝintellectualΝrevolutionΝofΝtheΝRenaissance,ΝwhichΝsoonΝreachedΝVenetianΝCreteέΝTheΝeighthΝbookΝofΝτvid’sΝMetamorphoses, devotedΝtoΝtheΝstoryΝofΝMinos,ΝpiquedΝvisitors’ΝinterestΝinΝtheΝlatterέΝInΝparticular,ΝafterΝtheΝinvention of the printing press, Ovid’s Me tamorphoses underwent many editions, which sometimes included elaborate
illustrationsΝofΝMinos’sΝlabyrinth,ΝbasedΝonΝcoinsΝfoundΝatΝKnossosέ14
ReferencesΝtoΝtheΝancientΝsiteΝofΝKnossosΝstartedΝtoΝappearΝinΝVenetianΝdocumentsΝatΝtheΝendΝofΝtheΝ14thΝcenturyέΝKnossosΝhadΝ largelyΝdisappeared,ΝbutΝ itsΝoriginalΝ locationΝwasΝneverΝ forΝgottenέΝόollowingΝStraboΝ(Xέ4έι),ΝwhoΝwroteΝthatΝtheΝsiteΝofΝKnossosΝwasΝβηΝstadiaΝfromΝtheΝsea,ΝmostΝtravellersΝremarkedΝthatΝwalls,ΝpotsherdsΝandΝcoinsΝofΝtheΝcityΝofΝKnossosΝexistedΝveΝryΝcloseΝtoΝaΝsmallΝvillage,ΝwhichΝfromΝtheΝbeginningΝofΝtheΝ1ηthΝcenturyΝADΝwasΝ
γΝώerrmannΝ1κί1–1κίβ,ΝβμγίίέΝInΝtheΝsameΝway,ΝKarlΝAugustΝBöttigerΝnotedΝaΝfewΝyearsΝlaterμΝ“die Priester und Kö nige, eins in derselben Person, repräsentiren oft selbst die Götter”Ν(BöttigerΝ1κβθ,Ν1μβίκ)έ4ΝEvansΝ1λίί–1λί1,Ν1η–θνΝ1λβκ,Νιι4–ληέΝόorΝtheΝ“PriestKing”Νfresco,ΝseeΝalsoΝCoulombΝ1λιλνΝσiemeierΝ1λκκνΝSherrattΝβίίίνΝShawΝβίί4έ5ΝEέgέ,ΝώomerΝ(Iliad,Ν ,Ν44κ–4η4),ΝώerodotusΝ(Iέ1ιγ),ΝandΝThucydidesΝ(IέκΝandΝIέβ)ΝspokeΝofΝoneΝMinos,ΝwhileΝDiodorusΝofΝSicilyΝ(Bibliotheca Historica,ΝIVέηλ)ΝmentionedΝtwoΝMinosesέθΝόorΝexampleμΝMarshamΝ1θλθ,Νβηβ–ηθ,Νβλί–λγνΝBanierΝ1ιγλ–1ι4ί,Νγμ4κβ–η1ηνΝTressanΝ1ιλι,Νγγγ–η4έι BryantΝ1ιιη,Νβμ414–4ίνΝHolwellΝ1ιλγ,ΝβιλνΝJonesΝ1ιλ4,Νprefaceέ8ΝEέgέ,ΝtheΝόrenchΝmonkΝώuetΝsuggestedΝthatΝMinosΝandΝMosesΝwereΝtheΝsameΝpersonΝ(seeΝBanierΝ1ιγλ–1ι4ί,Νγμ4κθνΝTressanΝ1ιλι,Νγγη–γθ)έΝEvansΝhimself,Νalso,ΝusedΝtoΝcompareΝMinosΝtoΝMosesΝatΝleastΝinΝhisΝirstΝAegeanΝpublicationsμΝ“MinôsΝtheΝCretanΝMoses”Ν(EvansΝ1κλ4,Νγι1)νΝ“MinosΝisΝtheΝCretanΝMoses”Ν(EvansΝ1λί1,Ν11θ)έ9ΝAllwoodΝ1ιλλ,ΝβιγνΝPlassΝ1κγ1,Ν1ιλέ10ΝInΝ1λίθΝEvansΝwroteΝforΝexampleμΝ“LeΝtermeΝ‘minoen’ΝaΝauΝmoinsΝl’avantageΝdeΝneΝpasΝdépasserΝlesΝconinsΝd’uneΝneuΝtralitéΝethnographiqueέΝSeΝservirΝdeΝ‘Minos’ΝcommeΝdeΝ‘César’ΝouΝdeΝ‘Pharaon’ΝneΝsusciteΝpasΝlesΝquestionsΝembrouilléesΝdesΝCariensΝetΝdesΝPélasges,ΝdesΝAchéens,ΝouΝmêmeΝdesΝLibyensέ”11ΝόorΝgeneralΝinformationΝaboutΝtravellersΝtoΝCrete,ΝseeΝRiceΝ1λγγνΝώemmerdingerIliadouΝ1λθινΝSimopoulosΝ1λιί–κηνΝWarrenΝ1λιβ,Νβίίίέ1β See, for example, ύeorgopoulouΝetΝalέΝβίίινΝSveΝ1λλγέ1γΝTranslatedΝintoΝEnglishΝinΝ1ιθθΝas Relections concerning the Imitation of the Grecian Artists in Painting and Sculpture.14ΝEέgέ,ΝSalomonΝ1ηηινΝSprengΝ1ηθγνΝMicyllusΝ1ηκβέΝτneΝofΝtheΝbestΝeditionsΝwasΝmadeΝbyΝύeorgeΝSandysΝinΝ1θβθΝ(reΝpublishedΝinΝ1θγβ),ΝwhoΝhadΝvisitedΝCrete,ΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”ΝandΝpossiblyΝtheΝsiteΝofΝKnossosΝasΝwellέ
5
Nektarios Karadimas
knownΝasΝMaΝkryΝtoichosΝ( α ο χο )έΝAmongΝtheΝdozensΝofΝvisitorsΝwhoΝvisitedΝKnossosΝaΝfewΝareΝworthyΝofΝmenΝtionμΝτnorioΝBelliΝ(visitΝinΝ1ηκθ),ΝόrancescoΝBasilicataΝ(inΝ1θγί)ΝandΝClaudeΝEtienneΝSavaryΝ(inΝ1ιιλ)έ15
RegardingΝtheΝLabyrinthΝofΝMinos,ΝitΝwasΝoftenΝbelievedΝthatΝthisΝfamousΝstructureΝwasΝaΝcaveήquarΝryΝnearΝύortyn,ΝasΝthisΝisΝwellΝillustratedΝbyΝnumerousΝmapsΝofΝtheΝ1ηth–1κthΝcenΝturiesέΝItΝisΝlikelyΝthatΝthisΝidentiicationΝgrewΝinΝprominenceΝbecauseΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”ΝseemedΝmanmade,ΝcontainingΝnumerousΝdeadΝendsέΝThisΝbeliefΝwasΝparticularlyΝpromotedΝduringΝtheΝCretanΝRenaissanceΝbyΝtheΝVenetianΝgovernors,ΝwhoΝsoughtΝtoΝhaveΝtheΝ“real”ΝLabyrinthΝinΝtheirΝterritoryέΝύasparinoΝBarzizzaΝmentionedΝthatΝtheΝVenetianΝrulersΝofΝCreteΝregularlyΝorganisedΝpleaΝsantΝjourneysΝtoΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”ΝforΝmagistratesΝorΝotherΝvisitorsΝfromΝVeniceέ1θΝUsingΝonlyΝtorchesΝorΝcandles, travellers reached the last hall, which was called Trapeza, where they wrote or carved their names on the
wallsέΝώowever,ΝinΝtheΝ1κthΝcenturyΝmostΝtravellersΝsugΝgesΝtedΝthatΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”Νwas,ΝinΝfact,ΝaΝquarryΝthatΝprovidedΝbuildingΝmaterialsΝforΝtheΝanΝcientΝcityΝofΝύortynέΝAmongΝtheΝmostΝimportantΝvisitorsΝtoΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”ΝareΝCristoforoΝBuondelmontiΝ(viΝΝsitΝinΝcaέΝ141η),ΝPierreΝBelonΝ(visitΝinΝ1η4ι),ΝJosephΝPittonΝdeΝTournefortΝ(inΝ1ιίί),ΝJohnΝώawkinsΝ(inΝ1ιλ4),ΝCharlesΝCockerellΝ(inΝ1κ11)ΝandΝόranzΝSieberΝ(inΝ1κ1ι)έ1ι
II. The “Göttingen School” and the Idea of a Minoan Civilisation (1820–1830)
When,ΝatΝtheΝendΝofΝtheΝ1κthΝcentury,ΝtheΝdistinguishedΝύermanΝclassicistΝόriedrichΝAugustΝWolfΝ (1ιηί–1κβ4)Ν introducedΝ theΝ ideaΝofΝAltertums-wissenschaftΝorΝ“scienceΝofΝantiquity”ΝasΝaΝnewΝapproachΝtoΝtheΝstudyΝof the past, little did he know of the impact that his ideas were going to
haveΝonΝMinoanΝandΝAegeanΝstudiesΝinΝgeneralέ18 According to this new
ap proach, the ancient world was to be studied in its entirety, by encompassingΝallΝtheΝaspectsΝofΝaΝcivilisationέΝώistoryΝhadΝtoΝbeΝconcernedΝnotΝonly with narratives of events, kings, and battles, but also with other
asΝpectsΝofΝlifeΝsuchΝasΝreligion,Νart,ΝandΝeconomyέInluencedΝbyΝtheΝideasΝandΝtheΝmethodsΝofΝtheΝnewΝAltertumswissen-
schaft,ΝthreeΝscholarsΝplayedΝaΝsigniicantΝroleΝinΝtheΝsubsequentΝstudyΝofΝMinoanΝarchaeologyμΝKarlΝτtfriedΝMüllerΝ(1ιλι–1κ4ί),ΝKarlΝόriedrichΝσeumannΝ(1ιλγ–1κιί)ΝandΝparticularlyΝKarlΝώoeckΝ(1ιλ4–1κιι)Ν(igέΝ1)έΝTheyΝwereΝallΝbasedΝatΝtheΝwellknownΝUniversityΝofΝύöttingen,Νand it is fair to say that the pub li cations of these scholars, whom one
mayΝdubΝ theΝ “ύöttingenΝSchool”,Ν establishedΝ aΝ numberΝ ofΝ inΝluentialΝtheoriesΝaboutΝprehistoricΝCreteΝthatΝhadΝaΝgreatΝimpactΝonΝmanyΝscholars,ΝandΝmostΝimΝportantlyΝonΝSirΝArthurΝEvansέΝInΝ1κβί,ΝσeumannΝpublished the Rerum Creticarum Specimen,Ν writΝtenΝ inΝ LatinέΝ όromΝ 1κβγΝuntilΝ1κβκ,ΝώoeckΝpublishedΝhisΝseminalΝthreevolumeΝworkΝKreta. Ein Ver such zur Aufhellung der Mythologie und Geschichte, der Religion und Verfassung dieser Insel, von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Römer-Herrschaft, while
inΝ1κβ4,ΝMüllerΝpublishedΝDie Dorier,ΝwhichΝwasΝalsoΝtranslatedΝintoΝEnglishΝ(inΝ1κγίΝandΝ1κγλ)έσeumann’s,ΝMüller’s,ΝandΝώoeck’sΝworksΝareΝexcellentΝexamplesΝofΝtheΝmethodsΝofΝtheΝAlter tums wissenschaft
appliedΝtoΝclassicalΝsourcesΝonΝCreteέΝόorΝtheΝirstΝtime,ΝtheΝearliestΝhistoryΝofΝCreteΝwasΝexaminedΝsystematicallyΝandΝmeticulouslyέΝThisΝinvolvedΝtheΝstudyΝofΝcomparativeΝreliΝgion,ΝtheΝetymologyΝofΝpersonalΝnamesΝsuchΝasΝMinos,ΝEuropaΝandΝPasiphae,ΝandΝtheΝexaminationΝofΝtoponymsέΝσotΝonlyΝmythology,ΝbutΝalsoΝancientΝartefacts,ΝwheneverΝpossible,ΝwereΝusedΝasΝvalidΝsourcesΝforΝaΝbetterΝunderstandingΝofΝύreekΝandΝCretanΝhistoryΝandΝprehistoryέ19
The most important contributions of the Göttingen scholars to the study of Aegean prehistory were made by Müller
and,ΝinΝparticular,ΝbyΝώoeckέΝBothΝpromotedΝtheΝideaΝthatΝinΝtheΝsecondΝhalfΝofΝtheΝsecondΝmillenniumΝBCΝCreteΝ
15ΝτnΝBelli,ΝseeΝόalkenerΝ1κη4νΝBeschiΝ1λλλέΝBasilicata’sΝmanuscriptΝwasΝpublishedΝbyΝSpanakisΝinΝ1λθλέΝSavaryΝ1ικκa,Ν1λβ–λγΝandΝ1ικκb,Νβ14–1ηέΝτnΝKnossosΝbeforeΝtheΝirstΝexcavations,ΝseeΝalsoΝKopakaΝβίί4έ1θΝSeeΝWoodwardΝ1λ4λνΝύuarducciΝ1ληίέ1ι AposkitiΝβίίβ,ΝηίνΝBelonΝ1ηηγ,ΝκνΝTournefortΝ1ιίβνΝLackΝandΝMabberleyΝ1λλλ,Ν1βθνΝCockerellΝ1κβί,Ν4ίβ–λνΝSieberΝ1κβγ,Ν1μη1ί–βίΝandΝβμβλγ–λιέ18 On the Altertumswissenschaft,Ν seeΝύoochΝ1λ1γ,Νβ4–41νΝPfeifferΝ1λιθ,Ν1ιγ–ιινΝBernalΝ1λκι,Νβκί–γ1θνΝMarchandΝ1λλθ,Ν1ι–β4νΝMorrisΝ1λλιέ19ΝόorΝexample,ΝinΝtheΝirstΝvolumeΝofΝKreta, Hoeck included a small chapter on the “Gortyn Labyrinth”, reproduced a map of the
LabyrinthΝfromΝSieberΝ1κβγ,ΝandΝillustratedΝtwoΝcoinsΝofΝtheΝancientΝtownΝofΝKnossosΝ(ώoeckΝ1κβγ,Ν44ι–η4,ΝplέΝII)έ
Fig. 1 Karl Hoeck (1794 – 1877).
Cour tesy of the University of Göttin gen.
6
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
hadΝbeenΝtheΝhomeΝofΝaΝbrilliantΝcivilisationέΝThisΝcivilisaΝtionΝwasΝdubbedΝ“minoisch”Ν(whichΝBritishΝscholars,ΝincludingΝEvans,ΝlaterΝtranslatedΝasΝ“Minoan”),ΝwhileΝtheΝperiodΝinΝwhichΝitΝlourishedΝwasΝcalledΝ“minoischeΝZeit”έβί
Moreover,ΝώoeckΝsuggestedΝthatΝtheΝancientΝύreekΝsourcesΝhadΝattributedΝtoΝaΝsingleΝhistoricalΝorΝmythicalΝigureΝnamed Minos, a series of events which took place over a long span of time, and thus Hoeck claimed that the name
MinosΝrepresentedΝtheΝtotalityΝofΝactsΝthatΝoccurredΝduringΝaΝperiodΝofΝaboutΝtwoΝcenturiesΝbeforeΝtheΝTrojanΝWarέβ1
This notion of a “Minoan Age” appears to have been formulated by ana logy with that of the “Homeric Age”, which
wasΝalreadyΝestablishedΝbyΝtheΝearlyΝ1λthΝcenΝturyέββ
InΝviewΝofΝlaterΝdevelopmentsΝinΝMinoanΝarchaeology,ΝitΝisΝworthΝnotingΝthatΝtheΝύöttingenΝschoΝlarsΝalsoΝproducedΝfairlyΝdetailedΝsuggestionsΝaboutΝtheΝchronologyΝofΝCretanΝPrehistoryΝ(igέΝβ)έΝόorΝtheΝperiodΝbeforeΝtheΝ“ReturnΝofΝtheΝDorians”ΝtheyΝmadeΝextensiveΝuseΝofΝnotionsΝofΝgrowth,Νmaturity,ΝandΝdecadenceΝ–ΝnotionsΝthatΝformedΝanΝimportantΝpartΝofΝEvans’sΝownΝMinoΝanΝchronoΝlogyέΝσeumannΝsubdividedΝCretanΝprehistoryΝintoΝtheΝpreMinos’s,ΝMinos’sΝandΝpostMiΝnos’sΝtimesέΝώoeck,ΝonΝtheΝotherΝhand,ΝdistinguishedΝfourΝperiodsέβγΝTheΝirstΝwasΝcalledΝpreMiΝnoΝanΝ(vorminoisch),ΝandΝrelatedΝtoΝtheΝtimesΝbeforeΝKingΝMinosνΝduringΝthisΝperiodΝPhrygianΝandΝPhoenicianΝcolonistsΝcameΝtoΝCreteΝand,ΝthroughΝtheirΝmixingΝwithΝaboriginalΝinhabitants,ΝώoΝmer’sΝ“Eteocretans”ΝwereΝbornέΝώoeck’sΝsecondΝorΝ“Minoan”ΝperiodΝoccupiedΝtwoΝcenturiesΝbeΝforeΝtheΝTrojanΝWarνΝitΝwasΝtheΝmostΝbrilliantΝinΝtheΝwholeΝhistoryΝofΝtheΝisland,ΝduringΝwhichΝtheΝnonώellenicΝEteocretansΝcreatedΝaΝsplendidΝcivilisation,ΝwhichΝwasΝfartherΝaheadΝthanΝitsΝύreekΝmainΝlandΝcounterpartέΝThisΝ“MinoanΝperiod”ΝincludedΝtheΝ“MinoanΝThalassocracy”,ΝwhichΝendedΝaroundΝ1βηίΝBC,ΝandΝsoonΝafterwardsΝCreteΝcameΝunderΝaΝstrongΝώellenicΝinluenceέΝWhenΝtheΝTroΝjanΝWarΝstartedΝ(aroundΝ1βίίΝBC),ΝaΝperiodΝofΝdeclineΝandΝdecadenceΝbegan,ΝaΝpostMinoanΝphaseέΝόorΝaΝbriefΝperiodΝofΝalmostΝ1θίΝyearsΝaΝώellenisedΝMinoanΝdynastyΝcontinuedΝtoΝrule,ΝwhichΝsurelyΝremindsΝusΝofΝEvans’sΝreoccupationΝperiodέΝByΝtheΝtimeΝtheΝDoriansΝarrivedΝatΝCreteΝaroundΝ1ί4ίΝBC,ΝlittleΝremainedΝofΝtheΝMinoanΝcivilisationέΝ
Müller’sΝ reconstructionΝpresentedΝ someΝ fundamentalΝdifferencesέΝTheΝmostΝ importantΝwasΝ that,Ν acΝcordingΝ toΝMüller,ΝtheΝMinoanΝCretansΝwereΝύreek,ΝandΝmoreΝspeciicallyΝDoriansέΝThisΝcouldΝbeΝprovedΝnotΝonlyΝbyΝtheΝmythΝofΝtheΝDorianΝTectamus,ΝwhoΝwasΝMinos’sΝgrandfather,ΝbutΝalsoΝbyΝtheΝcultΝofΝtheΝmainΝDorianΝgod,ΝApollo,ΝwhoΝwasΝusuallyΝassociatedΝwithΝtheΝMinoanΝCretansέΝMüllerΝdividedΝCrete’sΝmostΝancientΝtimesΝintoΝfourΝphasesέΝTheΝirstΝembracedΝtheΝirstΝDorianΝmiΝgrationΝtoΝCreteΝfromΝtheirΝoriginalΝhomelandΝinΝThessaly,ΝandΝsawΝtheΝfoundationΝofΝtemplesΝofΝApolloΝatΝDelphi,ΝDelos,ΝandΝCreteέΝDuringΝtheΝsecondΝphase,ΝtheΝacmeΝofΝtheΝMinoanΝcivilisation,ΝtheΝDorianΝCretansΝtookΝcontrolΝofΝtheΝAegeanΝseaΝandΝspreadΝtheirΝcultΝofΝApolloΝeverywhereέΝAfterΝMinos’sΝdeath,ΝtwoΝorΝthreeΝgenerationsΝbeforeΝtheΝTrojanΝWar,ΝaΝperiodΝofΝdeclineΝbeganέΝThisΝperiodΝwasΝfollowedΝinΝturnΝbyΝtheΝmainΝDorianΝmigrationέΝ
InΝviewΝofΝrecentΝcritiquesΝofΝtheΝtermΝ“Minoan”,ΝitΝisΝinterestingΝtoΝnoteΝthatΝinΝtheΝworksΝofΝMüllerΝandΝώoeckΝtheΝtermΝ“Minoan”,ΝunlikeΝtoday,ΝdidΝnotΝhaveΝracialΝorΝethnicΝconnotations,ΝbutΝesΝsenΝtiallyΝaΝchronologicalΝmeaningέΝInΝaΝsense,ΝitΝwasΝusedΝinΝaΝwayΝsimilarΝtoΝtheΝtermΝ“Pharaonic”,ΝbecauseΝforΝtheΝύöttingenΝscholarsΝtheΝtermΝdidΝnotΝreferΝonlyΝtoΝtheΝreignΝofΝtheΝmythicalΝKingΝMinos,ΝbutΝtoΝaΝperiodΝofΝupΝtoΝtwoΝcenturiesέΝWheneverΝώoeckΝandΝMüllerΝreferredΝtoΝtheΝpreΝhisΝtoricΝinhabitantsΝofΝCreteΝtheyΝusedΝphrasesΝsuchΝasΝtheΝ“MinoanΝCretans”Ν(dieΝminoischenΝKreΝter)ΝorΝtheΝethnonymsΝEteocretansΝ(ώoeck)ΝandΝDoriansΝ(Müller),ΝifΝtheyΝwishedΝtoΝreferΝtoΝtheirΝ
βίΝτnΝtheΝtermΝ“Minoan”,ΝseeΝalsoΝKaradimasΝandΝMomiglianoΝβίί4έβ1ΝώoeckΝ1κβκ,ΝxxxiμΝ“AllesΝbedeutsameΝmehrererΝJahrhunderteΝwardΝanΝjenenΝσamenΝ(Minos)Νangereihtέ”ββΝAsΝsuggested,ΝforΝexample,ΝbyΝUvarovΝ1κ1λ,ΝιμΝ“seitdemΝderΝσahmeΝώomerΝnichtΝmehrΝeinenΝMenschen,ΝsondernΝeineΝEpocheΝbezeichnetέ” SeeΝalsoΝbelow,ΝsectionΝIIIέβγΝόorΝώoeck’sΝabsoluteΝdates,ΝseeΝώoeckΝ1κβγ,Νγηλ–θ1νΝ1κβκ,Ν4έ
Fig. 2 Cretan “prehistoric” periodisations by the Göttingen scholars (1820–1830).
Karl Neumann Karl Müller Karl Hoeck
PreMinos’sΝperiod(noΝdatesΝgiven)
όirstΝDorianΝMigration(PreMinoanς)Ν(beforeΝ14ίίΝBC) PreMinoanΝ(beforeΝ14ίίΝBC)
Minos’s period
(noΝdatesΝgiven)Minoan period
(caέΝ14ίί–1βίίΝBC) MinoanΝ(14ίί–1βίίΝBC)
PostMinos’sΝperiod(noΝdatesΝgiven)
Period of decline
(caέΝ1βίί–1ί4ί)PeriodΝofΝdeclineήpostMinoanΝ
(1βίί–1ί4ίΝBC)
1ί4ίμΝtheΝmainΝDorianΝinvasion DorianΝ(1ί4ίΝBCΝandΝafter)
7
Nektarios Karadimas
ethΝniΝcityέβ4ΝInterestinglyΝenough,ΝEvansΝhimselfΝinΝhisΝearlyΝworkΝdidΝnotΝuseΝtheΝtermΝ“Minoan”ΝinΝanΝethnicΝsense,ΝforΝheΝwasΝstillΝcloselyΝfollowingΝώoeck’sΝviewsέΝόorΝexample,ΝinΝtheΝearlyΝyearsΝofΝtheΝexcavationsΝatΝKnossos,ΝEvansΝconstantlyΝusedΝexpressionsΝsuchΝasΝ“MinoanΝarchitects”,Ν“MiΝnoΝanΝdynasts”ΝandΝ“MinoanΝPriestKings”,Νwhich certainly resembles Hoeck’s similar expressions, such as “minoischer König”, “minoischer Kreter” or “minoischerΝStamm”έβη
The publications of the “Göttingen School”, especially Müller’s and Hoeck’s books, had a tre men dous impact on
CretanΝscholarshipέΝVeryΝsoon,ΝMüller’sΝandΝώoeck’sΝideasΝofΝaΝ“minoischeΝZeit”ΝandΝaΝsuperiorΝCretanΝcivilisationΝspreadΝthroughΝnotΝonlyΝύermany,ΝbutΝalsoΝotherΝcountriesέΝTheΝhistorianΝEvelynΝAbbottΝwasΝnotΝwrongΝwhenΝheΝwroteΝinΝ1κλγμΝ“ώoeck’sΝKretaΝisΝstillΝtheΝbestΝbookΝaboutΝtheΝisland”έβθ
III. George Grote’s Rationalisam and the Beginning of the First Archaeological and
Topographical Researches (1830–1875)
The rationalism and philological criticism of the 18th century, so well illustrated by the “Göt tingen School”, gave
also momentum to another tendency, which regarded the use of ancient writ ten sources for historical purposes with
greatΝscepticismέΝTheΝmainΝattackΝonΝtheΝcredibilityΝofΝtheΝancientΝύreekΝtraditionΝcameΝinΝ1ιληΝwhenΝόriedrichΝAugustΝWolfΝpublishedΝhisΝProlegomena ad HomerumέΝInΝthisΝbookΝWolfΝrefusedΝtoΝacceptΝtheΝhistoricalΝexistenceΝof an individual poet called Homer, suggesting instead that the Iliad and the OdysseyΝrepresentedΝtheΝuniicationΝofΝmanyΝdifferentΝrhapsodies,ΝcomposedΝoverΝseveralΝcenturiesΝandΝcollectedΝunderΝtheΝnameΝofΝώomerέΝWolf’sΝtheoryΝsoonΝledΝtoΝtheΝdebateΝonΝtheΝ“ώomericΝquestion”,ΝwhileΝWolf’sΝfollowersΝwereΝdubbedΝanalystsέβι
InΝtheΝmidΝ1λthΝcenturyΝtheΝmostΝimportantΝreactionΝtoΝtheΝuseΝofΝmythsΝasΝhistoricalΝsourΝcesΝcameΝfromΝtheΝBritishΝhistorianΝύeorgeΝύrote,ΝwithΝhisΝtwelvevolume History of GreeceέΝInΝluencedΝbyΝWolfΝandΝtheΝanalysts,ΝύroteΝsuggested that Homer was not a real historical character, but was invented to explain the historical guild that was
constitutedΝtoΝconserveΝandΝtransmitΝtheΝώomericΝpoemsέΝMoreover,ΝinΝtheΝprefaceΝofΝtheΝirstΝvolumeΝpublishedΝinΝ1κ4θ,ΝύroteΝnotedΝthatΝheΝwasΝgoingΝtoΝuseΝmythsΝtoΝdescribeΝtheΝearliestΝtimesΝofΝtheΝύreeks,Νwithout,Νhowever,ΝtryΝingΝtoΝdetectΝhowΝmuchΝorΝhowΝlittleΝhistoricalΝmatterΝtheyΝcontainedέΝInΝdoingΝso,ΝheΝcomparedΝύreekΝmythsΝtoΝaΝmarvellousΝcurtainΝthatΝhidΝnothingΝandΝwouldΝgreatlyΝdisappointΝanyoneΝwhoΝopenedΝitέβκ
σonetheless,Νύrote’sΝscepticismΝaboutΝ theΝusefulnessΝofΝmythsΝstandsΝalmostΝaloneΝ inΝBriΝtishΝhisΝtoriographyέΝBritishΝscholarsΝpreferredΝtoΝfollowΝinΝtheΝstepsΝofΝtheΝ“ύöttingenΝSchool”έΝItΝisΝfairΝtoΝsayΝthatΝthisΝscepticalΝattitudeΝhadΝlittleΝifΝanyΝimpactΝonΝAegeanΝandΝCretanΝarchaeologyέΝAcΝcordingΝtoΝArnaldoΝMomigliano,ΝbyΝmakingΝthisΝdistincΝtionΝbetweenΝaΝmythicalΝandΝhistoricalΝύreece,ΝύroteΝ“brokeΝwithΝKέτέΝMüllerΝandΝhisΝEnglishΝadmirers”έβλΝItΝseemsΝthatΝonlyΝArthurΝEvansΝwasΝslightlyΝinluencedΝbyΝύrote,ΝbutΝonlyΝinΝtheΝearlyΝstagesΝofΝhisΝcareerέΝInΝ1κκγ,Νwhen Evans wrote a review of Schliemann’s Troja, he noted that “Archaeology has little call to concern it self with
theΝittingΝonΝofΝpoeticalΝtopographyΝtoΝalteredΝphysicalΝconditions”έγί Twenty years later, en chanted by his remarkableΝdiscoveriesΝatΝKnossos,ΝheΝwouldΝforgetΝhisΝinitialΝscepticismέγ1
DuringΝtheΝperiodΝdiscussedΝinΝthisΝsection,ΝCreteΝcontinuedΝtoΝattractΝtravellersΝfromΝallΝoverΝEuΝrope,ΝsuchΝasΝόélixΝVictorΝRaulinΝ(visitΝinΝ1κ4η),ΝύeorgeΝPerrotΝ(inΝ1κηι),ΝandΝJohnΝSkinnerΝ(inΝ1κθι),ΝwhileΝinΝ1κθ4ΝtheΝpainterΝEdwardΝLearΝvisitedΝKnossosΝandΝpaintedΝtwoΝuniqueΝwatercoΝloursΝ(nowΝhousedΝinΝtheΝύennadiusΝLibrary)έγβ
TwoΝtravellers,Νhowever,ΝlaidΝtheΝfoundationsΝofΝmoΝdernΝCretanΝarchaeologyμΝRobertΝPashleyΝandΝThomasΝAbelΝBrimageΝSprattέ
InΝ 1κγ4,Ν RobertΝ PashleyΝ (1κίη–1κηλ),Ν aΝ youngΝ classicsΝ donΝ fromΝ CambridgeΝ andΝ laterΝ aΝ resΝpecΝtedΝ lawyer,ΝtookΝhisΝύrandΝTourΝtoΝtheΝIonianΝislands,ΝAlbania,Νύreece,ΝandΝAsiaΝMinorΝinΝ1κγγ–1κγ4έγγΝόromΝόebruaryΝuntilΝSeptemberΝofΝ1κγ4ΝheΝtravelledΝthroughΝtheΝislandΝofΝCrete,ΝasΝrecountedΝinΝhisΝTravels in CreteΝ(1κγι)έΝώisΝbookΝcontainedΝmanyΝtopographicalΝnotesέΝPashleyΝdiscoveredΝandΝdescribedΝtheΝexistingΝvestigesΝofΝmoreΝthanΝβίΝan
β4ΝEέgέ,ΝώoeckΝ1κβκ,Νvi,Νxxiv,Ν1κι,Ν1κλ,Νβγγ,Νβγθ,Νγθλ,Νγικ,Νγκί,Νγλ1νΝMüllerΝ1κβ4,Νβγ4έβηΝEvansΝ1λίί–1λί1,ΝββμΝ“MinoanΝarchitects”νΝ1λίβ–1λίγ,ΝγκμΝ“MinoanΝdynasts”νΝ1λίγ–1λί4,Ν4γμΝ“MinoanΝPriestKings”έβθΝAbbottΝ1κλγ,Ν1ββ–βγέβιΝτnΝtheΝ“ώomericΝquestion”ΝandΝinΝgeneralΝonΝWolf,ΝseeΝόerreriΝβίίιΝwithΝextensiveΝbibliographyέβκΝύroteΝ1κ4θ,Ν1μxii–xiiiέβλΝMomiglianoΝ1λθθ,ΝθγέγίΝEvansΝ1κκγ,Ν4γκέγ1ΝSeeΝalsoΝMomiglianoΝβίίθέγβΝRaulinΝ1κθλνΝPerrotΝ1κθινΝSkinnerΝ1κθκέΝτnΝLear,ΝseeΝόowlerΝ1λκ4έγγ On Pashley, see ύarnettΝβίί4έ
8
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
cient sites, such as Eleutherna, Praesos,
andΝ KnossosέΝ WhileΝ lookingΝ forΝ theΝ celebratedΝ tombΝ ofΝ Zeus,Ν heΝ climbedΝ onΝMountΝ Juktas,Ν whereΝ heΝ sawΝ cyclopeanΝwallsέγ4 Pashley also visited the “Gortyn
Labyrinth”, and re marked that it was a
caveέΝόollowingΝtheΝtraditionΝaccordingΝtoΝwhich the Labyrinth was not a cave but a
buildingΝerectedΝbyΝDaedalusΝatΝKnossos,Νhe concluded that it was “as clear as the
sunΝatΝnoonΝday,ΝthatΝtheΝgrottoΝinΝquestionΝwas no more connected with the mythical
labyrinthΝofΝCrete”έγη
ThomasΝ SprattΝ (1κ11–1κκκ),Ν navalΝ oficerΝandΝhydrographer,ΝsurveyedΝtheΝcoastΝofΝCreteΝinΝtheΝ1κηίsΝtoΝproduceΝtheΝBritishΝAdmiraltyΝCharts,ΝasΝwellΝasΝtheΝinterior of the island for his geological map
ofΝCreteέΝInΝ1κθηΝheΝpublishedΝhisΝTravels and Researches in Crete, which focused
on the physical geography and geology
of the island, and tackled many problemsΝofΝancientΝtopograΝphyέΝSprattΝvisitedΝKnos sos, about which he wrote a whole
chapΝterέΝώeΝexploredΝtheΝ“tortuousΝpasΝsages and chambers” of the “Gortyn Labyrinth”,ΝwhichΝheΝsuggestedΝwasΝaΝquarryέΝώeΝdisΝcoveredΝ theΝancientΝsiteΝofΝZakrosΝinΝeasternΝCreteέΝDuringΝhisΝexΝplorationsΝhe also collected some “primitive” seal
stones,ΝsuchΝasΝthoseΝthatΝpreviousΝtravellers had observed and collected in the
CyΝclaΝdes,Ν andΝ forΝ thisΝ reasonΝ theyΝ wereΝusualΝlyΝcalledΝ“isΝlandΝstones”Ν(igέΝγ)έγθΝώeΝpublishedΝthemΝinΝ1κιλ,ΝsoonΝafterΝSchliemann’sΝimpressiveΝindsΝatΝMyceΝnaeέΝMostΝofΝtheseΝsealsΝareΝnowΝdatedΝtoΝtheΝLateΝBronzeΝAgeέΝSpratt’sΝmostΝimportantΝconΝtriΝbutionΝtoΝCretanΝar chaeo logy was probably his discussion of the acropolis of Goulas near ώieraΝpytnaΝ(modernΝIerapetra)έΝAccording to Spratt, the acropolis should be dated to an early date, as shown by the earliestΝandΝrudestΝCyclopeanΝwallsέγι
Pashley’s and Spratt’s books became the standard guidebooks for the island in the 19th cen tury, and inspired ArthurΝEvansΝwhenΝheΝstartedΝhisΝCretanΝexplorationέΝόorΝexample,ΝEvansΝwhoΝvisitedΝtheΝsiteΝofΝύoulasΝthreeΝtimes,ΝoriginallyΝwantedΝtoΝexcavateΝύoulas,ΝbecauseΝheΝthoughtΝitΝwasΝaΝprehistoricΝcitadelέγκ On the other hand he never
visitedΝtheΝ“ύortynΝLabyrinth”,ΝsimΝplyΝbeΝcause,ΝaccordingΝtoΝPashleyΝorΝSpratt,ΝitΝwasΝaΝcaveΝorΝaΝquarryέΝSimilarly,ΝfollowingΝPashley’sΝtext,ΝEvansΝvisitedΝtheΝsummitΝofΝJuktasΝtwice,ΝwhileΝinΝ1λίλΝheΝconductedΝaΝsmallΝexΝcaΝvationΝthere,ΝandΝdiscoveredΝtheΝremainsΝofΝaΝpeakΝsanctuaryέγλ
γ4ΝPashleyΝ1κγι,Ν1μβ1ί–11έγηΝPashleyΝ1κγι,Ν1μβλθ–λι,ΝseeΝalsoΝβίκέγθΝSee,ΝforΝexampleΝMilchhoeferΝ1κκγ,ΝchapterΝβΝentitledΝ“Inselsteine”έΝόorΝtheΝhistoryΝofΝ“islandΝstones”,ΝseeΝBoardman 1λθγέγιΝSprattΝ1κθη,Ν1μchapterΝXIIIέγκΝEvansΝvisitedΝύoulasΝinΝ1κλ4,Ν1κλη,ΝandΝ1κλλέΝSeeΝEvansΝ1κλη–1κλθνΝBrownΝβίί1,Νγ4γ–4ηέγλΝEvansΝ1λβ1,Ν1ηγ–θγέΝSeeΝalsoΝBrownΝβίί1,Νγγί–γ1έ
Fig. 3 Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age seals from Crete, bought
by Thomas Spratt during his travels in 1850s. After Spratt 1879.
9
Nektarios Karadimas
Date SiteKnown be-
fore 1875Excavator/Excavators
1κιιΝ(βίΝJanέΝ&ΝβιΝJanέ) MycenaeμΝTreasureΝnearbyΝCircleΝA √ DrosinosΝ&ΝStamatakis
1κιιΝ(June) SpataμΝβΝchamberΝtombs Stamatakis
1κιιΝ(endΝofΝσovέ–begέΝofΝDecέ) MycenaeμΝShaftΝύraveΝVIΝinΝCircleΝA,ΝTreasury of Atreus
√ Stamatakis
1κικΝ(βθΝMarch–θΝMay) ώeraionΝ(Argos)μΝTholosΝtomb √ Stamatakis
1κικΝ(July) PalamidiΝ(σafplio)μΝChamberΝtombs √ Potamianos
1κικΝ(endΝofΝAugέ–begέΝofΝSeptέ) PalamidiΝ(σafplio)μΝChamberΝtombs √ KastorchisΝ&ΝKondakis
1κικΝ(Decέ),Ν1κιλΝ(March–April) Knossos √ Kalokairinos
1κιλΝ(γίΝApril–ιΝJune) MenidiμΝTholosΝtomb √ Lolling
1κκίΝ(όebruary) PalamidiΝ(σafplio)μΝChamberΝtombs √ Kondakis
1κκίΝ(11ΝMarch) PalamidiΝ(σafplio)μΝ1ΝchamberΝtomb √ Lolling
1κκίΝ(endΝofΝσovέ–begέΝofΝDecέ)τrchomenosμΝTreasuryΝofΝMinyasΝandΝ
adjacent area√
SchliemannΝ(&ΝSέΝSchliemann)
1κκ1Ν(1βΝApril–endΝofΝApril)SchliemannΝ(withΝtheΝcollaboration of Efstratiadis,
SayceΝ&ΝSέΝSchliemann)
1κκ4Ν(endΝofΝJanέ–begέΝofΝόebέ) AntiparosμΝAlmostΝ4ίΝtombsΝofΝtheΝEarlyΝCycladicΝperiod Bent
1κκ4Ν(1ιΝMarch–β4ΝMay) Tiryns √ SchliemannΝ(&ΝDörpfeld)
1κκηΝ(midΝofΝApril–midΝofΝJune) Tiryns √ Dörpfeld
1κκηΝ(τctober) AmorgosμΝEarlyΝCycladicΝtombs Dümmler
1κκθΝ(βιΝόebέ–1ίΝMarch) DiminiμΝTholosΝtombΝknownΝasΝLamios pito
√KondakisΝ&ΝKousisΝ(withΝthe collaboration of Loll
ingΝ&ΝWolters)
1κκθΝ(March–begέΝofΝJune) MycenaeμΝAcropolisΝ(palace) √ Tsountas
1κκθΝ(begέΝofΝMay) τrchomenosμΝTreasuryΝofΝMinyas √ SchliemannΝ(&ΝDörpfeld)
1κκιΝ(1κΝτctέ–γ1ΝDecέ) MycenaeμΝΝ1ηΝchamberΝtombsΝandΝ1ΝTholos tomb
√ Tsountas
1κκκΝ(βί–βλΝMarch,ΝJune–Decέ) MycenaeμΝAcropolisΝandΝγθΝchamberΝtombs
√ Tsountas
1κκκΝ(August) EpidaurosμΝChamberΝtombs Stais
1κκκΝ(December) EleusinaμΝMycenaeanΝtomb όilios
1κκλΝ(Spring) PagasaiΝ(Volos)μΝMycenaeanΝcemeΝtery Wolters
1κκλΝ(4–1βΝApril,Ν1γΝMay–1ηΝJune) VaioμΝTholosΝtomb √ Tsountas
1κκλΝ(1κΝMay) TroizinaμΝMycenaeanΝtomb Stais
1κκλΝ(July) MycenaeμΝAcropolis √ Tsountas
1κκλΝ(σovember) PalaiopyrgosμΝMycenaeanΝpotteryΝandΝstoneΝinds Tsountas
1κκλΝ(σovember) ArkinaμΝTholosΝtomb Tsountas
1κλίΝ(summerς) Amykles Tsountas
1κλίΝ(Septέ–Decέ) MycenaeμΝAcropolisΝ&ΝβΝchamberΝtombs √ Tsountas
1κλίΝ(December) ThorikosμΝTholosΝtombΝ(knownΝasΝA) Stais
1891 MycenaeμΝTholosΝtombΝofΝClytemnestra √ Tsountas
Fig. 4 Prehistoric excavations in the Aegean during the period 1877–1892. The third column shows sites that had
been identiied as Heroic (i.e. prehistoric) before Schliemann’s excavations at Mycenae.
10
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
IV. Between Two “Fathers”: From Schliemann to Evans (1876–1894)
InΝ1κιθ,ΝώeinrichΝSchliemannΝexcavatedΝatΝMycenaeΝwhereΝheΝdiscoveredΝtheΝ“richΝinΝgold”ΝShaftΝύravesέΝThisΝunexpectedΝdiscoveryΝchangedΝtheΝhistoryΝofΝAegeanΝprehistoricΝarchaeologyέΝUnΝtilΝthatΝtime,ΝύreekΝscholarsΝwereΝalmostΝexclusivelyΝinterestedΝinΝclassicalΝantiquities,ΝlargelyΝasΝpartΝofΝtheΝgeneralΝeffortΝtoΝlinkΝtheΝύreekΝmodernΝStateΝwithΝitsΝcelebratedΝclassicalΝpastέ4ί After Schliemann, suddenly the Greeks remembered that they also had
a Heroic past, so gloriously sung by Homer, and in the following decade, Greek archaeologists excavated almost
allΝtheΝsitesΝthatΝhadΝbeenΝidentiiedΝbyΝpreviousΝtravellersΝasΝώeroic,ΝiέeέΝprehistoric,ΝasΝclearlyΝdemonstratedΝin
igureΝ4έΝTheirΝexcavationsΝbroughtΝtoΝlightΝtheΝremainsΝofΝaΝpreClassicalΝcivilisation,ΝwhichΝwasΝsoonΝnamedΝ“Mycenaean”ΝbyΝύermanΝscholarsέ
InΝtheΝfollowingΝyears,ΝuntilΝEvans’sΝarrivalΝinΝCreteΝinΝ1κλ4,ΝmanyΝarchaeologicalΝresearchesΝwereΝalsoΝconductedΝinΝCrete,ΝofΝwhichΝtheΝmostΝimportantΝareΝasΝfollowsέΝ
AtΝtheΝendΝofΝ1κικήbeginningΝofΝ1κιλ,ΝtakingΝhisΝcueΝfromΝSchliemann’sΝdiscoveries,ΝtheΝCreΝtanΝMinosΝKalokairinosΝexcavatedΝatΝtheΝwellknownΝsiteΝofΝKnossosέ41ΝώisΝresultsΝwereΝveryΝproΝmiΝsingμΝheΝexcavatedΝpartΝofΝtheΝwestΝmagazines,ΝwhereΝheΝfoundΝpithoi,ΝLinearΝBΝinscriptions,ΝandΝmanyΝvasesέΝώowever,ΝdueΝtoΝtheΝtroubledΝpoliticalΝsituationΝinΝtheΝislandΝ–ΝalmostΝaΝdecadeΝbeΝforeΝtheΝCretanΝInsurrectionΝ–ΝhisΝexcavationsΝwereΝsoonΝstoppedέΝKalokairinos’sΝindsΝwereΝlaΝterΝseenΝbyΝArthurΝEvans,ΝwhoΝalsoΝvisitedΝKnossosέ
AΝsigniicantΝcontributionΝwasΝmadeΝ inΝ1κκγΝwhenΝArthurΝMilchhoeferΝpublishedΝ theΝbookΝDie An fänge der Kunst in GriechenlandέΝMilchhoefer,ΝwhoΝwasΝPrivatdozentΝinΝarchaeologyΝatΝtheΝUniΝversityΝofΝύöttingen,ΝrevivedΝώoeck’sΝ“Minoan”ΝtheoryνΝheΝarguedΝthatΝtheΝoriginsΝofΝtheΝnewlyΝdisΝcoveredΝMycenaeanΝcivilisationΝshouldΝbeΝfoundΝonΝtheΝislandΝofΝCreteέ4βΝσow,ΝforΝtheΝirstΝtime,ΝCreΝtanΝprehistoricΝarchaeologicalΝindsΝcouldΝsupportΝthisΝopinionμΝtheΝsocalledΝ“islandΝstones”,ΝCyΝcloΝpeanΝwallsΝseenΝbyΝPashleyΝandΝSpratt,ΝaΝstirrupΝjugΝrecentlyΝfoundΝinΝCrete,4γΝandΝinΝparticularΝKalokairinos’sΝnewlyΝdiscoveredΝindsΝatΝKnossosέΝMilchhoefer’sΝtheoryΝbecameΝaΝfundamentalΝprinΝcipleΝinΝEvans’sΝ“Minoan”ΝparadigmέΝAsΝnotedΝbyΝJohnΝMyresΝinΝhisΝobituaryΝofΝEvans,Ν“Milchhoefer’sΝAnfänge der Kunst (1κκγ)ΝmayΝhaveΝinluencedΝhimΝmoreΝthanΝheΝwouldΝafterwardsΝadΝmit”έ44
LastΝbutΝnotΝleast,ΝinΝ1κκ4,ΝaΝnewΝpieceΝofΝtheΝ“Minoan”ΝjigsawΝpuzzleΝcameΝtoΝlightέΝόedericoΝώalbΝherr,ΝexploringΝtheΝsiteΝofΝPraisos,ΝdiscoveredΝanΝ“Eteocretan”ΝinscriptionΝ(iέeέΝwrittenΝinΝύreekΝletΝters,ΝbutΝexpressingΝaΝnonύreekΝlanguage)έ4ηΝItΝwasΝthisΝinscriptionΝthatΝpersuadedΝEvansΝaboutΝtheΝcorrectnessΝofΝώoeck’sΝnonύreekΝtheoryΝaboutΝtheΝinΝhaΝbitantsΝofΝCreteΝinΝtheΝ“MinoanΝAge”έ
Conclusions
InΝ1κλ4,ΝwhenΝArthurΝEvansΝarrivedΝinΝCrete,ΝheΝwasΝfollowingΝinΝtheΝfootstepsΝofΝremarkableΝpreΝdeΝcessorsέΝAsΝshown in this paper, Evans not only used previous archaeological and topogra phi cal research, but also borrowed
4ί ώamilakisΝandΝYalouriΝ1λλθνΝώamilakisΝβίίιέ41ΝτnΝMinosΝKalokairinos’sΝexcavations,ΝseeΝaΝsmallΝselectionΝofΝarticlesμΝώaussoullierΝ1κκίνΝAposkitiΝ1λιλνΝKopakaΝ1λλί,Ν1λλβΝandΝ1λλθέ4βΝMilchhoeferΝ1κκγ,Ν1β1–γιέ4γΝTheΝstirrupΝjugΝwasΝpublishedΝaΝfewΝyearsΝlaterΝinΝ1κκθΝbyΝAέΝόurtwänglerΝandΝύέΝLöschckeΝ(όurtwänglerΝandΝLöschckeΝ1κκθ,Νβ4,ΝplέΝXIV,ΝnoέΝκκ)έ44ΝMyresΝ1λ41,Ν14έ4ηΝTheΝinscriptionΝwasΝpublishedΝbyΝDomenicoΝComparettiΝinΝ1κκκΝ(ComparettiΝ1κκκ,Νθιγ–ιθ)έ
Fig. 4 (continued) Prehistoric excavations in the Aegean during the period 1877–1892. The third column shows
sites that had been identiied as Heroic (i.e. prehistoric) before Schliemann’s excavations at Mycenae.
Date SiteKnown be-
fore 1875Excavator/Excavators
1891 Kampos Tsountas
1κλ1Ν(April) Tiryns √ σikolaidis
1κλβ PalamidiΝ(σafplio) √ Stais
1κλβ DiminiμΝTholosΝtomb Stais
11
Nektarios Karadimas
orΝmodiiedΝearlierΝtheoriesΝinΝorderΝtoΝinterpretΝhisΝindsέΝUnforΝtuΝnateΝly,ΝinΝhisΝpublications,ΝheΝpaidΝlittleΝtributeΝtoΝearlier scholars, whose ideas he relied upon, gi ving thus the false impression of exclusive originality in everything
thatΝrelatedΝtoΝ“Minoan”ΝCreteέΝTheΝhistoryΝofΝarchaeology,ΝinvolvingΝtheΝstudyΝofΝnowΝforgottenΝworksΝsuchΝasΝHoeck’s Kre ta, may help us not only to correct such false impressions, but more importantly, to regard the work
ofΝpastΝarchaeologistsΝwithinΝtheΝbroaderΝintellectualΝcontextΝofΝtheirΝtimeέΝAsΝύlynΝDanielΝhasΝreΝmarked,Ν“τneΝofΝthe great values of studying the history of archaeology is to realize that it is not a simple straightforward record of
discoveryνΝitΝisΝaΝrecordΝofΝdiscoveryΝmixedΝwithΝfalseΝasΝsumpΝtionsΝandΝforgeryΝandΝrefusalΝofΝestablishedΝarchaeologistsΝtoΝregardΝtheirΝworkΝhistoricallyέ”4θ
4θΝDaniel 1λκ1,Ν1γέ
12
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
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ώoeck,ΝKέΝ1κβγΝ–1κβι–1κβλέΝKreta. Ein Versuch zur Aufhellung der Mythologie und Geschichte, der Religion und Verfassung dieser Insel, von den ältesten Zeiten bis auf die Römer-HerrschaftέΝγΝvolsέΝύöttingenμΝCarlΝEduardΝRosenbuschέ
ώolwell,ΝWέΝ1ιλγέΝA Mythological, Etymological, and Historical Dictionary: Extracted from the Analysis of An-cient Mythology.ΝLondonμΝCέΝDillyέ
Jones,ΝWέΝ1ιλ4έΝInstitutes of Hindu Law; or the Ordinances of Menu, According to the Gloss of Cullúca, Compris-ing the Indian System of Duties Religious and Civil.ΝCalcuttaμΝPrintedΝbyΝτrderΝofΝtheΝύovernmentέΝ
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4θ(β)μβ4η–ηκέ
Kopaka,ΝKέΝ1λλίέΝ“ ωο Ν α ο α ο ,Να α αφ Ν Ν ω έ”ΝPalimpsestonΝλ–1ίμη–θλέ
14
The Unknown Past of Minoan Archaeology
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Marchand,ΝSέLέΝ1λλθέΝDown from τlympusμ Archaeology and Philhellenism in ύermany, 1ι5ί–1λιίέΝPrincetonμΝPrincetonΝUniversityΝPressέ
Marsham,Ν JέΝ1θλθέΝCanon chronicus aegyptiacus, ebraicus, graecus, et disquisitiones liber non chronologicae tantum, sed & historicae antiquitatis reconditissima complexusέΝγrdΝedέΝόranekerμΝLέΝStrickέΝ
McDonald,ΝWέAέΝ1λθιέΝProgress into the Past: The Rediscovery of Mycenaean Civilization.ΝσewΝYorkμΝMacmillanέ
Micyllus,ΝJέΝ1ηκβέΝPub. Ovidii Nasonis Metamorphoseon libri XVέΝLeipzigμΝIέΝSteinmanέ
Milchhoefer,ΝAέΝ1κιγέΝÜber den attischen Apollon.ΝMünchenμΝόέΝStraubέ
Mitford,ΝWέΝ1ικ4έΝThe History of Greece.ΝVolέΝIέΝLondonμΝTέΝWrightέ
Momigliano,ΝAέDέΝ1λθθέΝ“ύeorgeΝύroteΝandΝtheΝStudyΝofΝύreekΝώistoryέ”ΝStudies in Historiographyμηθ–ι4έ
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Müller,ΝKέτέΝ1κβ4έΝDie Dorier.ΝBreslauμΝJosefΝMarΝundΝKompέ
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σeumann,ΝCέόέΝ1κβίέΝRerum Creticarum Specimen.ΝύötΝtingenμΝώέΝDieterichέ
σiemeier,ΝWέDέΝ1λκκέΝ“TheΝ‘PriestΝKing’ΝόrescoΝfromΝKnossosέΝAΝσewΝReconstructionΝandΝInterpretationέ”ΝInΝProblems in Greek Prehistory. Papers Presented at the Centenary Conference of the British School of Archaeo-logy at Athens, εanchester, April 1λκ6,ΝeditedΝbyΝEέBέΝόrenchΝandΝKέAέΝWardle,Νβγη–44έΝBristolμΝBristolΝClassicalΝPressέΝ
Pashley,ΝRέΝ1κγιέΝTravels in CreteέΝβΝvolsέΝLondonμΝJohnΝMurrayέ
Perrot,ΝύέΝ1κθιέΝL’île de Crète; souvenirs de voyage.ΝParisμΝL’ώachetteΝetΝCieέ
Pfeiffer,ΝRέΝ1λιθέΝώistory of Classical Scholarship from 13ίί to 1κ5ίέΝτxfordμΝClarendonΝPressέ
Plass,ΝώέύέΝ1κγ1έΝVor- und Urgeschichte der Hellenen.ΝLeipzigμΝώartmannέ
Raulin,ΝόέVέΝ1κθλέΝDescription physique et naturelle de l’île de CrèteέΝβΝvolsέΝParisμΝAέΝBertrandέ
15
Nektarios Karadimas
Rice,ΝWέύέΝ1λγγέΝ“EarlyΝEnglishΝTravelersΝtoΝύreeceΝandΝtheΝLevantέ”ΝInΝEssays and Studies in English and Com-parative Literature, editedΝbyΝtheΝDepartmentΝofΝEnglish,ΝUniversityΝofΝMichigan,Νβίη–θίέΝAnn Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Salomon,ΝBέΝ1ηηιέ δa εétamorphose d’τvide iguréeέΝLyonμΝIanΝdeΝTournesέ
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Sve,ΝMέΝ1λλγέΝLes voyageurs français à Argos.ΝAthensμΝEcoleΝfranaiseΝd’Athnesέ
Shaw,ΝMέCέΝβίί4έΝ“TheΝPriestKingΝReliefΝfromΝtheΝPalaceΝofΝKnossosέ”ΝIn Χ έ Essays in ώonor of Sara Aέ Im-merwahr,ΝeditedΝbyΝAέPέΝChapin,Νθη–κ4έΝPrinceton,ΝσέJέμΝAmericanΝSchoolΝofΝClassicalΝStudiesΝinΝAthensέ
Sherratt,ΝSέΝβίίίέΝArthur Evans, Knossos and the Priest-King.ΝτxfordμΝAshmoleanΝMuseumέ
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Skinner,ΝEέώέΝ1κθκέΝRoughing it in Crete in 1κ6ιέΝLondonμΝRichardΝBentleyέ
Spanakis,ΝSέ,ΝedέΝ1λθλέΝόrancesco Basilicata, Relazione 163ίέΝώeraklionμΝSfakianosέ
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Spreng,ΝJέAέΝ1ηθγέΝMetamorphoses Ouidii argumentis quidem soluta oratione, enarrationibus autem & allegorijs elegiaco uersu accuratissimè expositae.ΝόrankfurtμΝύέΝCoruinum,ΝSέΝόeyerabent,Ν&ΝWέΝύalliέ
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Tournefort,ΝPέΝde,Ν1ιίβέΝ“DescriptionΝduΝLabyrintheΝdeΝCandie,ΝavecΝquelquesΝobservationsΝsurΝl’accroissementΝ&ΝsurΝlaΝgénérationΝdesΝPierresέ”ΝMmoires de l’Acadmie Royal des Sciencesμββ4–41έΝ
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