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Cri
tiqu
esof
As
IAN
AM
ER
IcA
NIM
AG
ES
ED
ITE
DB
Y
M.
EV
EL
INA
GA
LA
NG
INC
OL
LA
BO
RA
TIO
NW
ITH
NO
NF
ICT
ION
ED
ITO
RS
UN
AIN
AM
AIR
A
PO
ET
RY
ED
ITO
RE
ILE
EN
TA
BIO
S
AR
TE
DIT
OR
JOR
D1N
ISIP
FO
UN
DIM
AG
ES
ED
ITO
RA
NID
AY
OE
UE
SG
UE
RR
A
AN
DM
ON
KE
Y’S
CO
MP
AN
ION
CO
NT
RIB
UT
OR
LE
SL
IEB
OW
WIT
HA
SS
IST
AN
CE
FR
OM
AIM
EE
BR
OW
N,
TO
IYA
KR
IST
EN
FIN
LE
Y,
AN
DL
AU
RA
yA
SS
ER
CO
FF
EE
HO
US
EP
RE
SS
MIN
NE
AP
OL
IS
AH
IST
oR
yO
F“T
HE
SA
VA
GE
”
19
(>hbeu
tIe
Que
rlur
dof
the
sava
gew
orld
,’ar
tO(1
1S
tVS
M.
COc
Supe
rsso
dth
edi
spla
yan
dsi
noy
)tiv
om
dpr
imit
ive
peop
les’
attI0
514
StA
‘ds
lair
Hum
anC
ult
ure
sbe
r’‘m
lr’’rm
r’’tr
McG
eeno
ton
lytb
ot,
tidtI
’,,
5t
Vss
ghth
eex
tInc
tion
ofth
eO
we
(Cr
ivv
‘t
rJe
nnin
gsan
dT
odd
Bie
wst
nr,
34
1876
—19
32—
Car
icat
ure
ofan
Asi
anre
prin
ted
in
Arr
iera
siaj
our,
i01
(Fal
l1
Win
tert
982)
unde
rth
etit
leof
“Rac
isnt
&A
nti.
Chi
,ies
epe
rsec
utio
nri
Sen
ora
Mex
ico
from
1876
.193
2”V
olum
e9,
No.,
p.21
.
SA
LV
AG
ING
TH
ES
AV
AG
E
On
Rep
rese
ntin
gFi
lipin
osan
dR
emem
beri
ngA
mer
ican
Em
pire
AT
aste
ofE
mpi
re
Seve
ral
mon
ths
ago,
whi
leri
ding
the
bus
toth
eU
nive
rsity
ofs
linne
sota
,I
saw
the
billb
oard
for
the
firs
ttim
e.Pe
rche
dhi
ghim
the
corn
erof
the
busy
inte
rsec
tion
atFr
ankl
inSt
reet
and
1len
nepi
nA
venu
e,th
ead
ser
tisem
ent
for
the
new
rest
aura
ntna
med
Chi
noI,
atin
oco
nsis
ted
ofa
seem
ingl
ysi
mpl
e
phra
sesp
elle
dou
tin
larg
er—
than
—lif
ele
tters
:“A
sex
otic
asfi
odge
tsw
itho
ut
usin
gth
edo
g.”
ina
mon
tent
ofdo
uble
cons
ciou
snes
st,
ast
ream
ofim
ages
ente
red
my
min
d:Fi
lipin
o,sa
vage
,do
geat
er,
mon
key.
1w
onde
red
who
else
onth
ebu
sha
dlo
oked
atth
isad
vert
isem
ent.
Iwon
dere
dif
thes
wer
elo
okin
g
atm
e,a
Filip
ino,
sava
ge,
doge
ater
,m
onke
y.
Whi
leth
ete
rmC
hino
Lat
ino
hist
oric
ally
refe
rsto
the
long
stan
dmg
pre
s
ence
ofC
hine
sein
the
Am
eric
as,t
hepe
ople
sof
mix
edhe
rita
geth
ere
(suc
has
Chi
nese
Cub
ans
and
Chi
nese
Peru
vian
s),
and
the
inte
rtui
xilig
and
flui
dity
of
cultu
res,
the
Min
neap
olis
rest
aura
ntC
hino
l.ati
nore
duce
sth
isco
mpl
exhis
tory
’to
atr
endy
exot
icm
enu
ofdi
shes
insp
ired
bycu
isin
efr
omdi
ffer
entp
arts
ofA
sia
and
the
Am
eric
as.
Res
taur
ant
Chi
noL
atin
ois
the
late
stsu
cces
sfttl
vent
ure
ofPa
raso
leR
ecta
uran
tIl
oldi
ngs.
Para
sole
’sco
mpa
nypa
rtne
rs—
Don
Hay
s,Pe
teM
ihaj
lov,
and
Phil
Rob
erts
—ow
nse
vera
lre
stau
rant
sin
Min
neap
oliS
’sdo
wnt
own
and
itstr
endy
1.Ipt
tw
nne
ighb
orho
od.
As
anA
mer
ican
hist
oria
nw
hosp
ecia
lizes
inA
sian
Am
eric
anSt
udie
san
d
asa
Filip
ino
Am
eric
anw
oman
.I
inte
rpre
tth
ead
vert
isem
ent
ason
efo
rmof
the
pers
iste
nce
ofit
s,co
loni
alna
rrat
ives
ofw
hite
supr
emac
yan
dFi
lipin
o
infe
rior
ityin
conte
mporary
ever
yday
life
.The
raci
stna
rrat
ives
impl
ied
inth
is
part
icul
arad
vert
isem
ent
arc
rioac
cide
nt.T
his
billb
oard
ison
lyon
epi
ece
of
the
rest
aura
nt’s
cohe
sive
adve
rtis
ing
stra
tegy
that
exot
iciz
esan
dde
grad
es
Asi
ans
and
Lat
inos
.Se
vera
lda
ysla
ter,
Ise
ean
othe
rC
hino
Iati
nobi
llboa
rd
inan
othe
rbu
syin
ters
ectio
nof
\lin
neap
olis
’tr
endy
Upt
own
neig
hbor
hood
.
Thi
son
ere
ads:
“All
the
flavo
rsw
itho
utal
lth
eva
ccin
es.”
Tra
nsla
tion:
Ydu
(mea
ning
you
whi
teyo
ung
adse
ntur
ous
Am
eric
ans)
can
eat
the
delic
ious
“Stre
etfo
ods
from
the
hot
zone
”(C
hino
Lat
ino’
sta
glin
e)w
itho
utha
ving
to
goth
roug
hth
etr
oubl
eof
visi
ting
thos
edi
seas
ed(m
eani
ngba
ckw
ard
and
unci
viliz
ed)
plac
es.A
sve
tano
ther
insi
diou
sbi
llboa
rdpo
ints
out,
thes
epl
aces
exis
tam
bigu
ousl
yso
mew
here
out
ther
eto
prov
ide
rnst
erio
us,
vet
tast
y
dish
esfo
r“yo
ur’
plea
sure
.It
proc
laim
sth
atth
ere
stau
rant
spec
ializ
esin
“har
d
topr
onou
nce
food
from
hard
topr
ollo
unce
plac
es.”
Res
taur
ant
revi
ews
cons
truc
tafa
vora
ble
imag
eof
Chi
noIa
tino
ashi
pan
c
cool
prec
isel
ybe
caus
eof
itsgl
obal
feat
ures
wit
hout
criti
quin
gth
eun
equa
L40
DIF
FE
RE
NT
TR
IBE
S6
PH
ILIp
pV
ILL
AG
ES
70,Q
oEX
HIB
ITS
130
BU
1LO
ING
S7Z
5N
AT
IVE
SO
LD
IER
S‘1
,5*111+
50
r.15
Cm
‘.‘i
cm
x0+
‘e
Cm
vi
CY
1*1+
0ex+
erx,g.
11
.,,,
1876_1932
-—
-C
aric
atur
eof
anA
sian
repr
inte
dfl
Am
erri
sia
Jour
nal
(Fal
l/W
inte
r98
2)un
der
the
title
of“R
acis
i&
Ant
j.Chi
nese
pers
ecut
ion
inS
enor
aM
exic
ofr
om87
6i9
32,”
Vol
ume
9,N
O.2
,p
22.
SC
RE
AM
ING
MO
NK
EY
SSA
VA
GE
and
C\j
Iit
oe
erre
latio
nsth
isgh
ibal
izat
ion
enta
ils.
As
one
revi
eWci
ai
.\Igu
aih
the
clev
eres
tne
wre
stau
rant
into
wn,
Chi
noL
atin
odr
ewhi
pste
rfo
odie
s,an
dU
ptow
nne
ighb
ors
alik
eto
itsop
enin
gw
eek
end
iim
idF
ebru
ary
2000
bri
ni
our
pals
..
.T
hew
ild,
corn
—pl
icat
edde
cori
ape
rfec
tm
atch
for
the
tçlo
bal
men
u.
..It’
scr
owd
edo1d
hind
aiel
wild
like
ast
reet
frst
isaI
.
Iim
airi
cth
itru
eow
ners
ofth
ere
stau
rant
,th
ecr
eato
rsof
the
adve
rtis
emen
t,an
dth
ea
ccc
ccf
the
rest
aura
ntm
ight
vigo
rous
lydi
sagr
eew
ithm
yan
aly
sis
aboc
eI
inna
ine
that
they
will
insi
stth
atso
me
ofth
eir
best
empl
oyee
s,cu
stm
er,
nid
frie
nds
are
Asi
anan
dL
tiii
o.
lhet
may
rely
onhi
stor
ical
anln
eoa:
“We
dont
even
know
anyt
hing
abou
tu.
s.im
peri
alis
min
the
Phili
ppin
e..
Ihco
uld
our
adve
rtis
emen
tsab
out
stre
etfo
ods
from
the
hot
tone
have
onth
ing
todo
with
that
?”A
ndth
eyw
ould
not
beal
one.
Ingen
eral
,A
mer
aho
lars
acro
ssdi
scip
line
sha
vede
nied
the
exis
tenc
eof
u.s.
impe
mia
lisi
md
tsim
port
ant
conn
ectio
nsto
Am
eric
ancu
ltur
e.u.
s.hi
stor
yte
xtb
ciks
larc
hm
enti
onth
eSp
anis
hA
mer
ican
‘vVa
rof
i88,
whi
chle
dto
the
is.
amie
xati
inof
the
Phili
ppin
es.
the
Phili
ppin
e—A
mer
ican
Var
,an
dhiu
rde
cade
..f
L.s
.co
loni
alru
lein
the
arch
ipel
ago.
As
Am
yK
apla
nha
sas
tute
lyoh
cise
e1,
thre
esa
lien
tab
senc
esco
ntri
bute
toth
ison
goin
gpa
tter
n:“t
heab
scm
oful
ture
from
the
hist
ory
oft
.s.im
peri
alis
m;
the
abse
nce
ofem
pne
frot
the
stud
y(if
Am
eric
ancu
lture
;an
dth
eab
senc
eof
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esho
rnth
epo
stco
lona
lst
udy
ofim
peri
alis
m.”
3I
inna
iinc
that
the
owne
rsof
Chi
noL
atin
om
ight
also
refu
tem
ycl
aim
sab
ce
bir
gu
iath
atC
liiu
ol.a
tino
has
noth
ing
todo
with
Filip
inos
spec
iti.
ally
Itsst
reet
food
sfr
omth
eho
tzo
ne”
incl
ude
dish
esfr
omm
any
difh
trcn
tp
tth
egl
obe
bord
ered
byth
etr
opic
sof
Can
cer
and
Cap
rico
rn.
Its
“Pin
up1
ore
Pael
la”
ison
lyon
edi
sham
ong
the
“cam
eas
ada
ala
mor
e—lia
na, ‘
‘Mnc
te.i
Bay
jerk
edch
icke
n,”
and
“Bal
ifer
tility
feas
t.”H
owev
er, t
his
lurn
piiic
ifA
sian
and
l.ati
nocu
lture
sis
espe
cial
lyda
nger
ous
asit
rest
ruc
ture
s,bu
tul
hnia
telt
stre
ngth
ens
our
hist
oric
alam
nesi
a,w
hat
Mat
thew
Frye
Jaco
bson
h.i
iden
red
toas
“the
mod
ern
art
offo
rget
ting
.”4
Iter
ases
the
salie
ntui
ncrc
nccs
ofFi
lipin
ocu
lture
and
hist
ory
(inpa
rtic
ular
itsco
loni
alme
l etr
onsb
ipw
ithth
eU
nite
dS
tate
s)5,
whi
lere
min
ding
usof
the
oppr
essi
onth
atgr
itip
s)f
i.r
cial
ized
peop
les
shar
ein
Am
eric
a.,‘
tth
rst
f.u
re,
som
eof
thes
eco
ntem
pora
rmre
pre
senta
tions
seem
toha
veno
thnr
cto
don
ibFi
lipin
obo
dies
beca
use
them
mak
eth
ese
bodi
esin
visi
ble
tlir
ugh
the
I)
Uum
whi
teA
mer
ican
s’ad
vent
ure
and
cons
umpt
ion
ofex
otic
fiaoe
l,ha
eat
njhe
etFi
llpin
obo
dies
are
cent
ral
toth
ena
rrat
ives
impl
icat
edin
sin
Iii
fuer
ecc
Is‘a
llth
eca
ccin
es”
and
“usi
ngth
edo
g.”
Inth
eea
rlytw
entie
th
cent
ury,
the
quar
anti
nean
dva
ccin
atio
nof
Fil
ipin
obo
dies
para
llele
du.
s.
colo
nial
mili
tary
aggr
essi
onan
dco
ntro
lin
the
arch
ipel
ago,
and
Am
eric
an
med
ical
pers
onne
lan
dsc
ient
ists
cons
truc
ted
Fil
ipin
obo
dies
asca
rrie
rsof
t
dise
ase.
At
the
19
04
St.
Lou
isW
orld
’sFa
ir,
expo
siti
onor
gani
zers
exhi
bite
d
igor
ots
(one
grou
pof
Filip
ino
indi
geno
uspe
ople
s)an
dne
wsp
aper
acco
unts
high
ligh
ted
thei
rdo
geat
ing
ritu
als
toed
ucat
eA
mer
ican
mas
ses
abou
t
Filip
ino
sava
gery
asw
ell
asA
mer
ican
“civ
iliz
atio
n.”
Thi
ses
say
unco
vers
som
eof
the
pivo
tal
mom
ents
ofth
ere
pres
enta
tion
of
Filip
ino
assa
vage
intw
enti
eth—
centu
ryA
mer
ican
hito
rv.
Spe
citi
call
it
trac
esth
isre
pres
enta
tion
toth
eop
pres
sive
use
ofu.
s.sc
ienc
ean
dm
edic
ine
byA
mer
ican
colo
nize
rsin
the
Phili
ppin
esan
dth
eex
hibi
tion
ofFi
lipin
osin
the
1904
Wor
ld’s
Fair
at
St.
Lou
is.
Inth
ese
hist
oric
alco
ntex
ts,t
hew
ords
and
the
imag
esof
sava
ge,
mon
key,
and
do
gea
ter
are
inex
tric
ably
linke
dto
raci
sm,
resi
stan
ce,
and
viol
ence
.1
then
conn
ect
colo
nial
narr
ativ
esof
the
Filip
ino
as
sava
gew
ith
Fil
ipin
om
en’s
expe
rien
ces
ofra
cism
inth
e1
92
05
and
3os
inth
e
Am
eric
anW
est
and
the
pers
ecut
ion
oftw
oF
ilip
ino
imm
igra
ntnu
rses
(Fili
pina
Nar
ciso
and
Leo
nora
Pere
z)w
how
ere
accu
sed
ofco
nspi
racy
,p
oi
soni
ng,a
ndm
urde
rin
the
mid
19
70
5in
Arm
Arb
or,
Mic
higa
n.T
heex
ampl
esI
pres
ent
here
byno
mea
nsco
mpr
ise
aco
mp
reli
ensi
ehi
stor
ical
stud
yof
Fil
ipin
ore
pres
enta
tion
sas
sava
ge.
Iha
vech
osen
thes
eex
ampl
essp
ecif
ical
ly
inor
der
toil
lust
rate
how
raci
aliz
edim
ages
have
shap
edth
eex
peri
ence
sof
diff
eren
tgr
oups
of
Fil
ipin
osac
ross
clas
s,ge
nder
,an
dti
me.
Inth
ises
say,
Iar
gue
that
itis
polit
ical
lyim
pera
tive
to“s
alva
geth
eia
ge,”
to
rem
ember
the
his
tory
of
repre
sentc
illi
iTii
pin
7di
esas
sava
ge,
sub
hum
an,
infe
rior
,and
toco
ntes
tth
eir
resp
onsi
ble
perp
etua
tion
ofth
ese
repr
esen
tatio
ns.
B’
salv
agin
gth
esa
vage
,1
refe
rto
the
impo
rtan
ceof
resc
uing
the
repre
sent
atio
ncf
Fil
ipin
oas
sava
gefr
omco
ntem
pora
ryhi
stor
ical
amne
sia
abou
t
Am
eric
a’s
viol
ent
impe
rial
ism
inth
ePh
ilipp
ines
.\V
hile
this
hist
ory
mcug
lyan
d
pain
ful,
ithe
lps
usid
enti
fith
era
cist
trac
esof
u.s.
impe
rial
ist
ideo
logy
inco
nte
mpo
rary
repr
esen
tatio
nsan
dpr
ovid
esa
foun
datio
nfo
rst
rate
gies
ofre
sist
ance
.T
hrou
ghsa
lvag
ing
the
sava
ge,w
ele
arn
ala
ngua
gew
ithw
hich
tocr
itiqu
eth
esel
repr
esen
tatio
ns.
stri
pth
emof
thei
rin
noce
nce,
and
cons
truc
tco
unte
r-na
rrat
ives
J
that
chal
leng
eth
eim
peri
alis
man
dra
cism
that
infl
icto
urev
erm
dam
lives
.
Iw
illte
llyo
uth
atas
Iw
rite
this
essa
y,I
amph
ysic
ally
and
emot
iona
llytir
ed.
As
anas
sist
ant
prof
esso
r,w
ife,
and
mot
her
ofan
infa
nt,
Ifi
ndth
atth
eho
urs
of
the
day
are
neve
ren
ough
tota
keca
reof
wor
k,fi
smily
mys
elf
let
alon
epr
otes
tsu
cces
sftil
rest
aura
ntow
ners
and
adve
rtis
emen
texe
cutiv
es.\
Vhe
nI
saw
the
first
Chi
noL
atin
obi
llboa
rd,
1w
ante
dto
scre
am,
tope
titio
n,an
dto
pick
et.
One
of
my
colle
ague
sin
Am
eric
anSt
udie
sto
ldm
eth
atsh
ew
rote
the
rest
aura
ntow
ner
san
dcr
itici
zed
thei
rad
vert
isem
ents
,bu
tth
eydi
dno
tre
spon
d.H
erex
peri
ence
rem
inde
dm
eof
the
impo
rtan
ceof
empl
oyin
gm
ultip
lest
rate
gies
ofre
sist
ance
.So
inw
ritin
gth
ises
say,
Ich
art
the
inte
rsec
tions
betw
een
the
pers
onal
,
SC
RE
AM
ING
MO
NK
EY
SSA
VA
GE
th’
Pil
tit,
diid
tile
his
tori
cal
inth
eho
peth
atth
isis
one
smal
l,bu
tint
egra
lste
p
that
(‘ti
tet
litc
mpo
rarv
raen
m.
lhi
essa
yis
msc
ream
.
The
Soci
alan
dSc
ient
ific
Con
stru
ctio
nof
the
Sava
geFi
lipin
oB
ody
l)ne
ast
and
‘sul
ici m
g”am
ong
Filip
inos
asw
ell
asA
mer
ican
sin
the
Pli
thip
pinc
intt
tied
\in
erie
anc
doi i
ial
inte
rven
tion
inth
ePh
ilipp
ines
inth
eto
tti
titi
,-dn
aipr
acti
ce.
Aft
erA
mer
ican
vict
orie
sov
erch
oler
ain
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
iiih
iti
es
and
ibo
s,an
outb
reak
ofch
oler
ain
the
Phili
ppin
esin
the
eat h
t9os
cth
eu
s,co
loni
algo
ser
lim
ent
repr
esen
ted
bits
Am
eric
annn
iitat
xir
eit
san
dsa
nita
tion
pers
omie
la
righ
teou
spu
rpos
ein
thei
rsu
r—ci
hlal
ise
of
the
idan
ds.
5hh
ie})
Ls
cjtt
uti
ot
XV
este
rnsc
ienc
ean
dm
edic
ine
aspr
ogre
ssiv
eis
sope
r—ti
atFi
lipin
oan
ti-co
loni
al,
nati
onal
ist
wri
ters
have
prai
sed
u,s.
toio
rii i
iI
caith
proj
ects
iii
the
Phi
lipp
ines
.l-’
orex
ampl
e,le
odor
oA
gone
illo
and
\It
idgi
lN
(;ne
rrer
t)do
cum
ente
dth
ebl
oody
Filip
ino
stru
ggle
tode
fend
thet
rm
d5
‘end
cnce
inth
ePh
ihip
pine
—.\m
cric
anvar
of1$9—
Io2,
but
then
lals
rt
itsi
Vt
ten
ii\m
nerl
cuis
cain
e,th
ienn
iiie
diat
elv
set
tow
ork
tom
ini
nil
/cte
prea
slol
dise
ases
and
toIm
prov
e,on
the
othe
rha
nd,
the
hi.
itt
the
peop
le.
Epi
dem
ics
that
used
tom
igra
teto
the
Phil
ppit
sw
ere
eith
erpr
even
ted
orm
inim
ited
byth
ees
tabl
ishm
ent
ofti
Qir
anti
neS
ervi
cesm
ipem
vise
dby
com
pete
ntA
mer
ican
doe
IiO
sib
hic
heal
tho
cers
.
Ib
c’er
,\\
,uic
kA
nder
son
and
Rey
nald
oIl
eto
have
pers
uasi
vely
argu
ed/h
at\rn
cmit
oscie
nti
fic
and_m
edie
ine-
rela
tedra
etie
es,
such
asla
bora
tory
jstu
dies
sis
itat
ion
,an
dqu
arim
tine
,fu
rth
erei
u.s
.co
loni
alis
min
the
iPhi
thtp
ptti
ean
dra
ciah
ized
Fil
ipin
obodie
s.8
Lvre
sear
chon
the
deve
lopm
ent
otI >
hihi
ppiii
cpr
ofes
sion
alnu
rsin
gfu
rther
res
eale
dth
atA
mer
ican
ized
nurs
—
nig
justi
fied
the
whi
teu
on
lan
s(a
sw
ell
asm
an’s
)bu
rden
inth
eP
hili
ppin
es
and
nnp
seph
ysic
alan
dso
cial
cont
rol
on
Fil
ipin
os.
9A
mer
ican
nurs
es
atto
cit
pdrt
tpa
ted
alon
gw
ith
oth
erm
edic
alpe
rson
nel
inco
nst
ruct
ing
a
cuitt
ita]
and
raci
alhi
erar
chy
wit
hA
mer
ican
son
top
and
Fil
ipin
osbe
low
byiI
nugin
itn
and
cont
rast
ing
thei
r“p
rogr
cssi
xu,’
“cle
an,”
and
“mod
ern”
way
s
wit
lith
e‘b
atU
war
d,”
“dirt
y,”
and
“pri
mit
ive”
prac
tice
so
fFi
lipin
os.
‘lte
peI
ti
the
itbe
lief
iiith
eir
“pow
er”
tohe
al,
Am
eric
an
med
ical
per
son
tic]
st
miiui
l tat
ison
sly
linke
dFi
lipin
oso
cial
prac
tices
toig
nora
nce
and
soci
etal
bas
kxt a
rsin
c’an
d\V
este
rnon
esto
inte
llig
ence
and
civi
liza
tion
.A
ncit
an
,ht-
i’sl
uara
ntin
eo
tcer
cont
rast
edF
ilip
inos
who
igno
red
‘cne
rti
itt
ich
oler
am
easu
res
such
asdl
uara
ntin
ew
ith
“int
elli
gent
Atu
urid
uis
ti
urop
eans
.”°
Alt
houg
hth
ein
trod
ucti
onof
Am
eric
annu
rsin
g
inth
eP
hili
ppin
esdi
ffer
edfr
om
pre
vio
us
Am
eric
anm
edic
alin
terv
enti
on
as
itin
volv
edth
eag
itatio
nan
dpar
tici
pat
ion
of
Am
eric
anw
om
en
inth
e
Phi
lipp
ines
,nu
rsin
ged
ucat
ion
rein
forc
edm
any’
of
the
func
tions
and
belie
fs
ofpr
evio
usfo
rms
ofco
loni
alm
edic
ine.
Inhe
rhi
stor
yof
Am
eric
aniz
ed
nurs
ing
inth
eP
hili
ppin
es,
Lav
inia
Doc
kre
ifie
dth
ebe
liefs
ofot
her
Am
eric
anm
edic
alpe
rson
nel
that
med
ical
know
ledg
ew
asel
usiv
eto
Filip
inos
asa
resu
ltof
inte
rrel
ated
fact
ors
such
as“n
ativ
est
upid
ity”
and
“dir
ty”
indi
geno
usso
cial
prac
tices
.A
ccor
ding
toD
ock,
youn
gFi
lipin
o
wom
enw
how
ere
targ
eted
totr
ain
asn
urs
essu
ffer
edfr
om
ala
ckof”
rudi
rnen
tarv
know
ledg
e”ab
out
sani
tati
onas
are
sult
ofth
epr
evai
ling
Filip
ino
“pri
mit
ive
cust
om
s.”
1
Colo
nia
lm
edic
ine
pen
etra
ted
the
colo
niz
eds
bo
die
sth
roug
hst
atis
tical
and
lab
ora
tory
stu
die
s,an
dth
enuse
dth
ese
studie
sto
auth
enti
cate
cultu
ral
and
raci
alhi
erar
chie
s,in
the
earl
y19
00s,
the
u.s.
colo
nial
gove
rnm
ent
had
esta
blis
hed
labo
rato
ries
tost
udy’
Filip
ino
and
Am
eric
anbo
dies
inth
ear
chi
pela
go.
Am
eric
ansc
ient
ists
ingo
vern
men
tla
bora
tori
esin
the
Phili
ppin
es
cond
ucte
dst
udie
sof
igor
ots’
stoo
lsin
orde
rto
stud
aras
ites.
The
sela
bora
tory
stud
ies
then
linke
nativ
eod
ies
todi
rtan
ddi
seas
e.Fo
rex
ampl
e,
Phi
lipp
ine
Com
mis
sion
erof
Hea
lth
Vic
tor
ilei
ser
refe
rred
toFi
lipin
obod
ies
as“i
ncub
ator
sof
lepr
osy.
”12
At
the
sam
etim
e,th
ese
stud
ies
enab
led
Am
eric
anm
edic
alpe
rsoi
mel
tobi
olog
ical
ly’
and
soci
ally
re—
inve
ntA
mer
ican
bodi
esan
dso
cial
prac
tices
.C
olon
ial
labo
rato
ryst
udie
s“r
e”—
disc
over
ed
Am
eric
anbo
dies
asa
resi
lient
raci
alty
pean
dco
nclu
ded
that
Am
eric
anbod
ies
coul
dsu
rviv
eth
etr
opic
alcl
imat
e,on
ceth
ough
tto
beth
eso
urce
ofth
e
“whi
tem
an’s
gra
ve.
”t3
Thu
s,th
ede
nigr
atio
nof
Filip
ino
bodi
esw
asin
extr
i
cabl
ylin
ked
totil
e“h
ealth
”of
whi
teA
mer
ican
s.
Dis
play
ing
the
Sav
age,
Con
sum
ing
the
Sava
ge
The
know
ledg
eof
Filip
ino
sava
gebo
dies
was
not
conh
ned
toA
mer
ican
colo
nial
med
ical
pers
onne
lan
dot
her
ofiie
ials
.R
athe
r,th
eysh
ared
the
resu
ltsof
thei
rsc
ient
ific
and
pers
onal
obse
rvat
ions
with
Am
eric
anm
asse
sin
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esth
roug
hpo
pula
rre
pres
enta
tions
intr
avel
liter
atur
ean
dpu
blic
exhi
bits
.
As
Fat
imah
Tob
ing
Ron
yas
tute
lyno
tes,
“the
exot
icis
alw
ays
alre
adv
know
n.”
14
She
refe
rsto
the
“ave
rage
mus
eum
goer
”w
ho“
iew
sa
grou
pof
Hop
ida
ncer
sha
ndli
ngsn
akes
,”bu
tdo
esno
tse
eth
ese
imag
esfo
rth
efir
sti
time.
Rat
her,
heor
she
has
beco
me
fam
iliar
with
thes
eim
ages
thro
ugh
nar
ra
tives
that
link
indi
geno
uspe
ople
sw
ithth
eex
otic
,Si
mila
rly’,
the
Filip
ino
sav
age
isah
vays
alre
ady
know
nby
’the
“ave
rage
Am
eric
an.”
Inth
ela
teni
nete
enth
and
early
’tw
entie
thce
ntur
ies,
the
cond
ition
sth
atm
ade
this
know
ledg
ep
os
sibl
ein
volv
edth
epo
pula
rity
and
mas
sco
nsum
ptio
nof
trav
ellit
erat
ure
and
phot
ogra
phy.
Dur
ing
this
time
peri
od,t
rave
llite
ratu
rean
du.
s.co
loni
alag
en
das
inth
ePh
ilipp
ines
wer
elin
ked
ina
mut
ually
’be
nefi
cial
rela
tions
hip.
SC
RE
AM
ING
MO
NK
EY
SSA
VA
GE
39
Phit
gr
)I
l’ili
pino
bodi
eson
post
card
san
din
hook
s,m
agazin
es,
dcw
spe
an
inte
gral
part
of
this
trav
ellit
erat
ure.
The
yfu
nc
iOil
cIa
pit
iian
dte
mpo
ral
brid
ges”
from
the
Phi
lipp
ine
colo
nyto
the
iiup
ual
uted
Stat
es,
enab
ling
mas
se’
ofA
mer
ican
sto
cons
ume
the
Pilil
ilIls
ilIL
Ilid
1t
peop
les
visu
allv
.bin
thei
rvi
sual
cons
umpt
ion
ofth
e
Piiil
ippi
ne,
“.s
r.ve
Am
eric
ans”
imbi
bed
:\ni
eric
ancolo
nia
lof
ficia
ls’
con—
stru
etio
lio
tFi
lipin
osa
vage
.Fo
rex
ampl
e,Fr
edA
tkin
son,
the
firs
t
neil
Si
ii
tend
ent
ofE
duca
tion
iii
the
Phi
lipp
ines
,sh
ared
his
pu
r
porn
Hi
ncu
tean
dco
mpr
ehen
sive
ohse
rvat
ioii
sab
out
Filip
inos
inhi
s
book
.17
’:I
.:/‘iin
i/node
pnbl
ishe
dif
l1005
Acc
ordi
ngto
Atk
inso
n,
nm
(lir
iste
mbi
lipin
otr
ibes
—eg
rito
s,Ig
orot
s,M
orus
—co
rnpr
ised
the
h1’el.
nt
‘ai
age
race
’.P
hoto
grap
hsin
clud
ing
thos
eof
asc
antil
ycl
ad
egr
to[u
sIn
otin
ga
larg
ebo
wan
dar
row
and
agr
oup
ofIg
orot
sdr
um—
mni
,,a
idat
ngw
ildly
ina
circ
leie
info
rced
Atk
inso
n’s
desc
ript
ions
of
thei
tas
a..
thro
ugh
thei
rill
ustr
atio
nof
ster
eoty
pica
llypr
imiti
veso
cial
prac
tIce
sO
ther
phot
ogra
phs
ofsq
uatt
ing
Neg
rito
san
dig
orot
sde
pict
ed
them
a’oI
d1.i
mai
lan
dm
onke
y—lik
e.1
.\tL
iT1
su
r1u
itten
text
reaf
firm
edth
ena
rrat
ises
ofsa
vage
ryin
the
phot
o—
giip
h.
IIc
ehil
Lre
riie
dth
eN
egri
tos,
tor
exam
ple,
as“t
rue
sava
ges”
:“T
hese
peop
hse
ent
hrth
esu
rvha
l oft
heun
titte
st,a
ndar
eph
ysic
alan
dm
enta
lwea
k-
1mg
,th
encs
irelik
ebr
oom
stic
ks;
thei
rfe
etar
ecl
umsy
and
larg
e,an
dth
eir
bode
sa
ens c
mui
with
tatt
oom
arks
inth
efo
riri
oflo
ngga
shes
”(2
41).
Aga
in,t
he
u’e
nth
eF
lip
no
body
toill
ustr
ate
U.S
.co
loni
alna
rrat
ives
ofdi
seas
ed,a
ndth
us
raci
alh
Inte
rior,
Filip
ino
sas
ages
i5fo
regr
ound
edin
thes
ere
pres
enta
tions
.
(lo
n:al
tris
cilit
erat
ure
and
phot
ogra
phy
wer
eno
tth
eon
lym
odes
ofth
e
orpo
tcal
10za
tion
of
Fil
ipin
os.
Lat
eni
nete
enth
and
earl
y—tw
entie
th-
cent
itW
ithI
Fair
sex
hibi
ted
Fil
ipin
obo
dies
inw
ays
that
reaf
firm
ed
PH
i1
mu
igir
and
Am
eric
anci
viliz
atio
nfo
rth
eav
erag
efii
irgo
er.
sit
uin
dir
cti
Irsdi
spla
yed
Filip
ino
bodi
esat
mul
tiple
fairs
thro
ugho
ut
the
Uni
ted
Stat
e’.
Ilow
ever
, the
Filip
ino
disp
lay
atth
e1
90
4‘W
orld
’sFa
irin
St.
1‘U
I’iia
unpr
eced
ente
din
its
scal
e.A
tth
atfa
ir,ex
posi
tion
dire
ctor
s,
isith
the
Iill
pport
ofth
efe
dera
lgo
vern
men
t,or
gani
zed
the
Phi
lipp
ine
Res
ets
if,
viic
hdi
spla
yed
near
lytw
elve
hund
red
Filip
inos
livin
gin
viP
ona
tot t
tse
sen
acre
site
.A
ccor
ding
toR
ober
tR
vdel
l,th
eex
hibi
tsof
tile
hili
jiri
old
trib
es”—
Bag
obos
,N
egri
tos,
Igor
ots,
and
Mor
os—
wer
e
the
mos
t1upula
rdi
spla
yso
fth
ere
serv
atio
n.N
ewsp
aper
acco
unts
ofth
ese
disp
miis
5‘ti
I/ed
Filip
ino
sava
gery
isvhi
ghli
ghti
ngth
edo
geat
ing
ritu
als
of
igo
rts
Ao
acco
unt
ofth
eFi
lipin
oex
hibi
tcl
aim
ed:
“See
the
Igor
otte
.
•‘1i
tllCl
(it
iflc
aD
ogw
ith
any
othe
rna
me
will
tast
eas
swee
t..
..A
fter
the
gotl
it7
ets
hold
of
ado
git
isD
ogG
one.
”1
8
\Id
leu5
iiL
coum
lts
popu
liri
teei
Filip
ino
sava
gery
thro
ugh
the
veil
of
horn
.•\I
km
sin
hum
ane
trea
tmen
tof
Filip
inos
resu
lted
inth
edi
seas
e,
deat
hs,
and
dism
embe
rmen
tof
Fil
ipin
obo
dies
.Fw
oF
ilip
inos
died
ona
trai
n
whi
letr
avel
ing
toth
eSt
.L
ouis
fair
afte
rtr
ain
crew
men
turn
edof
fth
ehe
at
inth
eir
cars
desp
itefr
eezi
ngw
eath
er.
Oth
ers
died
from
dise
ase
cont
ract
ed
duri
ngth
efa
irs.
Fur
ther
mor
e,A
mer
ican
acad
emic
san
dm
useu
mof
fici
als
stra
tegi
zed
abou
tth
edi
ssec
tion
and
dist
ribu
tion
ofth
ese
Filip
ino
corp
ses’
bo
dpa
rts.
Acc
ordi
ngto
Rvd
ell,
afte
rdi
scus
sion
sw
ith
Col
umbi
aU
nive
rsity
anth
ropo
logi
stF
ranz
Boa
s,A
les
I1rd
1kka
tbe
head
of
the
Dep
artm
ent
of
Phy
sica
lA
nthr
opol
ogy
atth
eU
nite
dS
tate
sN
atio
nal
\Ius
eum
)“p
ropo
sed
obta
inin
gas
man
yco
rpse
sas
heco
uld
lay
hand
son
and
divi
ding
the
bodi
es
insu
cha
way
that
Col
umbi
aan
dth
eA
mer
ican
1\Iu
seum
wou
ldre
ceiv
eth
e
soft
part
s’and
skel
eton
sw
hile
the
ITnit
edS
tate
sN
atio
nal
\lu
seum
wou
ld
rece
ive
the
brai
ns”
(Rvd
ell
r65
).
Inot
her
part
sof
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es,
univ
ersi
tyof
ficia
lsex
pres
sed
inte
rest
in
obta
inin
gF
ilip
ino
body
part
s.D
urin
gth
ere
sear
chfo
rhi
sac
clai
med
exp
eri
men
tal
docu
men
tary
,B
onto
cEu
/o,ç
y,ab
out
Filip
inos
’ex
peri
ence
sat
the
19
04
St.
Lou
isW
orld
’sFa
ir,
I\la
rlon
Fue
ntes
cam
eac
ross
ale
tter
from
Uni
vers
ity
of i
\lin
neso
taP
resi
dent
Cyr
usN
orth
rup
toth
e\V
arD
epar
tmen
t’s
Bur
eau
of
Insu
lar
Aff
airs
.N
orth
rup
inqu
ired
abou
tth
epo
ssib
ilit
yof
obta
inin
gth
e
skel
eton
sof
Fih
pino
nativ
esbu
ried
inSt
.l.o
cus
and
just
ifie
dhi
sre
ques
t wit
h
the
beli
efth
at“t
hey
wer
ebu
ried
whe
reth
eir
frie
nds
wou
ldne
ver
visi
tth
eir
grav
es,
and
the
mat
ter
iila
ybe
carr
ied
thro
ugh
wit
hout
arou
sing
ase
nti
men
tal
cry
inobje
ctio
n.”
19
Nor
thru
p’s
lett
erre
veal
son
eim
port
ant
hist
oric
alcon
nect
ion
betw
een
Min
neso
ta’s
impe
rial
inte
rest
san
dF
ilip
ino
bodi
esas
wel
las
the
sign
ific
ance
of
mem
orv—
and,
mor
esp
ecifi
cally
,a
purp
osef
ulfo
rget
ful—
ness
—in
Am
eric
anim
peri
alag
enda
s.T
heah
seu
“enit
cry
in
obje
ctio
n”to
this
inhu
man
etr
eatm
ent
ofF
ilip
ino
bodi
esis
just
ifie
dby
the
inab
ilit
yof
the
Fil
ipin
ode
ad’s
fam
ily
mem
her
and
frie
nds
tosi
sit,
and
thus
rem
embe
rth
roug
hth
isac
t,th
eir
love
don
es.
Equ
ally
impo
rtan
t,th
eab
senc
e
ofo
hje
ctio
nis
also
base
don
Am
eric
ans’
purp
osef
ulfo
rget
fuln
ess,
thei
rde
nial
of
Fil
ipin
ohu
man
ity
thro
ugh
the
com
inod
ific
atio
nof
Fil
ipin
obo
dies
.
Ult
imna
teh
the
Sm
iths
onia
nob
tain
edth
ree
Fil
ipin
obr
ains
and,
acco
rdin
gto
Fue
ntes
,th
epr
esum
ptio
nis
that
the
brai
nsar
efr
omth
ree
Igor
ots
who
died
of
pneu
mon
iain
the
Phi
lipp
ine
Res
erva
tion
,In
the
earl
ytw
enti
eth
cent
ury,
Am
eric
ans
disp
laye
dan
dco
nsum
edF
ilip
ino
bodi
esliv
ing
and
dead
.
The
(In)
disp
ensa
ble
Sava
geT
hrou
ghou
tth
etw
enti
eth
cent
ury,
Fil
ipin
osha
veco
mpr
ised
anin
disp
ensa
ble
labo
rfo
rce
insp
ecif
icA
mer
ican
indu
stri
es.
How
ever
,de
spite
thes
e
impo
rtan
tco
ntri
buti
ons,
Fil
ipin
ow
orke
rsfa
ced
raci
stho
stil
ity
from
whi
te
wor
kers
inth
efo
rms
ofje
ers,
slur
s,ex
ploi
tatio
n,an
dvi
olen
ce.
Filip
inos
’ liv
ed
expe
rien
ces
ofra
cism
inA
mer
ica
have
been
inex
tric
ably
linke
dto
the
soci
al
and
scie
ntif
icco
nstr
ucti
ons
and
popu
lar
repr
esen
tati
ons
ofth
eir
‘ass
iger
v.
SAVA
GE41
hiiF
20
di
1Ii
)3
05
,th
enu
mbe
rsof
Filip
inos
inth
em
ainl
and
Uni
ted
St,
ite
re.o
ed
exp
inen
tiallv
twin
_5,bo
in0
)2
0to
4,2
o8
in1
93
0.2
0A
su.
s.
nat
onah
gis
enth
eU
.S.
an
nex
ati
on
of
the
Phili
ppin
es),
thse
Fil
ipin
os—
pri
man
lyio
umi.
iiial
e.an
dw
orki
ngcl
ass—
com
pris
edan
inex
pens
ive,
vetc
ruci
al
labo
rfo
rce
inA
mei
ILan
agri
cult
ural
,ca
nnin
g,an
dse
rvic
ein
dust
ries
aft
er
u.s.
raci
stI‘
gisla
tiom
iI
tdex
clud
edth
een
try
ofC
hine
se,
Japa
nese
,K
orea
n,an
d
Sout
FA
sito
mlk
rant
s.l)
uri
ng
this
tim
epe
riod
,m
ost
Filip
inos
wor
ked
in
agri
cult
ure,
plal
iiig
and
pick
ing
vari
ous
crop
s,su
chas
tom
atoe
s,ce
lery
,an
d
inpa
rtic
ulai
,as
par
igus
.Fa
rmer
svi
ewed
them
asid
eally
suite
dfo
r“s
toop
labo
r.”
abe
lief
that
hear
kene
dba
ckto
late
nine
teen
th—
cent
ury
ster
eoty
pes
“that
cast
nato
epe
ople
spo
stur
ean
dg
estL
nes
asra
cial
lyin
feri
or.A
sid
eals
toop
labo
rem.F
ili
1’im
iow
ere
expe
cted
toto
lera
tehi
ghly
expl
oitiv
e,de
hum
aniz
ing
labo
rro
ndit
ioii
sth
atpu
nish
edth
eir
bodi
es.A5
one
labo
rer
reca
lled,
“Iw
orke
d
abou
tsix
hoirs
thtt
firs
td
am
yha
ckw
ashu
rtin
g...
the
next
day
Ico
uld
hard
lysi
td
wbe
ause
my
back
and
all
ofm
body
was
sore
.”22
Ano
ther
desc
ribe
dco
ridi
iin
sof
one
ofth
eca
mps
whe
reFi
lipin
om
igra
ntw
orke
rs
wer
eI0
115cc
!d
uri
iibu
syag
ricu
ltura
lse
ason
s.T
hese
cond
ition
sre
veal
that
empl
oen
spr
osid
eci
thes
eFi
lipin
osin
Am
eric
aw
ithsu
bhum
an,
anim
al—
like
lislu
gqu
arte
rs.
lie
expl
aine
d,“T
hebu
nkho
use
...w
as
crow
ded
with
men
.
‘l’h
ere
xsa
nose
wag
edi
spos
al.
Whe
nat
ess
sar
ms
offli
esfo
ught
over
my
plat
e1
slep
ton
ac1
mrt’
cot:
the
blan
ket
was
neve
rw
ashed
.”23
Whi
leI
ilipi
sin
crc
asi
ngly
sufi
il’e
LI
from
vio
len
tatt
ack
sb
yw
hit
ew
ork
ers
inth
stIi
teae
s,on
em
ust
not
unde
rest
unat
eth
epa
inof
the
day—
to—
day
racm
snFi
lipin
osIi
ced
inth
eU
nite
dSt
atc
s.l’
hera
cism
ofor
dina
rylif
esh
eds
light
noth
ein
ters
ecti
ng
poli
tics
of
foo
d,
labo
r,an
ddi
scri
nina
tion
that
chal
leng
esth
eer
eept
ion
that
food
isus
edin
noce
ntl’
for
ente
rtai
nmen
tan
d
plea
sure
.I)
umlu
gth
istin
iepe
riod
,F
ilip
inos
plan
ted
and
pick
edfi
odfo
r
,\m
eric
ans,
but
sser
eex
clud
edfr
omso
me
Am
eric
anre
stau
rant
s.T
hey
suff
erd
from
raut
segr
egat
ion
prac
tices
,whi
chde
nied
them
access
toho
tels
and
swm
lnin
g)o
ls.
As
one
hote
lsi
gnin
Stoc
kton
,C
alif
orni
adu
ring
the
1930
5ci
npli
isii
ed.
“posiT
ivelY
NO
FiL
lP
INO
SA
LL
OW
ED
.”24
Fur
ther
mor
e,
Am
crca
nspn
ibli
fita
unte
dFi
lipin
osdu
ring
this
time
peri
odby
calli
ngth
em
mom
ikev
s.\s
(co
rge
Pim
ente
lre
calle
d,“S
ome
wou
ldst
are
hey
wou
ld
even
call
Us
HO
mik
e\,“
25
Acc
ordi
ngto
Ray
(orp
uz,
even
Am
eric
anch
ildre
n
part
icip
ated
noth
ese
raci
stje
ers:
“At
scho
ol,
nov
scho
olm
ates
asyo
ung
asth
ey
sver
ew
otil
diit
talk
tom
e.
\lo
stlv
every
othe
rda
yw
efi
ght.
The
ydon’t
addr
ess
inc
clitc
114
1Ia
tell
me,
‘Iic
y,
where
did
that
mon
key
com
efr
om
?”26
Whi
leti
rd
SeLi
ltec
onom
icco
nditi
ons
ofth
eG
reat
Dep
ress
ion
hast
ened
the
repa
tiia
tlon
of’F
ilipi
nos
and,
ult
iuia
tel
thei
rex
clus
ion
from
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es,
Am
eric
ane\
clu
siom
uisis
just
ilicd
thei
rac
tions
byre
ferr
ing
toFi
lipin
os’
sava
gean
d
unai
itdi’
VW
JV
.I’
orex
ampl
e,in
1930
,Ju
stic
eof
the
Peac
eD
.\V.
Roh
rbac
k
endo
rsed
are
solu
tion
that
proc
laim
ed,“
The
unre
ctr
icte
dim
mig
rati
on
into
the
Stat
eof
Cal
ifor
nia
ofna
tives
ofth
ePh
ilipp
ine
isla
nds
isvi
ewed
with
alar
mbo
thfr
oma
mor
alan
dsa
nita
ryst
andp
oint
whi
leco
nsti
tuti
nga
men
ace
tow
hite
lab
or.
”27
inan
inte
rvie
wfo
ra
loca
lne
wsp
aper
,R
ohrb
ack
char
acte
rize
dFi
lipin
osas
“litt
lebr
own
men
abou
tte
nye
ars
rem
oved
from
abo
ban
dbr
eech
clot
h...
fift
een
ofth
emw
illliv
ein
one
room
and
cont
ent
them
selv
esw
ithsq
uatt
ing
onth
efl
oor
eatin
gric
ean
dfi
sh.”
28
inth
e1
92
05
and
1930S
,
Filip
inos
may
have
supp
lied
anin
tegr
also
urce
ofla
bor,
but
Am
eric
anex
clu
sion
ists
refu
sed
toin
corp
orat
eth
emin
toth
elif
ean
dcu
lture
ofth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
.Pe
rcep
tions
ofFi
lipin
osa
vage
ryul
timat
ely
rend
ered
them
disp
ensa
ble
atle
ast
until
othe
rla
bor
shor
tage
sne
cess
itate
dfu
ture
mig
ratio
ns.
AS
avag
eIs
aS
avag
e
Whi
lem
endo
min
ated
Filip
ino
mig
ratio
nflo
ws
toth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
inth
e1
92
05
and
1930s,
Filip
ino
wom
enbe
gan
tom
igra
tein
sign
ific
ant
num
bers
byth
ese
cond
half
ofth
ece
ntur
y.M
any
ofth
ese
Filip
inas
ente
red
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
asoc
cupa
tion
alm
igra
nts
who
amel
iora
ted
criti
cal
labo
rsh
orta
ges
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
.D
urin
gth
istim
epe
riod
,th
em
ost
isib
leoc
cupa
tion
oç
Filip
ino
wom
enin
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esw
asnu
rsin
g.Po
st—V
v’or
ldV
fitr
iicr
itica
lnu
rsin
gsh
orta
ges
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
,th
epa
ssag
eof
new
Am
eric
anim
mi
grat
ion
legi
slat
ion
in19
65(w
hich
enco
urag
edth
em
igra
tion
ofnu
rses
and
othe
rpr
ofes
sion
als
toth
eU
nite
dS
tate
s),
and
the
impl
emen
tati
onof
Phi
lipp
ine
labo
rex
port
polic
ies
inth
e19
7os
shap
eda
sign
ific
ant
Filip
ino
inte
rnat
iona
l nur
sing
labo
rfo
rce.
By
the
late
196o
s,Fi
lipin
onu
rses
com
pris
edth
eov
erw
helm
ing
maj
orit
yof
thre
ign
trai
ned
nurs
esin
the
Uni
ted
Stat
es,
repl
acin
gde
cade
sof
num
eric
aldo
min
atio
nby
nurs
esfr
omC
anad
a.T
hus,
Paul
Ong
and
Tan
iaA
zore
sha
vear
gued
that
“adi
scus
sion
ofim
mig
rant
Asi
annu
rses
,in
deed
offo
reig
n—tra
ined
nurs
esin
gene
ral,
ispr
edom
inan
tlyab
out
Filip
ino
nu
rses
.”2
9St
udie
sab
out
mor
eco
ntem
pora
rym
igra
tion
flow
sfr
omth
ePh
ilipp
ines
ofte
nem
phas
ize
that
,un
like
earl
y-tw
enti
eth-
cent
ury
Filip
ino
mig
rant
s,ne
wer
mig
rant
sar
ehi
ghly
educ
ated
and
prof
essi
onal
.A
ltho
ugh
this
diff
eren
ceis
impo
rtan
t,th
eco
mm
onpe
rcep
tion
ofa
prof
essi
onal
isof
som
eon
ew
hois
judg
edon
his/
her
trai
ning
,cr
eden
tials
,an
dex
pert
ise,
and
not
onhi
s/he
rra
ceor
natio
nal
orig
in.‘
Whi
leso
me
hist
orie
sha
veth
regr
ound
edho
wcl
assi
sman
dra
cism
have
shap
edth
ede
velo
pmen
tof t
henu
rsin
gpr
ofes
sion
,3°
little
scho
larl
yat
tent
ion
has
been
paid
toth
eha
rrie
rsfa
ced
byFi
lipin
onu
rses
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
.T
heca
seag
ains
tFi
lipin
aN
arci
soar
idL
eono
raPe
rez
illus
trat
esho
wth
est
ereo
type
ofth
eI”
ilipi
nosa
vage
has
pers
iste
din
the
sec
ond
half
ofth
etw
enti
eth
cent
ury.
Bet
wee
nJu
lyan
dA
ugus
tof
1975
,ap
prox
imat
ely
thir
ty-f
ive
patie
nts
suff
ered
from
resp
irat
ory
arre
stat
the
V.A
.H
ospi
tal
inA
nnA
rbor
, ?ii
ehig
anan
dap
prox
imat
ely
ten
ofth
ese
patie
nts
die
d.
31
Bec
ause
the
v.x
.is
afe
dera
lin
stitu
tion,
the
SC
RE
AM
NC
MO
NK
EY
SSA
VA
GE
43
iii
htn
iie
Iin
inse
stig
atio
tian
dac
cuse
dis
soF
ilip
ino
nurs
es,
Fil
ipin
ao
ins
Iota
Pere
z,of
com
mit
ting
the
crim
es.
InJu
ne1976,
Nar
eiso
and
1kII
/sv
si
test
edan
din
dict
edfir
ten
min
tsof
pois
inin
g,
five
coun
tsof
rum
dsr,
cid
itt
(out
ofcoiu
spir
ac.
.\t
the
iii
ne
1he
rar
rest
,N
arci
sow
as
ath
irty—
year
—ol
dpe
rman
ent
resi
dent
ssit
had
a npl
ied
foris
.ci
tize
nshi
p.Sh
ear
rive
din
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
from
the
Pli
ihip
pmes
inN
lay
1971
and
wor
ked
asa
regi
ster
ednu
rse
atJu
ni
tskl
ihan
iaIl
ospi
tal
beto
rehe
bega
nw
orki
ngat
the
V.A
.in
Ann
Arh
oti
\oV
tm
ber
1972.
Pere
zw
asa
thir
ty-o
ne—
year
-old
perm
anen
tre
sult
ntss
hoI
adal
soap
plie
dfo
rus.
cit
izenship
.Sh
ear
rive
din
the
Uni
ted
St,1
reii-
‘ti
the
Phi
lipp
ines
inN
larc
hu—
tA
tth
eti
me
of
her
arre
st,
Per
ezw
as1
art
led
toip
itan
ioPe
rez,
Jr.,
also
aF
ilip
ino—
Am
eric
anpe
rman
ent
resi
dent
,an
dth
eha
da
thre
e-ye
ar-o
ldso
n,C
hris
toph
er.
Per
ezw
asal
sofo
uruu
nth
ji
nan
t.N
eith
erN
arci
sono
rP
erez
had
acr
imin
alre
cord
,an
dd
nitt
hn
liti
iist
ages
of
tile
ins
esti
gati
on,
they
coop
erat
edw
ith
the
esti
fatl
ol
I ste
stif
ying
hetd
rea
gran
dju
ryon
two
occa
sion
san
dap
pea
rin
gin
alin
ep.
Ass
urau
its
\tto
rncv
Ric
hard
i)el
onis
adm
itte
dfr
om
the
begi
nnin
gof
the
in
veru
jn
flth
atth
ecase
was
‘hig
hhci
rcum
stan
tial
asm
urde
rw
eapo
ns,
duet
tsc
’sit
ts
testi
mon
ies,
conf
essi
ons,
and
fing
erpr
ints
wer
eun
avai
labl
ean
d1
iiin
tent.
Flow
ever
,til
eU
.S.
govern
ment’
sstr
on
gm
oti
vati
ons
for
sols
nIp
the
ase
oftil
ev.
a.m
urde
rs,
itsus
eof
seem
ingl
yun
lim
ited
reso
urce
sof
lln
nc
and
tlm
rIji
ou
er.
and
raci
stst
ereo
type
sab
out
Filip
inos
help
edsh
ape
apo
wer
tul
asas
tain
stX
arci
soan
dPe
rez.
At
the
hedl
im
ugof
the
case
,de
fens
el.i
sxer
std
rN
arci
soan
dPe
rez
wer
eop
tin
istu
c,N
tti’n
eyT
hom
asO
’Bri
enbe
liev
edth
atN
arei
soan
dPe
rez
‘loo
kcd
ira
“E
ven
the
pros
ecut
nig
atto
rney
sad
mit
ted
that
itw
ould
bedi
thci
ult
toto
teth
atN
arci
soan
dP
erez
—”s
mal
l,so
ft—
spok
en,
youn
gw
onIc
n’
oult
ibe
iis
olve
din
such
acri
me.
33
Flocs
ci.
thes
epo
sitiv
eim
ages
ofN
aici
soan
dPe
rez
co—
exis
ted
wit
hneg
ativ
enm
outn
red
bym
ains
trea
mne
sss
med
iaan
da
popu
lar
non—
fict
ion
‘bo
okN
anis
tm
dPe
rez’
sge
nder
,ra
ce,
and
nati
onal
orig
inco
uld
invo
kem
ul
tiple
and
di
g.,t
tu
sim
ages
ofsa
xag
en.
Suc
him
ages
beca
me
popu
lari
zed
ina
non
fit
1111
11<
okIs
Rob
ert
Wil
cox
enti
tled
The
Mys
teri
oui
Dea
ths
atA
nn.J
,/’o,
j’nb
hsht
tdin
iy’6
.In
this
acco
unt,
Wilc
oxhi
ghli
ghte
dth
enu
rses
’P
hili
ppin
eor
Lii
isan
dli
nked
then
ito
ster
eoty
pes
ofsa
vage
ry.
Alt
houg
h\V
ihon
aLL
nsv
ledg
edth
atN
arei
sow
asa
it.s.
perm
anen
tre
side
nt,
heem
pil
1st/e
dthi
it‘n
ipl
ain
lang
uage
,un
til
[t.s
.ci
tize
nshi
pis
gran
ted,
she
isdli
,ah
4’4-
wko
“it
the
Bot
hN
ate
oan
dlk
icss
crc
from
the
Phili
ppin
es, w
hich
‘vV
ileox
desc
ribe
das
“for
tht
n1s
t11l
tjt
ntt
i,ho
t,an
dst
earn
s’.”
35
And
the
imag
eof
“jun
gly”
sava
gena
tises
coin
riIt
ting
tile
vi,.
mur
ders
appe
ared
inth
eop
enin
gch
apte
rin
whi
chW
ilco
xin
form
edhi
sre
ader
sth
atPa
vulo
n,th
epo
ison
alle
gedl
yus
ed
inth
ecr
imes
, was
“apo
ison
deri
ved
fron
tsp
ecia
ltr
opic
alpl
ants
and
used
,for
inst
ance
,by
Sou
thA
mer
ican
jung
leIn
dian
son
the
tips
ofda
rts
shot
toki
ll
gam
e.”
36
Wilc
oxco
nclu
ded
that
the
natu
reof
the
V.A
.m
urde
rssu
gges
ted
“a
real
and
mon
stro
ussa
vage
ryin
the
kil
ler.
”37
Inth
epo
pula
rna
rrat
ives
ofA
mer
ica’
sbe
nevo
lent
colo
nial
ism
inth
e
Phili
ppin
es,
Am
eric
annu
rses
and
doct
ors
trai
ned
youn
gFi
lipin
ow
omen
to
crea
tea
heal
thy
and
mod
ern
natio
n,an
dsa
ved
them
from
cont
inui
ngth
eir
nativ
e,di
rty,
and
back
war
dw
ay
s.
Yet
alth
ough
Filip
ino
nurs
esm
ayha
ve
clot
hed
thei
rna
tive
bodi
esin
whi
teun
ifor
ms,
the
sym
bol
ofpr
ofes
sion
al
expe
rtis
ein
thei
rfie
ld, t
hey
wer
est
illsa
vage
s.T
heir
acad
emic
degr
ees
enab
led
them
topr
actic
epr
ofes
sion
ally
, but
the
pote
ntia
lfo
rth
ese
prof
essi
onal
wom
en
toac
tas
dead
lyna
tives
rem
aine
din
Am
eric
ans’
imag
inat
ion.
The
sest
ereo
typi
cal
imag
esof
Nar
ciso
and
Pere
zas
dark
,de
adly
nativ
es
wer
eno
tco
nfin
edto
Wilc
ox’s
text
,bu
tal
som
ade
thei
rw
ayin
tom
ain
stre
ampu
blic
atio
ns,
pros
ecut
ion
witn
ess
test
imon
y,an
dth
epr
osec
utio
n
atto
rney
squ
esti
ons
and
stat
emen
tsin
court
.38
For
exam
ple.
mai
nstr
eam
mag
azin
essu
chas
Tim
eal
sore
ferr
edto
the
drug
Pavu
lon
asju
ngle
pois
on,
“the
leth
alpl
ant
toxi
nus
edh’
Sou
thA
mer
ican
indi
ans
totip
pois
on
dar
ts.”
39
Des
pite
the
pres
enta
tion
of“h
ighl
yci
rcum
stan
tial”
evid
ence
,th
e
jury
conv
icte
dN
arci
soan
dPe
rez
ofco
nspi
racy
and
thre
eco
unts
ofpois
on
ing
inJu
ly39
77.
InFe
brua
ry19
78,
ane
wu.
s.A
ttor
ney
dism
isse
dth
eca
seag
ains
tth
em
afte
rth
ede
fens
ete
amsu
cces
sful
lyap
peal
edth
eve
rdic
t.H
owev
er,
Nar
ciso
,
Pere
z,an
dot
her
Filip
ino
nurs
esin
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esen
dure
din
calc
ulab
le
hard
ship
asth
ere
sult
ofth
ein
dict
men
t,tr
ial,
and
shor
t-liv
edco
nvic
tion.
In
aD
elro
ilFr
eePr
es3
inte
rvie
wbe
fore
the
tria
lco
mm
ence
d,Fi
lipin
aN
arci
so
char
acte
rize
dhe
rex
peri
ence
asa
“nig
htm
are.”
4°L
eono
raPe
rez
reve
aled
the
pain
ful
way
sin
whi
chhe
rhu
sban
dan
dso
nha
dbe
enaf
fect
edby
the
publ
ic
ityof
the
ease
.H
erson
was
“too
youn
g”to
unde
rsta
ndw
hat
svas
happ
enin
g
wit
hth
ein
vest
igat
ion
ofth
eV
.A.
mur
ders
,bu
tol
den
ough
tose
ehi
sm
oth
er’s
arre
ston
tele
visi
on.“
Yos
tca
n’t
eras
eit
from
his
min
d,’
she
lam
ente
d.A
s
for
her
husb
and,
“he
just
crie
dan
dcr
ied
and
shut
offt
he‘i
’v.”
41
Inla
te19
76,
asth
eyaw
aite
dtr
ial
inth
eir
hom
es,
both
wom
enha
dth
eir
phon
esdi
scon
nect
edaf
ter
rece
ivin
gha
rass
ing
phon
eca
lls.
42
Aft
erth
eju
ryco
nvic
ted
Nar
ciso
and
Pere
zin
July
’39
77,
Filip
ino
nurs
es
acro
ssth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
suff
ered
from
publ
icdo
ubt
abou
tth
eir
nurs
ing
abil
ities
and
publ
icsu
spic
ion
abou
tth
eir
prof
essi
onal
inte
ntio
ns.
One
V.A
.hos
pita
lnu
rse
inP
hila
delp
hia
repo
rted
that
she
rece
ived
aph
one
call
from
som
eone
who
thre
aten
edto
kill
the
Fil
ipin
onu
rses
ofth
ehosp
ital
.4
3Fi
lipin
o
nurs
esac
ross
the
Uni
ted
Stat
esre
port
edin
stan
ces
ofpa
tien
tsre
fusi
ngto
take
med
icat
ion
from
Fil
ipin
onu
rses
and
ofho
spita
lsde
velo
ping
polic
ies
not
to
SC
RE
AM
INC
MO
NK
EY
S1
SAV
AG
E
bite
I-li
p:t
ie.
Ste
reot
ypes
of
F’ili
pino
sava
gery
had
buri
edth
eve
ry
impo
t.in
ip
tfc
’ssi
onal
contr
ibuti
ons
ofth
ese
Fil
ipin
onu
rses
out
of
view
,
rend
erin
gth
emn
jble
and
forg
otte
n.
On
Rec
olle
ctin
gth
eB
urie
dan
dFo
rgot
ten
Inhi
sm
ales
ssf
fili
pin
os
inth
eU
nite
dS
tate
san
dth
eir
lite
ratu
reof
exile
,
Osc
ar(.
ainp
oman
escr
itiq
ued
wha
the
argu
edto
be“t
here
peti
tiou
san
dun
icib
div
eu
n.ni
the
mod
ifie
r‘f
orgo
tten
”to
desc
ribe
Fil
ipin
oin
visi
bili
tyin
Ani
eric
anhi
’.t,o
v.li
equ
erie
d,“\
Vha
tis
bei
ng
forg
ott
en?”
44
inth
ises
say,
I
ha’v
car
gued
that
wha
tis
fiir
gott
enis
the
expl
oita
tion
ofF
ilip
ino
bodi
es
thr>
ihli
crt.
ati
med
icin
e,po
pula
rre
pres
enta
tion
s,an
dF
ilip
ino
imm
i—
gran
tla
bor,
ndis
are
sult
ofth
isex
ploi
tati
on,
the
mat
eria
lan
dps
yeho
logi
—
albe
ieht
mlra
cial
supe
rior
ity
and
inex
pens
ive
labo
rre
aped
prim
aril
yby
whi
teA
nmet
is
Fhe
pres
ent
day
Chi
noL
atin
oad
vert
isin
gI
anal
yved
at
the
hcm
tnni
ngof
th5es
say
isonly
one
dist
urbi
ngex
ampl
eof
how
“wha
tis
forg
otte
n’is
teco
nst
ruct
edto
behu
mor
ous,
tren
dy,
and
chic
. Thu
s,it
ispo
ut—
ical
lv:m
pera
trr
cto
conf
ront
wha
tis
tdrg
orte
nbe
anal
yzin
gth
ehi
stor
yof
can
itip
cria
hsin
and
itsco
nnec
tion
sto
conte
mpora
ryev
eryd
aylif
e.
hot
mc,
the
sali
ent
ques
tion
then
beco
mes
:A
fter
reco
llec
ting
wha
tha
sbe
en
forg
oten
,1
win
we
sust
ain
thes
eve
ryim
port
ant
mem
orie
s?
CA
SH
ER
INE
CE
NIZ
AC
HO
Y
Not
es Ref
lect
ing
ona
child
hood
men
tors
,W
EB
.I)
uBoi
sar
gued
that
aou
ngpe
rson
of
colo
rin
the
Uni
ted
Sta
tes
isfi
rced
tode
velo
pa
doub
lecO
iiS
CiO
usf
les”
,th
e“s
ense
of
alw
ays
look
ing
aton
esse
lfth
roug
hth
eev
esof
Otli
erS.
DuB
ois,
WE
B.
The
Soul
sof
Bla
ckFo
lk.
New
‘Crk
:B
anta
mB
ooks
,1
95
9,
3.
2“C
hino
Lati
no
:ed
itori
alpr
ofile
.<
http
://t
win
citi
es.c
itys
earc
h.co
m/E
JVI’d
INM
l/00
09/3
4106
/>.
3K
apla
n,Am
y’.
“Lef
tA
lone
Wit
hA
mer
ica:
‘l’he
Abs
ence
ofE
mpi
reii
ith
eSt
udy’
of
Am
eric
anC
ultu
re,”
Cu/
too’
ss/
Un
it’/
Sñi
l’Im
i’s’
ria/
im.
Ed.
Aim
Kap
lan
and
Don
ald
Pea’
.c,
Dur
ham
:D
uke
Uni
v.Pr
ess,
1993
,ii
.
4la
cobs
on,
\lat
thes
vFr
ye.
“Im
peri
alA
num
esis
:I’
e ddv
Roo
sevc
lt.
the
Phili
ppin
es,
and
the
Mod
ern
Art
ofF
orge
ttin
g.”
Rad
ual
llis
tort
Rec
urs’
7;(ij
116—
127.
The
dish
,P
hili
ppin
ePa
ella
,fo
rex
ampl
e,w
ith
itsju
mbo
shri
mp,
adoh
och
icke
n,in
us—
sels
,eh
oriz
o,ea
lam
ari,
and
saff
ron
anat
tori
ce,
refl
ects
anex
otir
iaat
ion
ofth
eco
loni
al
mix
ing
ofSp
anis
han
dF
ilip
ino
culr
ures
.Il
owev
er,
asi
mila
rdi
shth
atco
mbi
nes
u.s.
and
Filip
ino
cultu
res
isno
tto
befd
und
onth
em
enu.
‘I’he
feat
ume
ofPh
ilipp
ine
Pael
la
and
the
abse
nce
ofP
hili
ppin
eA
pple
Pie,
for
exam
ple,
reve
alou
rm
oder
nse
lect
ive
mem
orie
sas
wel
las
our
forg
etfu
lnes
sab
out
impe
rial
ism
.
6Il
eto,
Rev
nald
oC
.‘C
hole
raan
dth
eO
rigi
nsof
the
Am
eric
anSa
nita
ryO
rder
inth
e
Plu
lip
pin
e.”
Dis
crep
antI
listo
ru’s
:T
rans
loca
lF.o
ays
on
Fil
ipin
oC
ultu
re’s
Ed.
Vie
ente
L.
Raf
ael.
Man
ila:
Anv
ilP
ubli
shin
g,i9
95,
6o—
ôi,
7‘l
’eod
oro
A.
Ago
neil
loan
dl\
lila
gros
C.
Gue
rrer
o,hi
stor
y/
the
Fi/
pin
oPe
ople
.
Qti
eaon
City
,1977,
qid.
inll
eto,
Rey
nald
oC
.“C
hole
raan
dth
mO
rigi
nsof
the
Am
eric
anSa
nita
ryO
rder
inth
eP
hili
ppin
es,”
51—
52.
SSe
cR
eyna
ldo
C.
ilet
o,“C
hole
raan
dth
eO
rigi
nsof
the
Am
eric
anSa
nita
ryO
rder
in
the
Phi
lipp
uies
,”an
d‘W
arw
ick
And
erso
n,“
‘Whe
reE
very
Pros
pect
Plea
ses
and
Onl
y
Man
IsV
ile’:
Lab
orat
ory
file
dici
neas
Col
onia
lD
isco
urse
,”D
imcm
ipan
thi
stor
ies:
Tra
nslo
calE
oayi
ofF
ilip
ino
(/ul
tuo’
i.Fr
i.V
ient
i’I..
R:if
in’l,
p—
Si,
8;11
2.
Iha
vean
alyz
edso
me
ofth
ew
ays
inw
hich
Am
eric
anco
loni
alis
man
dits
use
ofm
ed
icin
ein
the
Phi
lipp
ines
func
tion
edsi
mila
rly’
toB
ritis
him
peria
lism
and
itsap
plic
atio
n
ofm
edic
ine
inA
_inc
aan
dIn
dia
inti
leni
nete
enth
—an
dea
rly—
twen
tieth
cent
urie
s.Se
e
Cat
heri
neC
eniz
aC
hov,
“The
Usu
alSu
bjec
ts:
Med
icin
e,N
ursi
ng,
and
Am
eric
an
Col
onia
lism
inth
eP
luli
ppin
es,”
Cri
tica
l,U
,js:
Ajo
urn
alo/
A.,i
anA
iner
uan
Cul
tura
l
Cri
ticis
m;:z
(Fal
l19m
18):
izS
.to
Ileto
,Re
yna
ldo
C.“
Cho
lera
and
the
Ori
gins
ofth
eA
mer
ican
San
itar
yO
rder
inth
e
Phili
ppin
es,”
8.
itD
ock,
Lav
inia
L.A
Iii
tory
oj’N
urci
ng:
I’yo
mth
eE
arli
e.,t
Tim
esto
thP
reie
ntD
ayw
ith
Spec
ialR
.f’r
encc
toth
eU
rkof
the
Fis
tT
hir
ttD
ay,,
tol..
New
\rk:
U.
PPu
tnam
’s
Son
s,19i2
,31
33
14
.
12A
nder
son,
War
wic
k,“\
Vhe
reE
very
Pro
spec
t1>
leae
san
dO
nly
Man
IsV
ile,”
Ioo,
13Ib
id.,
84,
95-9
9.R
ony,
Fat
imah
Rob
ing.
The
7’i
rdE
ye:
Rac
e,C
inem
a,an
dE
t/ino
ymap
hic
Spec
tacl
e,
Dur
ham
:D
uke
Uni
v.Pr
ess,
1996
,6.
15Ib
id.,
Si.
i6A
tkin
son,
Fre
dXV
.YY
s’P/
’:/z
/f’l
nehi
lan/
i.B
osto
n:G
inn
&C
ompa
nr,
i)O
s,
23
9,
24i.
17A
sRo
ny-
note
d,a
Fren
chph
r-si
cian
wri
ting
inth
ela
teni
nete
enth
cenm
urv
conc
lude
dth
atra
ceis
wri
tten
onth
esa
v.ig
ebo
dyth
roug
hpo
stur
ean
dge
stur
e:“S
avag
essq
uat
whe
reas
Civ
iliz
edpe
ople
sit
,ex
plai
ned
the
doct
or:
aha
uL,
[for
exai
npie
jbe
caus
eof
tlb
k;>tl:iliih
Fai
imah
Tub
ing
Rm
s,17
’ih
ndl3
i’c,
;.
iSRv
d>1,
Rof
cit
W1/
Ith
el4
hild
3a
Fan
Chi
cago
:Ih
eU
nit.
ofC
hica
goPr
ess,
1984
,
195—
06.
9m
iLl.
irrin
Nli
.ll
oiit
ocL
uiot
ttIl
isro
ri,
aid
the
Cra
fto
fN
lem
orv:
An
Ext
ende
d
(in\ersatl,n
stit
hM
ario
nI’.
.Fue
ntes
.’,‘
imer
asia
/ooin
al24:;
(199
8):
Si.
2)
Tak
aki,
Rn
ildS
cran
gcnj
iont
a[)
//ii
ent
Si,
oroll
l,t
or’
ofol
sian
Am
eric
an>,
rev.
ed.
Bus
umI a
’’P
anan
dC
ompa
ny,
1998
,;,
,
U1l
>nl
2&
22
lbiu
.,;i
g
2>ib
id.,
ApI
ItK
9U
hote
lsi
gnis
pict
ured
inF
ied
Cor
dova
,F
ilip
inos
:Fo
igot
ten
Asi
an
Am
toen
>S
itil>
I)e,
nons
trat
ion
Pro
ject
fur
Mia
iiA
mer
ican
s,19
83,
114.
UIb
id:1
4.
:6Ib
id..
Ui
27
ibid
nO.
SIb
id29
()n
Pii
i1.
iii
)res
.‘‘1
‘lie
1NI h
oat
liii
ian
dIn
corp
orat
ion
of
Fil
ipin
oN
urse
s.
Ti’,
,\,‘
.l’
iir,
‘,‘
ii12
/?if
lI,
),1i
,’lc
san
d(d
2hal
Ret
>u:
tu,i
n.
Ed.
Paul
Ong
and
Edn
a
Bai
Iia
iI
Ide
Che
ng.
Phi
lade
lphi
a:le
itip
leU
niv.
Pre
ss,
1994,
165.
For
ahi
stor
y
of
Fli
pil
iI
uis
.1
III.
rnat
iona
im
igra
tion
, see
Cath
eri
ne
Cen
iza
Cho
y,E
mpi
reof
Gar
e.
A>u
nyan
dA
1>gr
ain
>in
Fil
ipin
oA
mer
ican
hi/
tort
.D
uke
Uni
vers
ity
Pres
s,D
urha
m:
See,
0,r
esar
plu.
Bar
bara
\Iei
osh
, “11
wP
hsi
cian
sIl
and’
:W
ork,
Cu/
tore
,an
dC
onfl
ict
inA
ii>
>a,
No’
lily
.Ph
ilade
lphi
a:T
empl
eU
niv.
Pres
s,1982
and
Dar
lene
Cla
rkH
ine,
B/a
t14
hoit
iiW
hite
:R
acia
lC
on
flic
tan
dC
oo
pera
tio
nin
the
Nur
sing
Proj
kssi
on
131/1
/>11
1ii
gtnn
:In
diai
uI.J
nis.
Pres
s.1
98
1).
I)if
terc
ntad
eu
int
ot+i
r..e
ser
aldi
fibr
ent
sets
ofst
atis
tics
rega
rdin
gth
enu
mbe
rof
res—
irato
lart
st’
aid
rela
ted
deat
hsat
the
\‘.A
.Il
ospi
tal
duri
ngth
esu
mm
erof
1975.
idin
t.dc
Ic,.
,itr
orn
e,ih
onia
sO
’Bri
en,
LI
tien
bsu
ffer
edfr
omun
expe
cted
bmea
ibu;
Iil
um
ci
occa
sion
she
tttec
mi
Juis
ian
dA
ugus
tiç
and
ioof
thos
epa
tien
ts
died
See
Fti
,nia
..C
.O
’Bri
en,“
The
V.
A.
\lu
rder
s,”
The
Adv
ocat
e28
:4A
pril
1985
:12.
1k:
lNtr
’1:
‘lU
,i>
p>ir
ted
that
;6ar
rest
sha
doc
curr
edan
di6
pati
ents
had
died
.Se
e
Clia
rlii.
(.i
i“I
losp
ital
Prob
eC
alle
dN
eare
r,”
ihe
Det
roit
New
s,1
9O
ctob
er1
97
5.
‘rim
‘in
aga
Inc
ulai
incd
that
27
pati
ents
sobe
red
resp
irato
ryarr
est
san
dth
atii
ofth
em
d,ed
See
‘‘Inu
NEI
Lhi
gan
_‘c
lurd
er5,”
Tim
e,22
,‘tla
rcli
1976
.A
ndT
heN
ewY
ork
Tim
es
c..t
iiat
edth
atbe
twee
n;i
and
63pati
ents
..ufi
ered
resp
irat
ory
failu
rean
dth
at13
of
tIlt
ildi
edSc
Marti
nW
aldr
on,
“Tri
alS
tart
s‘l’
oday
lbr
Nu
rses
inM
ichig
an
Hos
pita
l
Dc
atb’
lhN1e
Yor
kli
mei
,,M
arch
1977
.12.
()‘l
nc
>,1
nra.
.(‘
.“T
heV.
A.M
urde
rs,”
;;C
hrt
titt
,kjr
k“
Irod
toR
eviv
eV
.A.N
i4h
,t,i
i,,r
c.”
lie,
mit
Free
J>re
.,.,,
22
August
11)7
6:
Os\
.
;W
Ico
xK
1t
KJ’
heIt
dyltc
riou
sD
cath
>ci
t/1c
mli
ho,:
New
Yor
k:P
opul
arL
ibra
ry,
iv”’,
i6i
,Ib
ict.,
;6Ib
id.,
s
37ib
id,i
h
;8F’
ora
mar
1t.
led
anal
ysk
of
the
ease
,se
ech
apte
rfiv
eu
iC
athe
rine
Cen
iza
Cho
y,
E“11:1
‘,‘
(‘a
‘so
tug
,i,i
lJIi’<
0mti
on
to[l
ith
nio
al”e
iicn
’I1
iitr
.D
uke
I Ini
vers
in’
Pre’
s.I)
nrh
an:
eD
,.
“The
Mic
higa
nM
urde
rs,”
‘lim
e,22
Marc
h19
76:
47.
40
Che
yfit
z,K
irk.
“Tri
alto
Rev
ive
V.A
.N
ight
mar
e,”3A
.
45ib
id.,
6A.
42
Sim
pso
n,
Est
her.
“Nar
ciso
—Pe
rez
hea
rin
gP
ostp
oned
.”A
ugK
atip
umia
nK
Dec
.—r5
Jan.
197”
:8.
3“F
ilip
ino
Con
irnu
niti
esO
rgan
ize
Sup
port
,”A
ugK
atip
unan
,i—
tiA
ugus
t1
99
7,
p.7.
Osc
arV
.C
ampo
nane
s,“F
ilip
inos
inth
eU
nite
dSt
ates
and
‘l’h
eir
Lit
erat
ure
ofE
xile
,”
inR
eadi
ngth
eL
iter
atur
e>oJ
’Asi
anA
inei
ha.
ed,
Shirl
ey’
1dm
and
Am
yL
ing,
Phi
lade
lphi
a:T
empl
eU
niv.
Pres
s,0)9
2,
53.
