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MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING
BARIA-VUNGTAU UNIVERSITY
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD
ENGLISH AS A LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND
CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN BA RIA
VUNG TAU PROVINCE
Nguyen Lan Phuong
Supervisor: Tran Quoc Thao, Ph. D
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts
Theory and Methodology of English Language Teaching
Ba Ria- Vung Tau University
[02/2021]
MASTER’S THESIS REPORT
Student name: NGUYEN LAN PHUONG Sex: Female
Date of birth: 4/12/1994 Place of birth: Ba Ria Vung Tau Province
Major: English Language Student code: 17110002
I- Thesis title:
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ENGLISH AS A
LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN
BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE
II-Objectives and contents:
This study aims at investigating high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and their
classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The research objectives
are as follows:
- To explore high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in their EFL
classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province
- To investigate the classroom teaching practices using ELF implemented by
high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.
This study was conducted at 11 high schools (including both public and private high
schools) in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province where there are more than 109 high-school
teachers of English. In order to gain the results, I applied the mixed method:
quantitative and qualitative, two instruments were used: questionnaire and semi-
structured interview for the collection of the data.
III- Starting date: (as stated in the Decision issued by the University)
IV- Completing date:
..............................................................................................................
V- Academic supervisor: TRAN QUOC THAO, Ph.D.
ACADEMIC SUPERVISOR
((full name, signature)
FACULTY DEAN
((full name, signature)
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I certify my authorship of the Master’s Thesis submitted today entitled:
HIGH-SCHOOL TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ENGLISH AS A
LINGUA FRANCA (ELF) AND CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN
BA RIA VUNG TAU PROVINCE
In terms of the statement of requirements for Theses in Master’s programs
issued by the Higher Degree Committee of Faculty of English Language, Ba
Ria Vung Tau University.
Vung Tau City, February 2021
NGUYEN LAN PHUONG
RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS
I hereby state that I, NGUYEN LAN PHUONG, being a candidate for the
degree of Master of Arts (English Language) accept the requirements of the
University relating to the retention and use of Master’s Theses deposited in
the Library.
In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my Master’s Thesis
deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and
research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the
Librarian for the care, loan, and reproduction for theses.
Vung Tau City, February 2021
Signature …………………………….
NGUYEN LAN PHUONG
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my sincere thanks to those who have supported, encouraged
and assisted me in my thesis completion.
First of all, I would like to express my special appreciation and thanks to Dr. Tran
Quoc Thao, my supervisor, for his great patience, careful guidance, insightful advice,
and constant encouragement through the whole research process. Without his support
and guidance, this thesis would never have been completed.
Secondly, I would like to express my thanks to the school board staff, including the
principals, the vice principals and teachers of English at high schools in Ba Ria Vung
Tau Province who have given me encouragement, support of time and finance and
permission to implement this thesis there.
Last but not least, my deepest and sincerest gratitude goes to my family, including
my parents and younger brother with their unconditional love, understanding and
help.
ABSTRACT
This study aimed to explore the high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and
their classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The mixed-methods
approach was employed in this study, i.e., both quantitative and qualitative data were
collected from questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.
There were 109 high school teachers of English from 11 high schools in Ba Ria
Vung Tau Province who participated in the survey, and 22 of them were selected
purposively for the individual interviews. As for data analysis, descriptive statistics
(e.g., mean, standard deviation, and frequencies/ percentages) were used to analyse
quantitative data, whereas qualitative data were analysed through content analysis.
Based on the results obtained from the data analysis, there were two findings
which were explored in this study. First, the collected data showed that high school
teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in three attitude components, including
cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. Second, high school teachers conducted
some activities for the promotion of ELF among their students relating to eight sub
variables from cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar to four
language skills of students. These included inviting non-native English speakers to
talk to students about ELF, asking students to make dialogues and play roles using
ELF in groups, organizing seminars for the students to compare English varieties,
creating activities containing aspects relating to ELF for students to take part in,
asking students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook,
and introducing pictures or posters used ELF as well. Finally, high school teachers
found uneasy to create activities relating to ELF because of preparation time limit
and scarce of source of materials. Notwithstanding that, teachers still tried their best
to introduce the existence of ELF and help their students be accessible to ELF in
language learning.
Keywords: ELF, cognitive attitudes, affective attitudes, behavioural attitudes
high school teachers, Vietnamese ELF classrooms.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ....................................................................... 3
RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ............................................................ 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................... 5
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................ 6
TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................. 7
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................. 9
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................... 10
LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................... 11
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... 12
Chapter 1: Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background of the study ..................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem .................................................................................... 3
1.3 Aim and objectives of the study ......................................................................... 4
1.4 Research questions.............................................................................................. 4
1.5 Scope of the study ............................................................................................... 4
1.6 Significance of the study .................................................................................... 5
1.7 Definitions of key terms ..................................................................................... 5
1.8 Organization of the thesis ................................................................................... 6
Chapter 2: Literature Review ............................................................................. 7
2.1 The status of English .......................................................................................... 7
2.2 World Englishes.................................................................................................. 8
2.3 The three circles of Katchru ............................................................................. 11
2.4 English as a lingua franca (ELF) ...................................................................... 12
2.5 Attitudes toward ELF ....................................................................................... 18
2.6 Classroom teaching practices ........................................................................... 21
2.7 Previous research .............................................................................................. 26
2.8 Conceptual framework...................................................................................... 30
2.9 Summary ........................................................................................................... 31
Chapter 3: Methodology .................................................................................... 32
3.1 Research design ................................................................................................ 32
3.2 Research site ..................................................................................................... 32
3.3 Sample and sampling procedures ..................................................................... 33
3.4 Research instruments ........................................................................................ 35
3.5 Data collection procedures. ............................................................................... 37
3.6 Data analysis procedures .................................................................................. 38
3.7 Reliability and Validity ..................................................................................... 39
3.8 Pilot Study ......................................................................................................... 41
3.9 Summary ........................................................................................................... 41
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions .................................................................. 43
4.1 Results ............................................................................................................... 43
4.1.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards ELF…………………………………………………..43
a) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes…………...…….. 44
b) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes …………...…….. 46
c) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes……………..…... 49
4.1.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province………52
a) Teachers’ knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms………………….52
b) Other teaching activities in the EFL classrooms…………………………………….55
4.2 Discussion ......................................................................................................... 57
4.2.1 Teachers’ attitudes towards ELF…………………………………………………..58
4.2.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province….……60
4.3 Summary ........................................................................................................... 62
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................... 63
5.1 Summary of the main findings of the thesis ..................................................... 63
5.2 Pedagogical implications .................................................................................. 64
5.3 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 66
5.4 Recommendation for the further research ........................................................ 66
References ................................................................................................................. 67
Appendices ................................................................................................................ 77
APPENDICES
Appendix A1: Questionnaire for Survey (English Version)
Appendix A2: Questionnaire for Survey (Vietnamese translation)
Appendix B1: Interview Protocol (English Version)
Appendix B2: Interview Protocol (Vietnamese translation)
Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (English Version)
Appendix B3: Sample of interview data analysis (Vietnamese translation)
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Demographic information of the participants. 35
Table 3.2 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data. 40
Table 3.3 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data 41
Table 4.1 The overall results of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF 43
Table 4.2 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes 44
Table 4.3 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes 47
Table 4.4 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes 49
Table 4.5 Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms 52
Table 4.6 Other activities in the EFL classroom 55
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Three concentric Circles of English 12
Figure 2.2 The background knowledge of EFL 13
Figure 2.3 Conceptual framework of the study 31
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AEC ASEAN economic community
ASEAN Association of South East Asian Nations
EFL English as Foreign Language
ELF English as a Lingua Franca
MOET Ministry of Education and Training
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
WTO World Trade Organization
UAE United Arab Emirates
Chapter 1: Introduction 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter first presents a background of the study with a brief introduction
of the English language teaching and learning at high school level in Ba Ria Vung
Tau Province. The Statement of the problem is followed to raise the gap of the study
context. Then, Purpose of the study is established and research objectives and
research questions are introduced. In addition, Significance of the study, Definitions
of key terms and Organizations of the Study are provided at the end of this chapter.
1.1 Background of the study
The prediction made by Kachru (1983) that the continuous spread of English
led to the huge increase in non-native English speakers in the world (p. 3) proved to
be true by Harmer (1985) when he claimed that “native speakers” are “increasingly
out - numbered by people who have English as a second or third language and use it
for international communication” (p.13). Until now, there is an indispensable truth
that English these days is “a mother tongue for many people in the world” (Harmer,
1985, p.13) and the most common studied foreign language for the time being.
Additionally, the development of economy and technology create more and more
opportunities for communication all over the world, which raised the obligatory need
for a mutual language for people from different nations all over the world. The term
“English as a lingua franca” (ELF) was introduced by Tonkin (2003) under the
emergence of a common language for different first language speakers (Seodlhofer,
2005a).
And the spread of English as a lingua franca leads to a great many changes in
language teaching and learning. Seidlhofer (2005a) suggested incorporating ELF in
language education in order to facilitate the globalization of English in many aspects.
Since then, there have been a great many studies on ELF in wide range of aspects
relating to language teaching and learning at different levels. In the context of
international education, ELF is regarded as a tool for communication and medium
instruction in multi-national contexts where lectures and students are from different
countries. In the context of Vietnam, this is a country of ‘the expanding circle’
2 Chapter 1: Introduction
(Kachru, 1985, 1992), where English is not an official language, ELF is still really
necessary for communication and interaction in EFL classrooms in particular and in
daily life in general in order to help Vietnamese generations to be more fluent and
confident in English communication.
Furthermore, since being a member of ASIAN, along with WE's recognition
among ASEAN regional groups, Vietnam government have taken a lot of actions to
promote “mutual intelligibility” (Kirkpatrick, 2007, p.193) through ELF. The
importance of English has been enhanced through the project “Teaching and
Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education System, 2008-2020”
(Decision No. 1400/QĐ-TTg, 2008), and then updated on December 22nd, 2017
named “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National Education
System, 2017 - 2025” (Decision No. 2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017) for
students to use English independently, communicate confidently, study, work in an
integrated environment, multilingual, multicultural, turn foreign languages into
strengths. Especially, students should explore more English varieties outside the
classroom for more effective communication with non-native speakers. Moreover,
the ability to communicate successfully should be the main goal of the learner,
instead of acquiring the proficiency and standards of native speakers.
In the context of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, the “National Foreign
Languages Project, period 2017 - 2025” encouraged the changes in language
teaching methodology, especially at high school levels, Ba Ria Vung Tau Education
and Training Department held training courses for all the high school teachers and
appealed them to apply innovative and creative ways of teaching in order to motivate
students to communicate and interact with each other in EFL classrooms. Therefore,
the majority of high school teachers are aware of ELF and its roles in language
education. However, most of the students and their parents, even teachers preferred
native language to this kind of non-native language because native language is
always luxurious language in their mind set. Apparently, there should be more
research on teachers’ attitude toward ELF and incorporation of ELF in the EFL
classrooms in order to draw an overall picture of ELF in the context of language
teaching in Vietnam.
Chapter 1: Introduction 3
1.2 Statement of the problem
Relating to ELF and the incorporation of ELF in the classrooms, a large
number of studies on ELF in academic contexts were conducted in the western
countries (Bjorkman, 2011a). The findings of those research revealed that the
majority of teachers expressed strong preference on native language than non-native
language in spite of Bjorkman’s (2011a) a modern view of language teaching is that
teachers should pay attention to teaching comprehensibility in English first and help
students to be exposed to different varieties of English as ELF.
In the context of Vietnam, the research done by Ton and Pham (2010) made a
suggestion for the real interaction in ELF in the EFL classrooms because this helped
students to be familiar to different types of voices or English accents, which is really
important for communication in authentic contexts. According to Crystal (2002), the
purpose of learning English is to build up students’ communicative competence and
communicative skills in English in daily life instead of spending too much time on
native language. In reality, the norm British English or American is always
considered a selected or desired standard language, which attracted a lot of attention
and efforts from all learners of English. Obviously, it is normal to try to imitate
British English or American English in order to have a more appealing speech in
front of other people; however, it is better for learners to use English in their own
way but still express their meaning and conduct the goals in communication in
English.
More importantly, the administrators of Ba Ria Vung Tau Province paid much
attention to English language teaching and learning. The government held English
eloquence contests and awarded students who had international certificates in
English as well as held courses relating to English for the purpose of bettering
student’s language skills in the province. Because the majority of students preferred
to use standard English rather than ELF, teachers should initiate using ELF and
applying it into their EFL classrooms in order to change their mind set and help them
to be familiar to different kinds of English accents, which is really important for their
learning process to communicate in English outside the classroom.
Practically, the term English as a lingua franca (ELF) has interested a lot of
researchers and educators, especially in international universities recently (Jenkins,
2011). In contrast, there have been few researchers in Vietnam who investigated ELF
4 Chapter 1: Introduction
and its implications in the setting of higher education. In Ba Ria Vung Tau Province,
though high school teachers attended some training courses instructing to teach
English as ELF, there are not any studies to explore high school teachers’ attitude
toward ELF and the implementation of ELF in the classrooms. Thus, this thesis was
conducted in order to investigate ELF and its incorporation of ELF in language
teaching and learning in terms of teachers’ attitudes and teaching practices.
1.3 Aim and objectives of the study
The aims of this study are to investigate high school teachers’ attitudes toward
ELF and their classrooms teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The
research objectives are as follows:
- To explore high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province
- To investigate the classroom teaching practices used by high school
teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.
1.4 Research questions
In order to obtain the research objectives mentioned above, the thesis raises the
two following questions.
1. What are high school teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province?
2. What are high school teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria
Vung Tau Province?
1.5 Scope of the study
ELF has been put into a lot of research in the world in terms of a means of
communication at high school level (Bjorkman, 2011b); the implementation of ELF
in international universities (Jenkins, 2011), or Lingua Franca interactions
(Bjorkman, 2011b), teachers’ perceptions (Incecay, 2014; Ho, 2018). Thus, this
current thesis aimed to explore teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom
teaching practices for the promotion of ELF in the EFL classrooms.
The researcher chose high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province as the
research site for the government in this province are asking teachers to be more
Chapter 1: Introduction 5
creative and active in language teaching in order to build up communicative skills in
English for students. As a teacher, the researcher wants to examine whether high
school teachers are favor of ELF and willing to apply it in their EFL classrooms or
not after some training courses held by the Education and Training Department.
Methodologically, the mixed methods design including questionnaire and
semi-structured interviews provided the quantitative data of 109 participants and
qualitative data of 22 interviewees. All of them were high school teachers in 11 high
schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. No students participated in this study.
1.6 Significance of the study
As mentioned above, this study aimed at investigating high school teachers’
attitudes toward ELF and explore teaching practices they carried out in the era of
ELF in their EFL classroom. Thus, the study expected to provide both theoretical and
practical significance to language teaching and learning in Ba Ria Vung Tau in
particular and Vietnam in general.
On a theoretical basis, this study is hoped to make a big contribution to the
literature of ELF in Vietnam with in-depth information on teachers’ attitude toward
ELF in the EFL classrooms. Besides, it will cast light on the application of ELF in
the EFL classrooms in terms of teaching practices.
On a practical basis, the results of the study may be beneficial to not only
educators regarding to teacher training in ELF setting but also teachers who are
trying to implement ELF in their classrooms. The study provides fundamental
foundation for ELF classrooms in the future so that high school teachers can have
more motivation and more understanding of activities for employing ELF in EFL
classrooms.
1.7 Definitions of key terms
In order to help elucidate a specific perspective on the discussed issues for the
purpose of the research, some key terms are defined as follows.
Attitude is considered as a crucial factor which have a great effect on teachers
who play different roles in language teaching such as an instructor, a facilitator, a
supervisor and a monitor in the language classroom.
6 Chapter 1: Introduction
English as a lingua franca refers to the use of English as a common means of
communication for those who have different mother tongues.
Classroom teaching practices refer to a set of actions a teacher can carry out
in order to engage the students into the lessons relating to a certain topic in the
classrooms.
High school EFL teachers are those who teach English in foreign language
classrooms at high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.
1.8 Organization of the thesis
This study report is divided into 5 chapters as follows:
Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study including background of the
study, the statement of the problem, purposes of the study, research objectives and
research questions, significance of the study and definitions of key terms as well.
Chapter 2 concentrates on literature review, consisting of the information
related to the status of English, World Englishes, Three circles of Katchru and
English as a lingua franca. In terms of ELF, definitions, linguistic features and the
roles of ELF. Additionally, the definitions and components of attitudes are also
presented, then followed by definitions of classroom teaching practices, their
importance in EFL as well as classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. This
chapter ends with previous research on ELF and classroom teaching practices related
to ELF and a conceptual framework for this study.
Chapter 3 elaborately describes the research methodology of the study in
connection with the research design, the research site, the sample and sample
procedures, the research instruments, the data collection procedures as well as the
data analysis procedures.
Chapter 4 presents the results of the study by analyzing the data collected from
questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. Then, the study discusses the results
compared and contrasted with the findings in previous studies.
Chapter 5 makes a conclusion on the main findings of the thesis, supplies some
implications and limitations of the research and makes some recommendations for
further research.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 7
Chapter 2: Literature Review
This chapter establishes the theoretical background of the study. Firstly, it
presents the status of English in Vietnam, World Englishes and Three Circles of
Katchru. Next, it describes the definitions of ELF from various perspectives, ELF
linguistic features and the ELF roles in language teaching and learning. Then,
definitions of attitudes, its components as well as models are included in the next
section. Besides, classroom teaching practices in terms of definitions, their
importance as well teaching practice perspectives in the era of ELF are summarised
in details. Plus, an in-depth review of previous studies in relation to high-school
teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF
are necessarily presented. The last section highlights the framework of the study
which depicts the issues discussed in this chapter.
2.1 The status of English
Kirkpatrick (2012a) announces that the demand for English has become more
and more heated in Vietnam since 1986. One of the main causes of the changes in the
status of English is the accessions as the official member of World Trade
Organization (WTO) in 2007 and ASEAN economic community (AEC) in 2015
(Duong, 2015). The open - door policy for foreign investment long for the skilled
workforce with good language communicative competence for the deeper and wider
international and developmental process. Thus, English is no longer a language in
limited contexts as in schools or for examination. In other words, English is not only
used for communication but also correspondence in trading and services
(Walkinshaw, 2018).
According to Vu (2015), the requirement of English competence is for all
professional employment in Vietnam. And the number of people using English
around the country has been increasing at the high speed. Those significant signals
urgently the changes in language teaching and learning in Vietnam in order to train
Vietnamese young people to be better at English communication skills as well as
more confident in using English outside the classrooms. A great many detailed
measures have been taken by the government and the MOET for the purpose of
enhancing Vietnamese young people’ communicative competence in English.
8 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Relating to the changes in language teaching and learning, English is taught
and learned in all levels of education from primary school to tertiary level according
to the project called “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National
Education System, 2008-2020” by MOET (Decision No. 1400/QĐ -TTg, 2008). This
decision was then updated on December 22nd, 2017 named “Teaching and Learning
of Foreign Languages in the National Education System, 2017 - 2025” (Decision No.
2080/ QĐ-TTg, December 22, 2017). The project calls for the changes in teaching
methods, teaching materials and language assessment so as to have a more balanced
and positive assessment to students’ performance. Besides, the appeal for paying
more attention to communication skills makes both teachers and students more
comfortable while conducting speaking and listening activities in the class.
Briefly, thanks to the integration into the world community in terms of
economy and society, English teaching and learning has received more concentration
than before. More importantly, the need for communicative exchange reduces the
pressure for teachers and students in terms of standard-English. Therefore, there is a
current tendency that non-native speakers outnumber native speakers in Vietnamese
streets and in tertiary institutions as Ngo (2015) presented. Crystal (1997) presented
that non-native speakers are the decision-makers of the future of English and there
will be much more varieties of English. English is the combination of different ways
which totally belong to the countries where it is used. To put it differently, English is
known as mutually used tool of communication spreading and accomplishing
transactional goals in a wide range of geographical areas (Kirkpatrick, 2011).
2.2 World Englishes
Since English was regarded as an international language, there has been a
ceaseless increase in the number of English speakers and learners, which makes the
spread of English faster and faster all over the world. However, there is a
phenomenon that the ways of using English in different countries are not the same;
for example, Australians did not employ the same English as the Americans, the
south Africans, the Canadians and the Indians (Kachru, 1986), which led to the new
concept of English called World Englishes by Kachru (1986). World Englishes refers
to the emergence of localized varieties of English, especially varieties that have
developed in territories influenced by the United Kingdom or the United States.
Thus, the study of World Englishes consists of identifying varieties of English used
Chapter 2: Literature Review 9
in diverse sociolinguistic contexts globally and analyzing how sociolinguistic
histories, multicultural backgrounds and contexts of function influence the use of
English in different regions of the world.
Also, the number of territories where English is spoken either as first
language or as an institutionalized second language in domains of government, law
and education is rising for the time being. The more widely English is used, the
newer varieties of English are constantly being developed and discovered, which
lead to the difficulties in knowing the accurate number of Englishes in the world, not
to mention the reality that “a speaker can speak various dialects, depending upon the
circumstances of a discussion” (Kachru & Nelson, 2009, p.73). Therefore, it is very
normal that the American and British voices are also two of many varieties of
English (Kachru & Nelson, 2009, p.73). More importantly, what speakers of English
need to care about is the pragmatics factors such as appropriateness,
comprehensibility and interpretability, which justifies the use of English.
Native accents
Generally, standard native accents always receive more preferences over non-
standard accents or non-native accents (Ladegaard, 1998; Zhang & Hu, 2008). Also,
Ladegaard (1998) adds that despite the high rate on status and competence, standard
varieties are often adjusted at fairly low on social attractiveness and personal
integrity. According to Meerleer (2012), evaluation on the same standards is different
across cultures and countries; however, the results of the studies of non-native
speakers about English accents in many contexts are respectively similar to each
other; that is native-like competence is always long-term outcome of language
learning.
Two varieties which have gained most attention are British and American
accents; particularly, British accent is a representative of “traditional loving”,
“conservation”, “reserved” and “high class” (Cargile & Giles, 1998) while American
English is regarded to be “cool” or “dim and uneducated” (Sjostedt & Vranic, 2007).
However, the result of the study by Zang & Hu (2008) revealed that “L2 learners
have more positive attitudes toward the varieties they have most been exposed to” (as
cited in Meerleer, 2012, p. 342). More importantly, speakers’ intelligibility is not
related to their attitudes toward an accent (Zhang & Hu, 2008, as cited in Meerleer,
2012, p. 342).
10 Chapter 2: Literature Review
In reality, there are a number of studies which have supported for one
standard native accent over the other and vice versa. For example, a survey by
Mobärg (1999) (founded in Le, 2016) concluded that some groups of Swedish
students liked American English more than Bristish English. This was similar to the
results of the study by Barros (2009) that American accent appeared to be clearer,
more useful and more straightforward. In contrast, British accent received
preferences by participants in the study by Ladegaard (1998). Or a study by
Botterman in 1995 (as cited in Tavernier, 2007) presented that participants preferred
the British accent to the American one. Another study by Norrborm (2008) showed
the finding that most of the textbooks were designed and taught with British accent
while they really wanted to use American accent. Nevertheless, Barros (2009)
revealed that many respondents in his study rejected the idea of standard varieties of
languages by not choosing a British or American accent when being asked.
Non-native accents
According to Meerleer (2012), the investigations of beliefs and attitudes
toward non-native English have been paid more attention in order to explore whether
there is any negative evaluation on non-native speakers or there are any prejudices
against the non-native accents or not. Bresnahan et al. (2002) emphasizes that
“speaking with a foreign accent identifies the other as a member of an out-group is
likely to evoke negative stereotypes”. Or Ryan et al. (1977, as cited in Cargile &
Giles, 1998) presented that the strength of the accent was able to cause some
negative effects on the more or less favorite ratings toward the speaker’s status and
attractiveness. However, the study by Flege and Fletcher (1991) suggests that the
respondents in their study became familiar with the sentences produced by the non-
native speakers after the duration of the experiment.
Moreover, the study by Phan (2016) presents that nearly half of the
respondents suggested accepting and respecting different varieties of English or non
– native accents. Also, she confirmed that despite the different pronunciation among
American, British and non-native accents, teachers and learners need to learn to
tolerate and stop judging as well as making bad criticisms on those varieties of
English because the long – lasting desire of language learning is the ability for real-
life communication in the future. In order to do this, teachers should have knowledge
Chapter 2: Literature Review 11
of the changes in English in the world as well as understand the importance of the
use of English worldwide these days.
2.3 The three circles of Katchru
The American linguist Kachru developed the three-circle model of World
Englishes in 1985, which remains one of the most influential models for grouping the
varieties of English in the world (Mollin, 2006). The spread of English was described
in terms of three concentric circles: The Inner Circle, The Outer Circle and The
Expanding Circle. According to Kachru (1985), these circles represent "the type of
spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is
used across cultures and languages".
The first Kachru’s model called Inner Circle referring the original bases of
English, dominated by the mother-tongue varieties (White, 1997). The countries
involved in the Inner Circle include the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand. The Outer Circle is the second model which consists of
the earlier phases of the spread of English in non-native countries, where the
language has become a part of a country's chief institutions or as an important
'second language' in a multilingual setting (Rajadurai, 2005). Most of the countries
included in the Outer Circle are former colonies of the United Kingdom or the
United States, such as Malaysia, Singapore, India, Ghana, Kenya and others
(Rajadurai, 2005). The third model named Expanding Circle refers to the territories
where English is learnt as a foreign language.
According to the statistics of Walkinshaw (2018), there are about 375 million
users in the inner and outer circles while the number of people in the expanding
circle is about 750 million to one billion. Kachru (1992) stated that the characteristics
in the use of English within three circles are also distinctive under the influence of its
historical background, economic and education policies on the use of English. For
instance, with a majority of immigrants, a multiethnic nation like the United States
has a mixture of varieties of English. Or, the English of Canada and North America
are not the same in terms of phonology and syntax due to the dominance of
American in 18th century (Crystal, 1997). Not mention to that the countries in the
expanding circle such as China, Japan, Greece and Poland are not the colonies of
members of the Inner Circle, so the language is taught because of the usefulness of
English as vehicle of international communication. Therefore, the model is not
12 Chapter 2: Literature Review
sufficiently dynamic to reflect the reality of English use in the world for the time
being. Kachru (1985) himself noticed that the concentric circles may be
oversimplified because some special cases like South Africa and Jamaica are difficult
to be classified.
Figure 2.1 Three concentric Circles of English (Kachru, 1985, p.16)
2.4 English as a lingua franca (ELF)
This section aims to present the background knowledge of ELF and ELF
linguistics features (Figure 2.2) so as to make ELF understood fully and exactly in
every aspect. The section is accompanied by the roles of ELF in language teaching
and learning in order to emphasize the importance of ELF in the classroom practices.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 13
Figure 2.2 The background knowledge of EFL
2.4.1 Definitions of English as a lingua franca (ELF)
The New Encyclopaedia Britannica (p. 377) presents that the term lingua
franca derives from the Middle Age between the 15th and 19th century. This term
was first based on Italian and French and developed by the traders for illegible
communication. Then, this term relating to the spread of Latin appeared in the
ancient times along with the development of science, philosophy and culture among
European scholars in the 18th (Encyclopedia Britannica, Lingua franca). The history
recorded that Portuguese was served as a lingua franca in distinct parts of Africa and
Asia in the 15th – 18th for trade and diplomatic purposes. All the languages
mentioned above showed that a lingua franca was the significant position of a
language in distinct parts of the world for social and economic purposes. Then, in the
17th century, since settlers left Britain for colonies in the Americas, English began to
spread around the globe (Graddol, 1997). By the 19th century, there was a dramatical
increase in the number of people speaking English because of the raise in colonies
around the world which had been established by Great Britain (Graddol, 1997).
Currently, English is the mother tongue to more than 375 million speakers, a second
language to around 375 million speakers and a foreign language to additional 750
million foreign users (Graddol, 1997, p.10). Thus, English surpassed all languages in
the past and becomes the dominant language in technology, science, publishing,
education, media, international trade as well as politics around the globe (The
Hutchinson Encyclopedia, p. 363, 1999). Bjorkman (2011a, p. 3) also confirms that
English can nowadays be marked as the world’s lingua franca.
14 Chapter 2: Literature Review
However, the concept of English as a lingua franca did not catch the attention
much in the literature until the 1980s (Jean & Chern, 2017). Only when Jenkins
(2000) and Seidlhofer (2001) mentioned ELF in the seminal publications, this
research field began to attract people’s attention (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey, 2011). To
put it differently, the birth of lingua franca has spirited many researchers to explore
this field of language such as Jenkins, Berns, Crystal, etc. (Jenkins, Cogo & Dewey,
2011).
That is the reason why there are a variety of definitions of ELF in this field of
linguistics (Seidlhofer, 2011, p.4). For example, according to Seidlhofer (2005, p.
339), a “lingua franca” refers to a common language for communication between
people who do not share their first language. To put it differently, interlocutors
demand a language for their communication in reality. The language in such
situations is either the native language of one of the speakers or a foreign language of
both speakers. Or, Jenkins, a linguist specializing in the EFL phenomenon, defines a
lingua franca as “a contact language used among people who do not share a first
language, and is commonly understood to mean a second (or subsequent) language of
its speakers” (Jenkins, 2007, p. 1). Or, Crystal (2012) suggests that gradually people
must accept different kinds of use of English as a price of being global. Also, Berns
(2008) makes a suggestion that the outer circle should not include the accent of
native speakers and outer circle speakers should feel free to use the rules of
pronunciation in EFL contexts.
2.4.2 EFL linguistic features
According to Zikmundová (2016), every speaker is able to create his/her own
variety of English due to the reason that “no one owns the English language
anymore” (Zikmundová, 2016, p. 14). That means the linguistic features of EFL may
be much more challenging since each person has his/her own way of transferring
elements from their native language into English (Zikmundová, 2016). In this
section, some characteristics in terms of lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics
of ELF are presented to depict the common differences between the forms of the
Inner Circle and ELF.
Lexicogrammar of ELF
In relation to lexicogrammatical features, Breitender (2005, p. 13) has the
idea that non-native speakers tend to misuse or omit the grammatical rules of the
Chapter 2: Literature Review 15
native language as long as the content of the communication is successfully
transmitted. The lexicogrammatical features of ELF are discovered by Seidlhofer
(2004) as followed:
• Omitting the 3rd person singular -s in the present tense.
• Confusing and incorrectly using the pronouns who and which in the
relative clause
• Misuse of definite and indefinite articles (using a definite article
where there should not be one in Standard English and not using one
where there should)
• Overusing prepositions where they are not needed (such as in We have
to study about …… instead of We have to study ….)
• Using incorrect forms in tag questions (such as in isn’t it? instead of
shouldn’t you?)
• Overusing certain verbs with a very general meaning (such as do/
have/ make/ put/ take)
• Using that -clause rather than infinitive constructions (as in I want
that)
• Putting too much stress on exactness (as in black colour instead of
black)
(Seidlhofer, 2004, as cited in Jenkins, Cogo, Dewey (2011). Review
of developments in research into ELF, p. 289)
This corpus of characteristic features of ELF presented above may be
considered as errors in the viewpoint of a native language. However, Breitender
(2005) explains that those standard grammatical rules seem to have no special
function and the focus of a communication is mainly on the content; thus, what non-
native speakers need is that the content is understandable during the communication.
Phonology of ELF
With regard to phonology, Zikmundová (2016) expresses that non-native
speaker also has his/her distinctive pronunciation which is definitely from the
Standard English of the native speakers. This is also the topic which attracts a lot of
attention from many linguists around the world in identifying phonological features
16 Chapter 2: Literature Review
of ELF (Zikmundová, 2016). Zikmundová (2016) notices that every non-native
speaker carries his/her own unique accent as a portrait of his/her mother tongue
pronunciation, which may cause the difficulties and even the complication during the
conversation. Relating to this, Jenkins (2007) also mentions the phonological
features of ELF in her book in a set of recommendations for maintaining the
communication.
For example, non-native speakers of English often have problem in
pronouncing dental fricatives /θ/ and /ð/ because these two consonant sounds do not
exist in their mother tongue. The consonant clusters in English might lead to the
decrease of intelligibility according to Jenkins (2007). Or the distinguishing vowel
length and placing the nuclear stress correctly within a sentence are also kind of
challenge to non-native speakers (Jenkins, 2007).
To prevent the misunderstanding or incomprehension between speakers, they
must adjust their own pronunciation to ensure the mutual understanding.
Zikmundová (2016) uses the term “accommodation” to illustrate for the necessary
adjustment among the speakers. Jenkins (2007) makes some suggestions such as
adding the sounds for consonant clusters or choosing what information which needs
emphasizing to mark a nuclear stress.
Pragmatics of ELF
The field of pragmatics is also in great importance of linguistic features of
ELF, so there have been many studies on the role of pragmatics in ELF so far.
Zikmundová (2016) affirms that interlocutors have a tendency to prioritize for the
intelligible communication rather than the use of perfect English. It means that ELF
refers to the smooth of the conservation rather than the form of the language;
therefore, in order to make the message fully understood, the speakers naturally
make some adjustments in the use of language based on the context.
Jenkins (2011) provides some strategies that ELF should employ in order to
reduce or avoid the misunderstandings as followed:
• Repetition is one of the effective ways which helps the
communication intelligible; and the speakers also use clarification and
self-repair to check the information during the communication.
• Paraphrasing, saying in their own words or using minimal response
from the other counterpart also help avoid prolonged silence.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 17
• Inserting or creating idiomatic expressions helps create the
incorporation among speakers of ELF though idioms may seem to be
really challenging to non-native speakers. Even, those creative
idiomatic expressions are considered as a signal of a group of ELF
speakers.
• Using discourse markers is used to introduce the new topic among
non-native speakers of ELF although in the native language, this is a
way of expressing politeness or involvement in communication.
(Jenkins, 2011, p. 293- 294)
Generally, those introduced linguistic features of ELF in terms of
lexicogrammar, phonology and pragmatics aim to show that there are varieties of
ELF around the world and in the field of research, ELF has received a lot of attention
among linguists. Breitender (2005) proposes to establish a set of rules for native and
non-native speakers to use for the purpose of avoiding misunderstandings as well as
increasing the mutual intelligibility. Furthermore, in education, the rise in a number
of speakers of ELF implies that teachers of English might introduce these features to
the students of English in EFL classrooms in the future in order for students to get
acquainted with these features during their English learning process as well as
making up for the situations in which there are unusual forms of the language or
grammatical errors. (Zikmundová, 2016)
2.4.3 The roles of ELF in language teaching and learning
EFL has been proved to hold a dominant position in many areas such as
international business, Information Technology, aviation, transportation and even in
education (Zikmundová, 2016). According to Zikmundová (2016), EFL creates a
great many chances for the trade in the globalized world; for example, the
negotiation process, goods - ordering and selling activities and partnership-
establishing activities for company. This is totally consistent with Graddol’s (2012)
opinion that English tends to be widely for business outside the borders of European
countries. Or the ASEAN Charter in 2009 stated that ‘the working language of
ASEAN shall be English’ (Jenkins, 2011), which means that English is a tool for
ASEAN to connect to other international organizations. In a broader extent,
Zikmundová (2016) reveals that due to the rise in international travel, a uniting
18 Chapter 2: Literature Review
language became really necessary to manage transportation, save lives as well as
operate the international airplanes and ships; that is why English has been a
worldwide lingua franca in air and sea transportation.
Based on the studies on EFL, it is obvious that English is being more widely
used by non-native speakers than native speakers for the need of communication as
well as science and technology as what Crystal (2003) says in his study that “English
is the medium of a great deal of the world’s knowledge, especially in such areas as
science and technology” (p. 110). The statistics by Walkinshaw (2018) showed that
English is a second language to 375 million speakers and a foreign language to
additional 750 million foreign users. Ramírez (2005) claims that non-native speakers
use other intonation range and variety of contours than native speakers. The
differences between English by native speakers and non-native speakers should be
focused in class in order to meet learners’ communicative purposes.
With a greater number of non-native users of English, language teaching and
learning need to pay attention to ELF in order to have more understanding of ways
which English is spoken by non- native speakers, from which teachers have more
knowledge of teaching English in the classrooms. This is the same as Jenkins (2007)
considers EFL as an independent variety of English which should be considered and
taught; or to put it differently, teachers and students should be provided with ELF
knowledge and exposed to the used of ELF in the classroom.
Obviously, the influence of English in the education field was reported by
Crystal (2003) as follows: since 1960s, English has been a common medium of
instruction tool in higher education in many countries. As a result, the English
language teaching (ELT) major has grown rapidly around the world. In other words,
ELF makes a great contribution to the changes in teaching methodology; that is to
stop focusing on linguistic forms such as pronunciation, morpho-syntactic features
and to priorize non-linguistic forms which affect mutual understanding (Nagy, 2016).
The focus of language teaching and learning is on communication skills as well as
interactive skills.
2.5 Attitudes toward ELF
2.5.1 Definitions of attitudes
Many researches consider investigating teachers’ attitudes the indispensable
aspect in the exploration of the in-depth insights of each topic, especially researches
Chapter 2: Literature Review 19
in the fields of psychology and education. That is why there are a great many
definitions of attitude from different contexts and perspectives (Alhmali, 2007).
First, attitude which is simply defined in Oxford Learner’s Dictionary is the
way people think or feel about something or the way people behave toward someone
or something. Based on the scientific theory of planned behavior, Rokeach (1969, as
cited in Smith, 1981) defines attitudes as the consistent organization of beliefs
toward a certain object or a certain situation to some extent, which lead to the
predisposing respondence in some preferential manner. Or Gardner (1985) has his
own definition of attitudes that the evaluative reactions or opinions about a certain
referent reveals the attitudes of a certain individual. Briefly, “attitude is generally
conceptualized as a learned predisposition to respond in a consistent evaluative
manner” which is “a dimension as pro-con, favorable-unfavorable, positive-negative,
supportive-hostile, or desirable – undersiable” (Allport, 1935; Katz and Scotland,
1959; Rosenberg and Hovland, 1960, as cited in Thomas, 1969, p. 12).
2.5.2 The components of attitudes
In theory, attitudes are psychological phenomenons which may be indirectly
observed or gradually acquired over a period of time and attitude is classified into
three interrelated components; namely, affective, behavioral or cognitive components
(Rosenberg & Hovland, 1960; Katz and Scotland, 1959; Wenden, 1991).
Cognitive component
Based on how a person thinks about the attitude objects, this aspect of
attitudes refers to the beliefs, thoughts of the language learners about the knowledge
as well as their understanding in their learning process. In other words, cognitive
component is the combination of the experiences of attitude objects and the
information in different courses, which are called information and perceptions as
Schiffman and Kanuk (2004) defined. In language learning, cognitive factors include
the connection of the previous knowledge with the new one, the creation of new
knowledge, the check of new knowledge as well as the application of the new
knowledge in different situations.
20 Chapter 2: Literature Review
Affective component
The definition of affective component presented by Eagly and Chaiken
(1998) that “feelings, moods, emotions, and sympathetic nervous system activity
which people have experienced in relation to an attitude object and subsequently
associate with it” (p. 272) are affective factors. In other words, affective component
is related to the emotional experiences and preferences such as the likes or dislikes
toward an object. As the operational mechanism of emotion is simultaneous with
cognitive factor, the evaluation of affective factor is a combination of feelings,
emotions and evaluative judgement on beliefs which are called an integrated model
of attitude and choice (Agarwal & Malhotra, 2005). Regarding to language learning,
Feng and Chen (2009) presented that learning process is an emotional process
influenced by different emotional factors. It means that the inner feelings and
emotions of learners should be taken into consideration (Choy & Troudi, 2006) for
the purpose of bettering their learning process.
Behavioral component
Behavioral component defined by Defleur and Westie (1963) is associated
with individual response or reaction toward attitude object. To put it differently, the
way a person behaves or reacts in particular situations are behavioral aspects of
attitude. Therefore, the student’s participation in the tasks and their actions during
tasks are concerned to attitude object. It means that the behavioral component helps
enhance students to be exposed to the target language and the English environment in
the classroom. According to Kara (2009), positive attitudes lead to positive behaviors
toward language learning, which can encourage the eagerness as well as enthusiasm
of students. And students engage themselves emotionally and feel strived to learn
more and acquire more information and skills for daily life.
On the whole, the affective component refers to the emotions and feelings,
cognitive component is based on perceptions and beliefs whereas the behavioral
component is related to the expression of behavioral intentions. Therefore, attitude
concept should be viewed from the three above dimensions because each of those
dimensions consists different features which are absolutely necessary for students’
language learning. Toward ELF in ELF classroom, statistics analysis of research over
the past years have showed that the majority of teachers preferred using native
speaker norms to features which are frequently associated with ELF. However, ELF
Chapter 2: Literature Review 21
has been considered as an acceptable alternative to non-native speakers in Soruc
(2015) and there should be more research on other participants in a wider variety of
contexts according to Soruc (2015).
2.6 Classroom teaching practices
Richards and Rodgers (2001) stated that “different philosophies at the level of
approach may be reflected in the use of different kinds of activities and in different
uses for particular activity type”. It means that the choice of teaching principles and
practices are based on teachers’ knowledge and attitudes in language teaching and
learning. That is why different contexts lead to the differences in teaching practices
and attitudes of the teachers. Accordingly, there have been a lot of investigation on
classroom teaching practices in different contexts, which lead to the diversity of
definitions of classroom teaching practices suitable for specific settings.
2.6.1 Definitions of classroom teaching practices
Gage (1978) defines teaching practices as “any activity on the part of one
person intended to facilitate learning on the part of another” (p. 14). However, in
order to clarify what teaching practices are, it is better to explain what the two terms
“teaching” and “practice” mean.
Flinders (1989) suggests some areas of teaching as follows:
✓ Communication: the ability of the teacher to initiate and sustain a multitude
of personal interactions with students.
✓ Perceptions: the ability of the teacher to pick up on such things as students’
attitudes, motives, and beliefs, and to adapt a lesson appropriately.
✓ Co-operation: the ability of the teacher to negotiate a collaborative and open
relationship with students.
✓ Appreciation: the ability of the teacher to feel an intrinsic sense of self-worth
from doing a difficult job well.
(p. 24)
Whereas, Brown (1994) defines teaching in a shorter way that teaching is the
facilitation of learning (p. 17). Teaching is not only transforming knowledge but also
enhancing relationship among learners, creating interesting atmosphere for learning,
choosing materials and understanding students’ needs. And Ellis (1985)’s definition
22 Chapter 2: Literature Review
of teaching is that stimulating learning through facilitative instructions, raising
learners’ awareness of language features, motivating learners and reinforcing
learners’ knowledge (p. 74).
Practice in Morris’s (1973) opinion that it is “a customary action or way of
doing something” (as cited in Zain, 2007, p. 16). To put it differently, practice is a set
of actions done regularly in order to achieve something.
Therefore, teaching practices consist of giving feedback, interaction with
students, transforming information, managing the classrooms and setting activities as
well as choosing the materials. Stones and Morris (1977, as cited in Gujjar, 2008, p.
2) mentions three major descriptions in the definition of teaching practice as follows:
the practicing of teaching skills and acquisition of the role of a teacher, the whole
range of experience that students go through in schools, and the practical aspects of
the course as distinct from theoretical studies. Or, Wang, Haertel and Warburg
(1993) state that classroom teaching practices with regards to classroom management
and classroom interactions have certain effects on students’ cognitive competencies.
However, the effectiveness of classroom practice depends on the cultural context and
professional traditions.
To sum up, teaching practices are the way the teacher interacts with learners,
choose the materials, build up good relationship based on confidence, admiration and
motivation, vary in different teaching methods and techniques as well as increase
learners’ interests during the lessons. More importantly, many researches on teaching
practices affirm that teachers’ beliefs or attitudes make a strong impact on teaching
practices at some certain extent (Handal, Bobis, & Grimison, 2001; Lovat & Smith,
1995). In other words, teachers’ lives and behaviors can result in a lot of creativeness
and inventiveness in their classes.
2.6.2 The importance of teaching practices in EFL classrooms
As mentioned above, classroom teaching practices refer to what and how
teachers teach as well as assess students in their classroom in order to develop
students’ communication skills in English as well as build up their confidence in
using English in the international environment. In order to do this, it is absolutely
necessary to investigate the influence of teaching practices in EFL classrooms in
order to depict the importance of teaching practices in EFL classrooms taught.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 23
Generally, Borg (2003) states that the choice of activities during the lessons
have great impact on the students. However, teachers’ decision is dependent on a set
of ideologies that teachers hold about their students as well as pedagogical practices
(Farrell & Bennis, 2013). In other words, various actions by the teachers reflect their
values and beliefs (Verloop et al., 2001), which mainly derived from their own
philosophies of teaching (Andrews, 2003). Besides, teachers’ experience and
language backgrounds also are important factors influencing the choice in
techniques, aids or activities used in EFL classrooms (Ngnidi & Sibaya, 2003;
Marais & Meier, 2004).
Relating to the choice of aids, the study by Nalliveettil and Ali (2013) about
the usefulness of Audio-Visual Aids in ELF classroom in Arabia affirmed that the
combination of textbooks with audio and video as supplementary resources for
classroom language learning activities helped provide motivation and increase
inspiration among students. Lessons taught with the help of technological aids are
viewed as an effective technique which teachers should conduct so that EFL
classrooms are more interesting and inspiring to students because the sounds and
images attached in the learning activities make the teaching-learning process
effective and attractive, which appeal for the interest and attention of students more.
The use of materials in the EFL classroom also plays an important role in
increasing students’ participations in the activities. According to Basturkmen (2001),
authentic texts helped to raise the students’ awareness of language use and promote
more interactions among students. McCarthy (1998) emphasized that “learners
trained to be good observers of data have taken an important step toward facilitating
features of talk” (p. 52). And once they are active observers, they are engaged to be
exposed to contribute their ideas and initiate discussions as well as join the activities
more dependently (Basturkemen, 2001).
The way teachers give feedbacks on the students’ mistakes also make huge
influence on students in their learning. The study about how to correct students’
mistakes showed that almost students felt worried and too sensitive to teachers’
feedback (Kepner, 1991; Semke, 1984; Sheppard, 1992). Therefore, negative
feedback may not totally correct student’s mistakes but reduce their production as
participation in the and feedback should be selective so as not to prevent students’
attempt to communicate activities (Pica, 1996). According to Al-Hasnawi (2016),
when reaching at a certain level, students may have a sense of self-correction
24 Chapter 2: Literature Review
strategy which help them avoid mistakes which might repeatedly appear in similar
communicative situations.
Classroom management is of great importance in building effective EFL
classrooms because teachers with good classroom management skill can create a
positive classroom environment, meet classroom expectations and reinforce
appropriate behavior as well as correct inappropriate behaviors skillfully (Simonsen,
Fairbanks, Briesch, Myers & Sugai, 2008). Classroom management refers the
organization of the physical classroom environment such as floor plan, seating chart
or the daily classroom routines such as daily procedures, homework giving and
checking or the creation of a predictable schedule across days, weeks … All of these
strategies aim at creating a classroom layout, rules and structure in order to reduce
the noise or distractions among students in the classrooms.
Obviously, teaching practices which teachers apply in EFL classrooms
directly impact on the effectiveness of learning activities during the lessons. More
significantly, teachers have a range of teaching practices to select for their EFL
classrooms so as to better their teaching and students’ learning. And teachers are
responsible and accountable for designing and delivering a high quality of language
teaching and learning. Therefore, classroom teaching practices need to be carefully
chosen for the suitability of their settings and objects as well as the level of their
objects.
2.6.3 Teaching practices in the era of ELF
The global expansion of ELF in the world put a big question in language
teaching and learning in the world. That is, whether EFL should be taught in the
same way as English as second language is being taught. In the countries where
English is not their mother tongue and English is mainly used for international
communication of the majority of the population, internal communicative functions
and sociopolitical status in the use of a language receives more supports (Nayar,
1997). Moreover, there are not enough professional and native English teachers to
cover all the English classes (Nayar, 1997), which requires the changes in people’s
and teachers’ attitudes toward in the norm English as a lingua France, so that there
need to be necessary alternatives in classroom teaching practices which are
accessible to English in a non-native way.
Chapter 2: Literature Review 25
ELF classrooms refer to the language ones where English is considered as a
medium instruction or communication tools. Teachers and students have chances to
update knowledge, gain communicative competence, balance accuracy and fluency.
The use of different varieties of English is accepted along with the lesson and the
freedom in the choice of useful English varieties as long as the communicative
purposes are gained and the language learning takes place smoothly. Therefore, it is
absolutely necessary for the pedagogical training as Seidlhofer (2005b) stated,
teachers will need a more comprehensive education which enables them for their
own teaching contexts and to adapt their teaching to the particular requirements of
their learners. Although teachers cannot teach all varieties of English in classrooms,
teachers’ encouragement to their students to explore different English varieties of
English through out-of-class activities should be highly appreciated (Ehrenreich,
2018, p. 37- 48).
Relating to some significant ways in the ELF classrooms, Smit (2010)
proposed that using materials, sharing experience, using audio or visual means, self-
learning, seminars, exploring the value of pair work, groupwork, etc.… are what
teachers should do in ELF classrooms. The purposes of using these kinds of aids are
to facilitate academic communication among students in and out of the county.
However, teachers in a single unified curriculum as Vietnam may encounter some
barriers which prevent the application of ELF in the classrooms (Kuhn, 2011). In
other words, the exam-driven curriculum in most Vietnamese schools nowadays may
be a challenging to teachers in conducting ELF classrooms. Therefore, teachers need
a lot of changes in their attitudes toward ELF in order to be more flexible to choose
teaching methods and teaching strategy for the promotion of students’
communicative skills as well as the stimulation of students’ engagement into English
discussions.
With regard to the structures of the lesson, Jenkins, Cogo and Dewey (2011)
showed the differences in the lesson plan of the EFL classrooms in the era of ELF.
Instead of following the basic structure with pre-teaching part, a while-teaching with
a discussion of “fill in the blanks” exercises and a post-teaching with listening
activities and specially only giving priority on speaking activities if required, ELF
focuses on extensive oral interactions with classroom activities such as group work,
pair work, presentation, and so on in order to increase the incorporation among
students. Additionally, the materials such as coursebooks, curriculum also need to be
26 Chapter 2: Literature Review
designed in an ELF lesson-plan; especially, according to Matsuda and Friedrich
(2011), the publishers need to pay attention to promoting an ELF perspective in
teaching materials. The materials are proposed to have practical examples of how to
incorporate the view that English is the language for international communication
within EFL classrooms (Matsuda & Friedrich, 2011).
To sum up, the era of ELF not only makes a great contribution on the
promotion of English learners’ communicative competence but also leads to great
changes in teaching methods and teaching practices in EFL classrooms.
2.7 Previous research
The field of ELF has undergone dramatic developments since the ELF first
conference was held in 2008. This theme flourished with a growing number of
research and the annual conference series were then held in around Europe and Asian
by scholars at different stages of their careers. This is equivalent with Jenkins’s
(2015) opinion that the exploration of the ELF phenomenon at all linguistic levels, in
a wide range of domains and in different geographical regions. In education, the
developments of ELF create a lot of opportunities for teachers to get access to
practical problems relating to ELF teaching practices (Sifakis, 2014). Therefore,
many numerous studies have been carefully carried out in order to point out what
teachers have to do in the classroom with ELF – aware and attitude perspectives.
For the importance of teachers in teaching English in the ELF perspective,
there is a lot of research in terms of teachers’ perceptions and attitudes toward the
global spread of English and ELF in the world; for example, from English – speaking
countries in the Inner Circle, Outer Circle and non- English-speaking countries of
Expanding Circle. In those research, norms, principles and challenges of teaching
ELF are also mentioned and discussed to find the most appropriate ways for the
implementation in the language classroom in their own contexts.
In the context of Europe, one of the studies on the attitudes of the teachers
toward ELF was done by Soruc in 2015. The purpose of this study is to explore the
practices and perceptions of non-native English - speaking teachers from five -
expanding circle countries including Turkish, Italian, Egyptian, Germany and China.
The questionnaire consisted of forty-four non-native English - speaking teachers, and
ten of whom were later interviewed. Unfortunately, the qualitative and quantitative
Chapter 2: Literature Review 27
data revealed that most of the teachers from those different expanding circle
countries preferred to use native speaker norms rather than features associated with
ELF. Similarly, in the particular context of German, Decke-Cornill (2003)
investigated the attitudes of teachers of English in two different types of schools. The
result of the study showed that teaching proper English was more popular than ELF
features. Another study done in Turkey by Incecay and Akyel (2014) had collected
and analyzed the questionnaire and semi-structured interviews of a hundred Turkish
EFL teachers working at two universities regarding to ELF and its roles. The data
presented that teachers were familiar with ELF though they tended to highly
appreciate native-speaker English as the correct model and all of the teachers said
that they still had tolerant attitudes toward their students’ use of ELF features.
In the context of UAE and Georgia, Tamar and Khalid did a research in 2018
for the purpose of investigating non-native English – speaking teachers’ attitudes and
beliefs toward ELF in two different places; particularly, UAE is the country where
English has the status of ELF and Georgia is the country where English is considered
a foreign language. With 20 teachers each region took part in the online
questionnaire including four sections; that is, demographic characteristics, behavioral
factors, attitudinal factors and questions association with teachers’ practice, opinions
and awareness of ELF. The set of questions including multi-item, close-ended,
specific open – ended and clarification questions helped to prove that ELF was a
crucial topic for both regions and provided future expertise on ELF and some ways
of its incorporation in language courses.
In the context of South-East region, the study on teachers’ attitudes toward
ELF was carried out by a Malaysian researcher named Kaur in 2013 in a Malaysia
university. The purpose of this study was to examine the perceptions of the trainee
teachers toward ELF or non-native speaking English accents compared with native
speaking English accents. Seventy - two participants from a teacher-training course
took part in the survey with a questionnaire adopted from Jenkins (2007). The results
of the study revealed that native English accents were more favorable than to non-
native English accents though they were exposed to ELF in their training curriculum.
The explanation for this negative description on non-native English accents resulted
from the native speaking-centric textbooks and materials, which made those trainee
teachers more familiar to the norm provider of native speaking accent.
28 Chapter 2: Literature Review
In the context of Vietnam, the increasing popularity of English has attracted a
great substantial attention which led to the birth of language governmental policies
for the purpose of developing Vietnamese students’ communicative competence.
However, the development of English in terms of a lingua franca is still a new
perspective toward Vietnamese teachers and learners because of the influence of
native speaking accents existing in all the English materials in Vietnam. The research
of ELF in language teaching and learning in Vietnam mainly focus on the teachers’
awareness or perceptions on World Englishes, global English and ELF as well as
challenges which teachers face with in the implementation of those above aspects in
the classroom.
The study conducted by Tran (2015) aimed at uncovering the perceptions of
teachers of English in Vietnam toward the norm World Englishes. The study called
for the participation of one hundred and fifty - seven teachers at university and
college level into the online questionnaire survey and five of whom were invited to
take part in the semi-structured interviews individually and in group. With a mixed –
method approach, the quantitative and qualitative data presented that Vietnamese
English teachers at the university/college level have a broad range of perceptions
toward English varieties, which resulted in various benefits and challenges for
language teaching and learning. Besides, the research showed that the number of
studies in terms of World Englishes is still limited in Vietnam; therefore, there
should have teacher training courses in order to improve teachers’ knowledge and
awareness of global English, World Englishes and ELF in real life and in modern
society.
Another study which was more closely related to ELF in the context of
Vietnam was carried out by Ngo (2015) in the Hue University. There were twenty-
five teachers and one – hundred students participating in the online questionnaires
and Skype interviews. The purpose of this study was to investigate Vietnamese
teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF and find out the rising concern in the
application of ELF to language classroom in Vietnam. The qualitative and
quantitative data from two main instruments of data collection revealed that
Vietnamese teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF seemed to be complex and
contradictory because there was a conflict between what students longed for and
what teachers and students preferred. Most of the participants understood that there
was a high increase in the spread of English all over the world as well as its
Chapter 2: Literature Review 29
important role in Vietnam. Moreover, all of them knew that having good knowledge
of English and acquiring English communication skills confidently would bring them
a lot of opportunities to their life. However, they expressed their support to language
standardization ideology and native accents.
In relation to the perceptions of teachers toward ELF in Vietnam, another
study was conducted in the context of Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
(HUTECH) by Ho (2018). In this study, the researcher used questionnaires and semi-
structured interviews in order to examine teachers’ understandings of ELF in terms
of vocabulary, pragmatic, linguistic and its speakers as well as their judgment in
integrating ELF in their EFL classroom. The study was done with participation of
fifty teachers from three departments in HUTECH by a mixed-method approach. The
result from the qualitative and quantitative data presented that teachers’ perceptions
on ELF, advantages and proposed ways of ELF incorporation in ELF classes were
comparatively good. Especially, the majority of those teachers preferred
incorporating ELF through books and other published materials or widely recognized
sources of knowledge such as seminars.
In general, there are a few studies on ELF in the context of Vietnam despite
there have been a lot of changes in the status of English nowadays and governmental
policies highly appreciate the role of English in language teaching and learning.
Furthermore, the studies on ELF in Vietnam mainly referred to teachers and students
at university and college level who were believed to get more access to ELF than any
other educational levels. Besides, most of the research focused on investigating
teachers and students’ perceptions of ELF, its roles and advantages in language
teaching and learning and teachers’ thinking and attitudes toward the incorporation
of ELF in the classroom. More importantly, there has been little research on teachers’
attitudes toward ELF in the classroom to examine whether teachers were ready to
apply ELF in their own teaching environment or not. Obviously, there should be
more studies on teachers’ awareness and attitudes to ELF at different levels of
education in order to have an entire view on ELF in the context of Vietnam.
With all the reasons mentioned above, in the international and national
context, the previous studies lacked the investigation of high school teachers’
attitudes toward ELF and their classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF.
Therefore, this current thesis aims to fill the research gap on examining the teachers’
30 Chapter 2: Literature Review
beliefs, feelings and behaviors toward ELF as well as their teaching practices in their
own classroom.
2.8 Conceptual framework
The objectives of the present study are to investigate high-school teachers’
attitudes toward ELF and teaching practices relating to ELF used in the high-school
classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. Based on the previous studies the author
has reviewed so far, this study aimed to present the attitudes toward ELF in three
dimensions (affective, cognitive and behavioural components) (Rokeach,1969, as
cited in Smith, 1971), provide general understanding, including the status of English,
World Englishes, three circles of Katchru and ELF in terms of its definitions and
linguistic features as well as its roles in language teaching and learning. Besides, the
study also aims to explore the teaching practices are used in EFL classrooms in Ba
Ria Vung Tau Province relation to their definitions and important roles. Thanks to it,
classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF are presented for the whole pictures of
ELF in high-school classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The theoretical
framework was relied on the theoretical framework of the previous studies and
literature of teachers’ beliefs, attitudes and knowledge and the ways in which these
belief systems are formed.
The conceptual framework of the present study is presented in Figure 2.6 as
follows:
Chapter 2: Literature Review 31
Figure 2.3 Conceptual framework of the study
2.9 Summary
This chapter provided an overview of the status of English in the global
expansion for communication and the background knowledge of ELF with regarding
to its definitions and linguistic features as well as its roles in language teaching and
learning. Moreover, the exploration of the teaching practices used in EFL classrooms
relation to their definitions and important roles in EFL were mentioned in order to
find out which teaching practices in the era of ELF in high-school settings are
available in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. Additionally, previous studies on teachers’
perceptions of ELF in the world and in Vietnam was presented. Next was the
conceptual study that was used in this research. The research methodology used in
this study is discussed in chapter three.
Attitudes toward ELF and classroom teaching practices among EFL
high-school teachers.
Teachers attitudes toward ELF Classroom teaching practices among
EFL high-school teachers.
Cognitive
attitudes
Behavioral
attitudes
Affective
attitudes
Knowledge of
classroom teaching
practices
Other teaching
activities in the EFL
classroom
cultural knowledge
pronunciation
four language skills (speaking, listening, writing, reading)
grammar
vocabulary
32 Chapter 3: Methodology
Chapter 3: Methodology
The chapter first provides the research design with general information of the
methods and participants. Then, it continues with the detailed information of research
site, sample and sample procedures, research instruments and data collection
procedures. At the end of this chapter, the data analysis procedures are presented.
3.1 Research design
This thesis investigated the attitudes toward ELF and the application of
classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF among high school teachers,
particularly 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. The present thesis was
conducted through the employment of the mixed method of qualitative and
quantitative research design. Accordingly, the quantitative data was collected by a
questionnaire survey with 109 teachers of English at 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung
Tau Province and then the qualitative data was collected through semi-structured
interviews with 20 teachers in order to answer two research questions. According to
Creswell (2012), a mixed methods design was the most chosen one in many studies
because of its higher reliability and validity in SPSS Cronbach’s Alpha indexes or in
real life’s results. Additionally, the questionnaire is a preferable tool to get the
overall viewpoints of the current status on teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and
classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF and the semi-structured interview
helped test their reliability (Cohen, 2007). The mixed methods design of other
researchers in the previous studies usually includes questionnaire, classroom
observation or interview. In this thesis, a questionnaire survey and semi-structured
interviews were employed so as to get the whole depict of the current attitudes of
high school teachers toward ELF and the classroom teaching practices in the era of
ELF.
3.2 Research site
Ba Ria Vung Tau Province was chosen as the research site of this thesis.
There are 11 high schools (including both public and private high schools) in Ba Ria
Chapter 3: Methodology 33
Vung Tau Province where there are more than 109 high- school teachers. Since the
project entitled “Teaching and Learning of Foreign Languages in the National
Education System, 2008-2020” (Decision No. 1400/ QĐ-TTg, 2008), all of high
schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province are well-equipped with modern computers
connected with the internet, headphones, loud speakers, projectors and even
interactive boards for the purposes of promoting English teaching and learning in Ba
Ria Vung Tau Province. Moreover, English was mainly used in the ELF classrooms,
especially in skill lessons in order to create the English environment for both teachers
and students to practice communication skills.
In Ba Ria Vung Tau Province, the use of English as a tool for communication
received a great support from the government of this province who hope to increase
the language teaching and learning in English as well as develop Ba Ria Vung Tau
students’ communicative competence. The quality of English teaching and learning
in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province has been considerably upgraded in recent years. Each
school has some well-equipped lab rooms for the purpose of supporting the language
teaching and learning. The materials such as cassette players, pictures and books are
always available in the library. The teachers are active and willing to change
themselves to be more suitable for the language teaching and learning nowadays.
According to the official curriculum, the academic year comprises thirty-
seven weeks including two semesters; namely, Semester 1 with nineteen weeks and
Semester 2 with eighteen weeks. Students at secondary schools have three periods of
English a week. All the lessons have to follow this curriculum distribution strictly.
Secondary students have one oral examination, three fifteen-minute tests, two forty-
five-minute tests and a final exam at the end of each semester, in which a speaking
test is marked as a fifteen-minute test.
3.3 Sample and sampling procedures
The study was conducted at 11 high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province,
Vietnam with the participation of 109 high-school teachers who were purposively
sampled.
At first, five of those teachers did the questionnaires and joined the interview
for the pilot study in order that the researcher checked whether there were any
troubles with the questionnaire and the interview before officially using them for 109
34 Chapter 3: Methodology
Vietnamese teachers of English of the research. Then, out of 109 participants, 20
teachers of English from 5 high schools were individually invited for the interview
for more explanation.
Relating to the purposive sampling, Creswell (2012) said that this sampling
procedure can make the study reachable and easy to be carried out. The chosen
teachers were defined in three ways. First, the researcher contacted with working
teachers where the researcher works as a teacher of English. Second, the researcher
asked for help from the leaders of each high school for teachers’ availability to send
them printed forms of the questionnaire. After collecting responses in many ways,
high school teachers were asked for their availability for individual semi-structured
interview. Particularly, 109 high school teachers of English were selected based upon
their willingness to answer the survey. Moreover, during the actual collecting data
process, the researcher had a contact with 11 principals of 11 high schools in Ba Ria
Vung Tau Province for their permission to collect the data.
Table 3.1 Demographic information of the participants.
No. Information N=109
F %
1 Gender Male 10 9.2
Female 99 90.8
2 Educational level University 90 82.6
Master 19 17.4
3 Years of working
experience
1-5 years 9 8.3
6-10 years 19 17.4
11-15 years 41 37.6
more than 15
years
40 36.7
4 Travelling abroad
experience
Yes 42 38.5
No 67 61.5
Times of
travelling abroad
Yes 42 38.5
5 No 67 61.5
Note: F: Frequency; %: Percent
The total number of EFL teachers was 109, 10 of them were male making up
for 9.2%; and 99 of them were female, accounting 90.8 %. Teachers in public
schools were 104 teachers making up for 95.4 %. The number of private schools
were 5, accounting for 4.6%. Amongst them, 8.3% of them experienced under 5
Chapter 3: Methodology 35
years of teaching, 17.4% teachers have experienced under 10 years of teaching,
37.6% teachers having under 15 years of teaching and 36.7% teachers experienced
more than 15 years of teaching. Especially, 19 teachers having Master of Arts
accounting 17.4%, 90 teachers whose educational level were university level, making
up for 82.6%. This table of demographic information of the participants proved the
variety in samples’ characteristics. Besides, the number of teachers going abroad was
42, accounting for 38.5%. More importantly, all of the teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau
have attended training courses held by the Education and Training Department of Ba
Ria Vung Tau Province. The purpose of those training courses was to equip teachers
with knowledge of global English, new teaching methodology as well as encourage
teachers to confidently change their own ways of teaching.
3.4 Research instruments
This study used the mixed methods design to collect both quantitative and
qualitative data. Thus, both questionnaire and semi-structured interview were
employed for the data collection of this study.
3.4.1 Questionnaire
The first instrument used in this study was the questionnaire. The
questionnaire designed for the teacher participants was a questionnaire survey
including of three parts, namely part I, part II and part III. Part I comprised 6 items
asking about demographic information of participants such as name, age, gender,
educational level, year of teaching experience and times for abroad vacation. Those
are the elementary information which is required in a questionnaire to have an
overall picture of the participants’ demographic information, level in professionals
and experience (Hatch, 2002). There were 24 items in part II which were designed on
the basis of Smit (2010)’s research and were then adapted and checked many times
before the distribution to the participants in order to explore the attitudes of the
teachers toward ELF in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation, four English skills,
grammar. More particularly, part II was designed into three main parts, investigating
the teachers’ attitudes into three components, namely cognitive, affective and
behavioural attitudes. The cognitive component included 8 items from number 1 to 8
examining teachers’ knowledge of ELF, the affective component consisted of 8 other
items from number 9 to 16 investigating teachers’ feeling during the implementation
36 Chapter 3: Methodology
of ELF, and the behavioural component with 8 items left from number 17 to 24
identifying teachers’ behaviours toward ELF. In order to have full understanding of
teachers’ attitudes toward ELF, all the aspects of the attitudes were put into
consideration in part II. Part III went into the detail investigating teachers’ classroom
teaching practices in the era of ELF. Especially, part III was divided into two main
parts, number 1 to number 10 referred to teachers’ knowledge of ELF in terms of
teaching practices in the classroom, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking,
listening, reading and writing skill, grammar; then number 11 to 16 was used to
explore teachers’ teaching practices in other activities in the classroom. Based on
Jenkin (2009)’s research, 16 items were adapted and checked for the purpose of
testing whether teachers knew how to do the teaching practices in the era of ELF.
Through this part, the teaching practices used in the classroom by the teachers were
explored in different aspects such as materials, experience, learning activities, audio
or visual tools, seminars, etc. A five-point Likert scale was employed for the
questionnaire with the scale ranging from Strongly Disagree to Strongly Agree (See
Appendix A).
3.4.2 Semi-structured interview
Another method for the collection of qualitative data was face-to-face
interview. The responses obtained from a semi-structured interview were confirmed
to be easier to analyse because of its flexible characteristic. The interview of this
thesis consisted of two main questions (See Appendix C); the two main questions
were expanded into details with similar content in order to make personal opinions or
experience clearer and more diverse. Twenty teachers were invited to take part in the
interview individually with sample forms of interview were included (See Appendix
B). This semi-structured interview purposely found out the intensive insight to the
reasons for different participants’ attitudes toward ELF. The interview sheet included
2 main questions respectively represented 2 research questions of the thesis. The first
interview question brought 2 small questions asking a number of English varieties to
examine teachers’ general understanding on ELF, then a small question asked EFL
teachers to make a list of their beliefs, emotions and actions relating to ELF in terms
of vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar. The
second interview question referred to the practices that teachers used to teach in the
classroom under the influence of ELF. Similarly, the interview required interviewees
Chapter 3: Methodology 37
to remember and make a list of teaching practices in their classrooms in order to
draw the overall picture of their knowledge of ELF teaching practices in in terms of
vocabulary, pronunciation, speaking, listening, reading, writing, grammar as well as
other teaching activities.
3.5 Data collection procedures.
The quantitative value was collected from the questionnaire survey. In order
to ensure the consistent understanding of the teachers doing the survey, the
questionnaire was designed in English and then translated into Vietnamese.
According to Dornyei and Taguchi (2010), once the respondents use their own
mother tongue to answer the items in the questionnaire, the quality of the data
increases. Then, the questionnaire was printed and directly administered to teachers
from 11 high schools at the conference held by Training and Education Department
of Ba Ria Vung Tau at the beginning of June (from 1st to 21st) in the academic school
year 2019 - 2020. This was the time of the Covid pandemic and all the students and
teachers had to stay at home and study online. At this time, the Training and
Education Department of Ba Ria Vung Tau conducted some training courses on
online teaching techniques for high school teachers in the province.
As for data collection, 109 copies of questionnaire were administered to high
school teachers. The questionnaire was collected at the end of that conference day to
give EFL teachers enough time to consider their answers and make sure that they
were willing to produce trustworthy information. That means, each teacher spent at
least 1 hour completing the questionnaire with 3 sections. The first section for
demographic information, the two next respectively represented two research
questions on teachers’ attitudes in terms of cognitive component, affective
component, and behavioural component as well as classroom teaching practices the
teachers implemented in the era of ELF. Thus, 109 copies of questionnaire were
returned. Based on the previous research and pilot carried out by 3 teachers who
were not involved in the study, the questionnaire was chosen and edited reasonably
and fully for the purpose of this study.
Relating to the qualitative data, Creswell (2012) instructed five steps of
qualitative data collection procedure from the structured interviews. First, the
researcher introduced and explained the participants of the study for sample and
38 Chapter 3: Methodology
sampling procedure. Second, participants were asked for permission to take part in
the interview before questionnaire was delivered. Third, the researcher collected the
in-depth information relating to teachers’ attitudes toward ELF. Fourth, based on the
variables of the study, the instrument was located as structure interview with
questions. Fifth, the qualitative data was collected through the direct interviews with
participants and prepared questions.
Similarly, the interview was conducted with 22 high school teachers, 11 of
whom were the group leaders of English Department in 11 high schools and 11
teachers left were randomly chosen from those high schools in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province. They were divided into 11 interview groups in which two teachers from the
same high school participated at the same time. The purpose of the interview was
explained in advance. Each high school teacher took turns to answer the interview
questions. The average time for each interview was 30 minutes. The information
collected from the semi-structured interview was analyzed through the content. In
order to make sure there were no difficulties for the interviewees as well as to get
valid questionnaire achieved, the semi-structured interview questions were first
piloted by 3 high school teachers who were not involved in the study (Dörnyei,
2003). The interview was carried out in Vietnamese and the teachers’ answers were
recorded with the permission of the interviewees for later research.
3.6 Data analysis procedures
According to Dörnyei (2003), the questionnaire instruments and SPSS can
operate the quantitative and qualitative data in “an integrated manner” (p.118);
therefore, the researcher employed these two instruments to collect and analyze the
qualitative and quantitative data for the results of the study. In other words, this study
used a mixed method research for qualitative and quantitative data because of its
three major benefits such as investigating the clear and explanatory relationships
between variables, examining profound investigation of the relationships among
variables as well as exploring the confirmation and the cross validation of the
relationships among variables (Fraenkel, Wallen & Hyun, 2012).
Cohen (2007) affirmed that the quantitative data could be quickly analyzed
in many different ways after being scored with the help of statistical products for the
social services (SPSS) software 20.0. SPSS helped provide the percentages and
Chapter 3: Methodology 39
frequencies of teachers’ responses to teach item of the questionnaire. Mean score
provided by SPSS was also used to discover EFL teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in
high school level. Relating to the validity and reliability of the quantitative data,
Cronbach’s Alpha was used to testify these two elements. Besides, SPSS also help to
analyze descriptive statistics, i.e., Mean and Standard deviation of the variables. The
scale of mean scores used to analyze quantitative data is displayed as follows.
Table 3.2 Mean scores for analyzing the quantitative data
Mean Levels of Agreement
1.00 - 1.80 Strongly disagree
1.81 - 2.60 Disagree
2.61 - 3.40 Neutral
3.41 - 4.20 Agree
4.21 - 5.00 Strongly agree
With regard to qualitative data, the interviews were recorded with the
permission of the interviewees through mp3 recorder. Then, the content analysis was
applied for processing the data because its technique is widely used in the social
sciences. According to CandelMora (2014), the patterns can be identified for
obtaining insight thoughts of the objects of the study, with a number of codes which
were arranged and simplified helped increase understanding of the material object of
the study.
3.7 Reliability and Validity
The study employed a mixed - methods design in order to provide the
quantitative data from the questionnaire survey and qualitative data from teachers’
personal viewpoints and opinions. All of the quantitative and qualitative data helped
to ensure the maintenance of reliability and validity of the study. Creswell (2012)
stated that statistical outcomes from the questionnaire could be evaluated opposed to
interview’s results; in other words, the mixed method of questionnaires and
interviews could deliver a triangulation.
40 Chapter 3: Methodology
In this study, the questionnaire was first designed in English and then
reviewed by experts in the field to check its validity. Next, it was translated into
Vietnamese by the researcher and checked by a Vietnamese English language teacher
for the accuracy of the translation. The data collected and put into SPSS in order to
check the Cronbach’s alpha to ensure the reliability of the items because Fraenkel &
Wallen (2009) presented that if the Cronbach’s alpha is greater than .700, this means
the items are reliable. As seen from the Table 3.3, the questionnaire was generally
reliable because mostly Cronbach’s alpha tests for each item were greater than .700.
Though Cronbach’s alpha of the Cognitive components was .675, it was still
acceptable because those adapted questionnaires were testified by another researcher.
Table 3.3 Cronbach’s Alpha indexes of the questionnaire items in average
Reliability Number of
items
Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF
Cognitive components .675 8
Affective components .783 8
Behavioural components .814 8
Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in the
era of ELF
Knowledge of ELF .808 10
Other activities in the EFL classroom .742 6
Relating to the semi-structured interviews, it was firstly designed in English
and reviewed by experts before being translated into English as well as cross-
checked by other teachers for the accuracy of the translation version. Moreover, in
order to ensure the validity and reliability of the semi-structured interview questions,
a pilot interview was also conducted first before being officially carried out for the
collection of qualitative data. The Interviews’ responses were verified by the EFL
teachers’ signature in their answer sheets. Along with that, the recordings of
interview were also stored to prove this interview results’ reliability and validity.
Chapter 3: Methodology 41
3.8 Pilot Study
The survey instruments (Fraenkel & Wallen, 2009) need piloting to ensure its
effectiveness as well as find out potential problems which may have negative impact
on the quality of the study. Therefore, both questionnaire survey and interview were
conducted with some voluntary participants first at Tran Nguyen Han Highschool.
For the questionnaire, three teachers voluntarily completed the survey first.
The researcher clarified the questionnaire during the pilot process and then collected
completed questionnaire and participants’ feedback on the format, procedures. After
that, the researcher made some changes based on suggestions presented during the
pilot process for the purpose of making the questionnaire more reasonable and useful
for the actual data collecting process.
For the semi-structured interview, two teachers were invited to join in the
interviews. The interviewing questions were raised and the participants took turn to
answer those questions. The researcher clarified the content of the questions by
eliciting the questions as well as giving examples. Then, all the interviewing
questions were changed for assisting the respondents to answer the questions more
quickly and provide more appropriate information for the actual interview process.
3.9 Summary
In chapter 3, the research methodology of the study was clearly presented.
First, it provided the setting design, setting site, sample and sampling procedures as
well as research instruments. Then, data collection procedures and data collection
procedures were interpreted. Chapter 3 ended with information relating to the
reliability and validity of the research instrument as well as the pilot of the study.
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 43
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
In this chapter, the results and the discussions of the collected data from the
questionnaire and semi-structured interview were presented. The chapter begins with
the reports on the data analysis of two main issues, namely the attitudes of high
school teachers toward ELF and classroom teaching practices applied in the era of
ELF among high-school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. It then focuses on
discussions of the research results relating to previous study results. At the end of the
chapter, a summary is presented to epic the whole chapter.
4.1 Results
This section used both quantitative and qualitative data collected from the
questionnaire and the semi-structured interview.
4.1.1 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF
As mentioned in Chapter 3, teachers’ attitudes toward ELF were divided into
three components, namely cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. In each
aspect, eight sub-variables of the language learning with ELF are cultural knowledge,
pronunciation, vocabulary, four language skills and grammar put into research. This
aimed to find out the profound insights on teachers' attitudes toward ELF in their
own teaching contexts.
Table 4.1: The overall results of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF
Theme Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF N = 109
M SD
1 Cognitive components 4.15 .68
2 Affective components 4.17 .61
3 Behavioural components 4.06 .62
Average 4.13 .64
Table 4.1 illustrates the overall result of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in
three aspects. The overall mean score of the teachers’ attitudes toward ELF is 4.13
(out of 5). To put it differently, the teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in
44 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
English language classes. However, based on the mean scores the teachers’ responses
to each component were not the same. Particularly, the mean score of affective
components is the highest (M=4.17; SD=.61) while the lowest mean score (M=4.06;
SD=.62) belonged to the behavioral components. Compared with the two
components mentioned above, the cognitive components were at the second position
in the table with its result (M=4.15; SD=.68. It can be indicated that teachers
generally not only had good knowledge of ELF and expressed their strong preference
for ELF but also were willing to help their students have good understanding of ELF.
a) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes
Table 4.2 showed the results of cognitive components, one of the three
aspects of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF. Eight sub-variables relating to language
learning in cognitive components; namely, cultural knowledge, pronunciation,
vocabulary, four language skills and grammar were presented as follows.
Table 4.2: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes
Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitudes N = 109
M SD
A1. ELF can help enrich my students’ cultural knowledge of other
countries in the world.
4.78 .41
A2. ELF can help my students be familiar to different English
accents in the world.
4.35 .65
A3. ELF can help enrich my students’ vocabulary in relation to
many aspects in real life.
4.29 .69
A4. The knowledge of ELF can improve my students listening skills
when being exposed to different varieties of English.
4.21 .57
A5. The knowledge of ELF can help my students interact with
others from different cultural backgrounds effectively and
appropriately.
3.94 .74
A6. ELF can improve my students my students’ reading skill
because of the increase in their vocabulary and background
knowledge.
4.15 .70
A7. ELF can help my students use written forms with from different
cultural background effectively and appropriately.
3.93 .84
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 45
A8. ELF can help my students to express their ideas freely in terms
of grammar.
3.56 .78
Average 4.15 .68
As can be seen from Table 4.2, the results revealed the attitudes of teachers
toward ELF in terms of cultural knowledge, pronunciation, vocabulary, four
language skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) and grammar. In particular,
the teachers strongly agreed that there was a considerable increase in students’
cultural knowledge of other countries in the world (item A1: M=4.78; SD=.41). Also,
to other aspects of language learning, the teachers perceived that pronunciation (item
A2: M=4.35; SD=.65), vocabulary (item A3: M=4.29; SD=.69), listening skill (item
A4: M=4.21; SD=.57), speaking skill (item A5: M=3.94; SD=.74); reading skill
(item A6: M=4.15; SD=.70); writing skill (item A7: M=3.93; SD=.84) and grammar
(item A8: M=3.56; SD=.78) could be crucially important to ELF.
In conclusion, it can be noted that ELF in teachers’ beliefs has been perceived
in various aspects in accordance with cultural knowledge, accents, language skills
and grammar. Furthermore, the teachers highly evaluated the teaching ELF in their
classrooms because the student’s cultural knowledge, pronunciation, skills as well as
grammatical knowledge would be more enriched.
Besides the quantitative data analyzed by SPSS, the qualitative data collected
from the interview was also taken into consideration in order to attain thorough
information teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive attitude. The
qualitative data showed that high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province had
good understanding of ELF and its benefits to students’ language learning. They
shared their thoughts in the interviews that:
“With lessons containing EFL, students seemed to know more about different
cultures of different countries in the world” (T3)
“One of the most special things that ELF brought to my students was the
students’ familiarity to different English accents, which was really good for
them in real communication outside the classroom” (T9)
“Thanks to ELF, students were provided more new words relating to different
fields, but they are really useful for students in real life” (T2)
46 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
“That my students had chances to listen to recordings from different varieties of
English was a great thing to them because this could make their listening skills
better day by day” (T11)
“Knowledge of cultures provided in ELF lessons helped my students be more
active as well as react more appropriately when interacting with foreign people
from different countries” (T22)
“I think because the topics in reading text in ELF classrooms were more
various, students’ background knowledge and vocabulary were really improved
in a better way” (T16)
“Actually, it was not easy to check whether my students’ writing skill were
better or not; however, I could see that they knew how to write different genres
of writing as well as their using of words in sentences was more reasonable”.
(T9)
“While being encouraged to use the language in view of ELF, my students
dared to express their thoughts without paying much attention to grammar;
however, they still felt worried about making grammatical mistakes” (T15)
Furthermore, the interview data collection revealed that mostly high school
teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau knew the importance as well as the influence of ELF to
students in their classroom; especially, they appreciated the improvements in
speaking and listening skills (80 %), students’ knowledge of culture (80%) as well as
vocabulary (75%). To reading and writing skills, high school teachers (45%)
expressed that they needed more time to evaluate their students’ skills because those
skills were not easy to be measured.
Generally, the quantitative data from the questionnaire and qualitative data
from semi-structured interview shared the same cognitive attitudes of high school
teachers toward the importance and benefit of ELF in their language classrooms.
b) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes
Table 4.3 presents the attitudes of teachers toward ELF in term of affective
attitudes. Similar to cognitive components, affective ones also focus on the students’
knowledge of culture, accents, language skills and grammar in search for teachers’
feelings toward ELF in the language classrooms.
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 47
Table 4.3: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes
Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of affective attitudes
N = 109
M SD
A9. I find it interesting to help increase my students’ understanding
of multilingual contexts.
4.31 .60
A10. I find it enjoyable to teach my students non-native accents from
non-native English- speaking countries.
4.15 .66
A11. I find it useful to get my students’ vocabulary in different
aspects of life increased.
4.47 .50
A12. I feel happy to see that my students can hear different accents of
English confidently.
4.28 .65
A13. I feel happy to see that my students’ communication is more
effective and appropriate.
4.56 .60
A14. I feel happy to see that my students can read faster thanks to
their background knowledge and vocabulary
4.38 .52
A15. I find it comfortable to help my students to get accessible to
different varieties of English in written form.
4.04 .62
A16. I don’t feel worried about my students’ grammatical mistakes/
errors.
3.14 .78
Average 4.17 .61
As can be seen from Table 4.3, eight sub-variables were put into research in
order to find out the teachers’ feelings toward ELF in the classrooms. Specially, a
majority of the teachers (item A9: M=4.31; SD=.60) expressed their interest in ELF
because students’ understanding of multilingual contexts could be increased. Next, a
great many teachers (item A10: M=4.15; SD=.66) believed that teaching the
students’ non-native accents from non-native English-speaking countries was
enjoyable. Also, teachers showed their agreements of the increase in student’s
vocabulary (item A11: M=4.47; SD=.50). Similarly, a lot of teachers showed their
happiness to see the development of students’ communication ability (item A13:
M=4.56; SD=.60), listening skill ability (item A12: M=4.28; SD=.65), reading skills
ability (item A14: M=4.38; SD=.52) and writing skills ability (item A15: M=4.04;
SD=.62). However, worries about students’ grammatical mistakes among teachers
48 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
got the lowest score (item A16: M=3.14; SD=.78), which means that teachers were
still suspicious of the students’ knowledge of grammar in their classrooms with ELF
ability. To sum up, the results in table 4.3 confirmed that despite worries about
students’ grammatical mistakes, the majority of the teachers felt enjoyable and happy
to use ELF in EFL classrooms.
In order to have more precise evaluation of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in
terms of affective attitudes, the qualitative data from semi-structured interview was
put in to research. Based on the qualitative data collection, the results were quite
competent with the quantitative data presented above. Here are some positive
comments on different aspects of ELF.
“Thanks to the implementation of ELF in my classroom, the students had a
better understanding of different contexts in the world, which made me and
my students more interested in the lessons, too” (T19)
“I was really happy when my students were really excited when being
exposed to non-native accents and they felt more confident to speak English
in their own way” (T16)
“I had a feeling that I could do something really good for my students; that
was letting my students be exposed to new words relating to real situations
in life; therefore, it was easier for them to learn those new words by heart
and used them in a particular context” (T13)
“I could see that my students actually paid attention in my listening class
because of the varieties of accents created not only interests but also comfort
in listening lessons among students” (T5)
“The greatest thing ever that made me eager was that ELF brought to my
students was the effectiveness in communication among them. My students
knew more about the ways to react in different communicative situations
than before” (T17)
“Students’ reading skills in EFL classrooms was much better thanks to the
increase in their vocabulary and knowledge of culture which ELF brought to
them” (T2)
“I found myself more useful to my students because I was always trying to
find out materials of different varieties of English in written form so that my
students had more chances to get access to ELF in writing skill” (T9)
“Grammar was an obstacle that I had to overcome because it played
important role in getting high marks in exams; however, I also tried not to
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 49
think of grammatical mistakes too much in order to encourage my students
to use English more confidently” (T17)
With the results of quantitative and qualitative data, high school teachers
expressed their positive affective attitudes toward the implementation of ELF in their
classrooms. Though the number of teachers who were concerned about grammar in
ELF classrooms (62%) was greater than any other fields such as four language skills,
cultural knowledge and vocabulary, the majority of the interviewees confirmed that
they totally believed in the benefits that ELF brought to their students in terms of
language skills (78%), awareness of cultural backgrounds (89%) and knowledge of
vocabulary in real contexts (82%).
In summary, high school teachers highly evaluated ELF in their classrooms
for the purpose of increasing and developing their students’ knowledge of English as
well as use of English in authentic situations.
c) Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes
The results in Table 4.4 focused on the teachers’ actions or activities carried
out in the language class with ELF by the teachers. Those behavioral attitudes
presented whether the teachers really paid attention to ELF in their classrooms or not
as well as what and how they did in order to explore ELF in their teaching activities.
Table 4.4: Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes
Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes N = 109
M SD
A17. I try to integrate the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into
the main lesson appropriately.
4.10 .47
A18. I try to introduce different non-native accents from non-native
English-speaking countries to my students.
3.72 .70
A19. I try to introduce new words and their meanings in different
contexts to my students.
4.41 .56
A20. I use different sources of listening materials to get my students
familiar to different non-native accents.
4.11 .72
A21. I try to organize many pair-work or group-work discussions 4.06 .61
50 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
relating to life-like situations for my students to practice.
A22. I try to provide my students with different reading texts relating
to many aspects of life in different countries.
4.07 .57
A23. I try to provide my students with different writing styles in
different non-native English-speaking countries.
3.50 .80
A24. I try to show the varieties of English grammar to my students. 4.48 .50
Average 4.06 .62
As can be seen in Table 4.4, teachers generally conducted teaching activities
so as to make use of ELF in their classrooms. The lowest score was item A23 which
provided the students with different writing styles in different non-native English-
speaking countries (M=3.50; SD=.80). Similarly, the introduction of different non-
native accents from non-native English-speaking countries to the students in item 18
received the second lowest score (M=3.72; SD=.70). Teaching activities for speaking
skill (item A21: M=4.06; SD=.61), reading skill (item A22: M=4.07; SD=.57) and
listening skill (item A20: M=4.11; SD=.72) were quite close to each other. Also, the
score presented the integration of the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into the
main lesson appropriately was nearly the same (item A17: M=4.10; SD=.47). The
highest score was the varieties of English grammar to the students (item A18:
M=4.48; SD=.50). As well, the introduction of new words and their meanings in
different contexts to students gained the second highest score in the table (item A19:
M=4.41; SD=.56). The results in Table 4.4 revealed that the majority of teachers in
the survey confirmed to use those teaching activities in their classrooms as their
supports toward the introduction of ELF.
Relating to the qualitative data collected from the semi-structured interview, it
was noticeable that high school teachers also tried to apply ELF in their classrooms
in different ways. This was shown in some below examples:
“During the lessons, especially getting started ones of each unit, I often
provided my students with more information about cultures of different
countries” (T1)
“While teaching pronunciation, I sometimes introduced different ways of
pronouncing the words of different English-speaking countries in order to
raise students’ interest in the lessons” (T10)
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 51
“Explaining new words in different contexts was what I always did in my
classrooms for the purpose of helping students to know how to use the words
more appropriately” (T13)
“To my students, listening was the most difficult language skill; therefore, I
tried to let my students to be exposed to different listening materials so that
they were familiar to different non-native accents” (T19)
“In speaking classes, I often divided students into pairs or groups and their
duty is to discuss together and find out the solutions to the problems which
were designed as their real life” (T20)
“As for me, there were a lot of reading texts containing aspects of life of
different countries, so I often gave them to my students to better their skill as
well as build up their knowledge background” (T15)
“Though finding different writing styles in different non-native English-
speaking countries was not easy, I sometimes tried to provide and analyze the
differences in writings styles to my students” (T8)
“While teaching grammar, I often showed the varieties of English grammar to
my students for the purpose of making a comparison of the use of English
grammar in different countries” (T6)
The results of qualitative data collection showed that high school teachers
were trying to use different ways to implement ELF into their lessons; particularly,
the knowledge of cultures (84%) and non-native accents (81%) of different countries
were two of the most introduced aspects of ELF. High school teachers also paid a lot
of attention to integrate ELF in speaking (78%), listening (86%) and reading (88%)
lessons for the purpose of getting students familiar to English in different non-native
English speaking-countries. To writing skills, some teachers expressed that the
integration of ELF was more difficult than three other skills; however, they also tried
to find writing materials which had different writing styles of non-native English -
speaking countries in order to introduce to their students (67%). More importantly,
the majority of high school teachers said that they always tried to make a comparison
of the use of English grammar in different countries (79%) because their students
were really interested in the varieties of English grammar introduced in grammar
lessons, which made them remember the uses of grammatical structures longer as
well as recall the old lessons more easily.
In conclusion, the quantitative data from the questionnaire and qualitative
data from semi-structured interviews showed the same result that despite some
52 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
difficulties in implementing ELF in the classroom, high school teachers in Ba Ria
Vung Tau still tried to introduce ELF to their students in language classrooms by
using different ways at different rate. The results presented that teachers’ attitudes
toward ELF in terms of behavioral attitudes was also positive like cognitive and
affective attitude analyzed in the two previous parts.
4.1.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province
a) Teachers’ knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms
As for the teaching practices carried out by the teachers in the language
classroom, the results from the survey in Table 4.5 indicate that teachers’ knowledge
of ELF was quite good and they were trying to integrate ELF into the lesson in their
language classrooms, namely; teaching activities aimed to introduce the existence of
ELF and its roles, the use of ELF in different cultural backgrounds, ELF accents,
vocabulary, ELF in four language skills (speaking/ listening/ reading and writing) as
well as ELF in grammar.
Table 4.5
Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms
Knowledge of teaching practices in EFL classrooms
N = 109
M SD
B1. I introduce the existence of ELF and its roles in different
countries nowadays to my students.
4.30 .55
B2. I ask my students to play roles of people from different cultural
backgrounds.
3.14 .95
B3. I introduce the differences of ELF accents in different countries
to my students.
3.76 .83
B4. I ask my students to search for the use of vocabulary in different
countries in terms of ELF.
3.16 .86
B5. I let students listen to recordings from non-native speakers in
order to make them more familiar with different accents of English.
3.79 .92
B6. I provide songs / poems composed by Non-native English
speakers.
3.36 1.08
B7. I use “non-native speakers” as language models through audio 2.79 1.06
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 53
recordings and video clips from a wide range of ‘non-native’ voices.
B8. I show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form. 4.10 .59
B9. I provide written texts/newspaper articles produced in different
countries in the world for students to read.
3.72 .91
B10. I ask my students to search for varieties of English grammar in
the world.
3.08 .98
Average 3.52 .87
As can be seen in Table 4.5, the highest score is the activity which introduced
the existence of ELF and its roles in different countries (item B1: M=4.30; SD=.55).
The second highest score is films or videos containing ELF in spoken form (item B8:
M=4.10, SD=5.9). The lowest score refers to the use of “non-native speakers” as
language models through audio recordings and video clips from a wide range of
‘non-native’ voices (item B7: M=2.79; SD=1.06). The majority of teachers also
admitted getting students familiar with different accents of English through the use
of recordings from non-native speakers (item B9: M=3.79; Sd=.92). Similarly, the
introduction of the differences of ELF accents in different countries (item B3:
M=3.76; SD=.83); the provision of written texts/newspaper articles produced in
different countries in the world for students to read (item B9: M=3.72; SD=.91) and
the provision of songs / poems composed by Non-native English speakers (item B6:
M=3.36; SD=1.08) received high results. Besides, the results of the idea that students
were asked to play roles of people from different cultural backgrounds and to search
for the use of vocabulary in different countries in terms of ELF were quite close to
each other; namely, item B2: M=3.14; SD=.95 and item B4: M=3.16; SD=.86).
Generally, the results in Table 4.5 showed that teachers could be eager to teach ELF
and they were trying to teach ELF in their classrooms.
Similarly, the qualitative results revealed the in-depth thoughts of high school
teachers toward teaching practices carried out in their classrooms in the era of ELF.
Referring to the existence of ELF and its roles, the number of interviewees
confirming that students in their classrooms were often introduced about ELF and its
important meaning in different countries nowadays took up for 90%. As for them,
providing students with those kinds of information was an important step to change
student’s thinking of ELF and support the use of ELF in the classrooms (excluding
T15, T21). In order to increase students’ understanding of ELF, two thirds of the
54 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
respondents created situations in which students were asked to play various roles of
people in different cultural background (excluding T5, T6, T13, T14, T19, T20, T21
and T22). As explained by those who designed those activities, this helped students
to be aware of the differences in cultures of countries in the world. Besides, the
differences of ELF accents in different countries were also often introduced in
language classes according to more than a half of high school teachers interviewed.
This aimed to build up their students’ listening skill as what more than a half of high
school teachers (69%) confirmed in the interviews (excluding T7, T4, T13, T14).
Besides, twelve out of high school teachers (including T1, T2, T3, T4, T9, T10, T11,
T12, T15, T17, T18) revealed that they sometimes provided songs/ poems composed
by non-native English speakers so that their students were more familiar with
different accents of English. Especially, according to 14 high school teachers, non-
native speakers in audio recordings, video clips or films were used as language
models in their classes in order to better their students’ listening and speaking skill.
(excluding T2, T5, T6, T13, T14, T19, T20). Furthermore, about 50% high school
teachers sometimes supplied written texts/ newspaper articles printed in different
countries as well as grammar lessons containing varieties of English to students for
the purpose of getting students to be exposed to the era of ELF as well as building up
their knowledge of ELF. Relating to ELF, in terms of vocabulary, about 16 out of the
respondents presented that their students were often encouraged to search for the use
of vocabulary in different countries, which increased students’ interest and curiosity
among their students (excluding T5, T13, T14, T19, T21).
Here are some opinions shared by the interviewees about the teaching
practices carried out in EFL classrooms.
“To me, the introduction of the existence of ELF and its roles in the world
was necessary because this helped students to know more about the
development of a language at the present times and they were more willing
to use that kind of language in the lessons as well as outside the classrooms”
(T9)
“My students were really eager when being asked to search for information
of different cultural backgrounds and performed in front of their friends”
(T1)
“One of the most curious things to my students was the differences in the
pronunciation of words in different countries, so when I introduced this, they
listened attentively” (T10)
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 55
“I spent a lot of time searching for videos, songs from different sources of
English in order that my students could get access to different language
users and compare the differences in those language materials” (T18)
Generally, with the results from the quantitative data and qualitative data, it
was noticeable that high school teachers had relatively high understanding of ELF
and were trying to use a great many teaching practices in their classrooms with a
hope of increasing student’s awareness of ELF as well willingness in the use of ELF
inside and outside the classroom.
b) Other teaching activities in the EFL classrooms
In addition to teaching activities mentioned in Table 4.5, there were other
activities which teachers did in order to integrate ELF in their classrooms. Table 4.6
as follow presents other teaching practices carried out by teachers in their language
classrooms.
Table 4.6
Other activities in the EFL classroom
Other teaching activities in the EFL classroom N = 109
M SD
A11. I invite non-native English speakers from other countries to talk
to students about ELF.
3.43 .87
A12. I ask my students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF
in groups.
3.97 .72
A13. I organize seminars for the students to compare English
varieties.
2.88 .90
A14. I create activities which contain aspects relating to ELF for
students to take part in.
3.70 .97
A15. I ask the students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the
content of the textbook.
4.06 .64
A16. I introduce pictures or posters used ELF to attract my students’
attention to ELF.
4.20 .70
Average 3.71 .80
56 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
The results in Table 4.6 showed that the highest score is that teachers liked to
use pictures or posters of ELF in order to attract students’ attention to ELF (item
B16: M=4.20; SD=.70). The second highest score is that students were asked to
discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook (item B15:
M=4.06; SD=.64). Furthermore, the score which students were asked to make
dialogues and play roles using ELF in groups was rather high (item B12: M=3.97;
SD=.72). Also, the scores that teachers created activities which contain aspects
relating to ELF for students to take part in (item B14: M=3.70; SD=.97) and invited
non-native English speakers from other countries to talk to students about ELF (item
B11: M=3.43; SD=.87) were a little lower. However, the lowest score is the
organization of seminars for the students to compare English varieties (item B13:
M=2.88; SD=.90). All of the results in Table 4.6 mean that teachers were making
efforts to teach ELF; however, the choice of different teaching practices was not the
same in different language classrooms.
Compared with the quantitative data, the qualitative results were quite
compatible with what was analyzed above. High school teachers had other teaching
practices in their classrooms with the aim to promote the use of ELF. Here are some
presented in the semi-structured interviews.
“I held English speaking clubs in which non-native English speakers were
invited for their talk about the use of English in the era of ELF. I meant to
provide my students with knowledge of language outside the classroom so
that they were more confident in their speaking skills” (T22)
“After the first lesson of each unit, my students were asked to make their
own dialogues and play roles in groups for the purpose of putting
themselves in their own situation, my students were quite interested in this
activity” (T10)
“The review lesson in each unit was the time for my students to make a
comparison on English varieties; I tried to do this, but actually it was not
easy because we had to search for the use of English in different contexts,
which took a lot of time” (T17)
“I tried to create activities consisting of aspects relating to ELF; however, I
did it not very often because I did have time for this, except from in extra
classes” (T1)
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 57
“In the content of the textbook, there are things relating to ELF and
discovering those things was really interesting to both teachers and students”
(T9)
“There were many ways to attract students’ attention to ELF, using pictures
or posters could help my students understand the existence of ELF easily
and quickly” (T3)
The qualitative data collection revealed that high school teachers paid
attention to the introduction of ELF as well as encourage the use of ELF in their
classrooms by other different ways such as inviting non-native English speakers to
talk to students about ELF, asking students to make dialogues and play roles using
ELF in groups, organizing seminars for the students to compare English varieties,
creating activities containing aspects relating to ELF for students to take part in,
asking students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the content of the textbook
as well as introducing pictures or posters used ELF to attract students’ attention to
ELF. However, they admitted that it was not easy for them to design or create
activities containing ELF in lessons every day because of reasons relating to the time
preparation, content of the lessons, pressure of time and exam, etc.
In general, teachers did a lot of teaching practices relating to ELF in the
classrooms with the aim of introducing ELF to students and encouraging the use of
ELF among them. They also admitted that they had some certain difficulties in doing
this in their classrooms; nevertheless, most of them tried to create or design activities
in relation to ELF so that their students could know about the existence of ELF, get
access to ELF and understand more about the importance and roles of ELF in
language learning in the world as well.
4.2 Discussion
In this section, the discussion about the two research questions were
respectively presented, including teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and classroom
teaching practices in the era of ELF. In terms of teachers’ attitudes, three components
of attitudes consisting of cognitive, affective and behavioral attitude were put into
research in order to depict the whole picture of teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in the
present. From which, the research continued to explore which teaching practices
teachers carried out by the teachers for the promotion of using ELF in the classroom.
58 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
As a result, the findings of the research clarified the research questions raised from
the beginning of the paper.
4.2. 1 Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF
Based on the analyzed data from research questionnaire and semi-structured
interview, the overall results presented the findings of this study which revealed that
high school teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in three attitude components,
including cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes. In order to elucidate each
attitude component, eight sub variables including the importance of ELF and its role
in, bettering cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and four
language skills of students were put into research. On the ground of the quantitative
and qualitative data, the result of cognitive attitudes showed that high school teachers
had good understanding of the importance and roles of ELF toward students’
language learning. With regard to affective attitudes, high school teachers also
expressed their strong liking and high evaluation to ELF. Additionally, because of
being supportive of the use of ELF in the classroom, high school teachers conducted
some activities for the promotion of ELF among their students relating to eight sub
variables from cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar to four
language skills of students.
Compared to a study conducted by Soruc (2015) with the participation of
non-native English - speaking teachers from expanding circle countries, the result
was rather different from the result of this study. That is, the majority of the non-
native teachers preferred to use native speaker forms. The study carried out by
Decke-Cornill (2003) in German also showed the difference in the attitudes toward
ELF that teaching proper English was more popular than ELF features. However,
one of the findings in this study was equivalent with that in the research by Incecay
and Akyel (2014) in Turkey that teachers were familiar with ELF and they still had
tolerant attitudes toward their students’ use of ELF features. However, Incecay and
Akyel (2014) presented that native-speaker English tended to be highly appreciated.
This was not the same as the results of this study which revealed that teachers in
Vietnam not only liked to use ELF but also supported for the use of ELF in the
classrooms with different activities in connection with ELF in the classrooms.
In contrast, the study done by Tammar and Khalid (2018) in UAF and
Georgia had the same interpretation of the result that ELF in teachers’ views played
special part in language learning and received more expertise studies as well as
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 59
accompanied in language courses. On the contrary, notwithstanding the same South-
East region, the research in Malaysia by Kaur (2013) presented that training teachers
still favored native English accents than non-native English accents.
When compared to studies in Vietnam where the notion of ELF and the use
of ELF in the classroom was still a new thing to both teachers and learners. That is,
the result of this study is partially similar to what were found out in the research
conducted by Ho (2018) and Ngo (2015). Particularly, ELF with its roles in various
aspects consisting of cultural knowledge, pronunciation, vocabulary system,
language skills and grammar were highly valued in teachers’ cognition. In relation to
teachers’ affections toward ELF, the findings presented that high school teachers
expressed preference toward ELF because of its benefits in language classrooms;
especially, encouraging the use of ELF among students, improving students’
language skills, building up their confidence in language skills as well as putting
students in life-like situations. The results for behavioral attitudes revealed that high
school teacher not only understood about ELF but also tried to implement it in their
classrooms. They also tried to help students explore the use of ELF in language
classrooms for the purpose of encouraging the use of ELF among their students.
However, it was noticeable that there were some differences among the
results of this study and other ones. For example, the study by Ngo (2015) showed
that the participants of the study knew that having good knowledge of English and
acquiring English communication skills confidently would bring them a lot of
opportunities to their life; however, they expressed more support to native accents
and language standardization. However, the study by Ho (2018) seemed to have a
change in teachers’ attitudes toward ELF with the results that teachers had a high
level of understanding of ELF and they also were more favour of integrating ELF
through and other published materials or widely recognized sources of knowledge
such as seminars.
It has been concluded that there was a change in the findings in studies
carried out from 2014 to now in different countries, especially in Vietnam where this
study was conducted. It proved that teachers were more open than before and ready
to accept ELF in the context of their language teaching and learning for the purpose
of developing their students’ language knowledge and skills.
Another aspect relating to ELF that need to be put into consideration was the
teachers’ effort to apply ELF in their language classroom. In the studies done in 2014
60 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
and 2015, mostly the teachers expressed their preference to native accents or
language standard and did not take notice of ELF; then in studies in 2017 and 2018,
despite still being more favorable to native language, teachers put up with ELF
features. This partly showed that there was a change in language teaching and
learning in the world. When compared to studies in Vietnam, the results in this study
were slightly different from those in other studies that teachers not only more highly
evaluated the importance and benefits of ELF but also tried to do some actions in
order to implement ELF in the classrooms as well as encourage the use of ELF
among their students.
4.2.2 Teachers’ classroom teaching practices in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province
Besides the big support for the use of ELF in the classrooms, the results of
the second research question also revealed that high school teachers did some
teaching practices in order to promote the use of ELF in the classrooms. To put it
differently, teachers could be eager to teach ELF and they were trying to create and
design activities to teach ELF in their classrooms. According to Seidlhofer (2005a),
teachers could adapt their teaching to the particular requirements of their learners.
Ehrenreich (2018) also stated that notwithstanding teachers could not teach all
varieties of English in classrooms, that they encouraged their students to get access
to ELF and explore the diversity of English in the world should be considered as a
breakthrough in teachers’ perspectives.
Compared to other studies in Vietnam recently, the results of this study were
compatible with what Ho (2018) mentioned in his study that teachers liked
incorporating ELF through books and other published materials or sources of
knowledge such as seminars. However, teachers in this study presented other ways of
integrating ELF in their classrooms besides ones presented in the study by Ho
(2018). It was noticeable that the research conducted by Smit (2010) made those
suggestions for teachers to apply in their ELF classrooms such as using materials,
sharing experience, using audio or visual means, self-learning, seminars, exploring
the value of pair work, groupwork, etc. in order to encourage students to
communicate in English. However, Kuhn (2011) expressed his worries that teachers
in Vietnam may face with difficulties during their implementation of ELF in the
classroom. Truly, high school teachers faced with a great many difficulties in the
execution of ELF in their classrooms; however, they still tried to change their ways
Chapter 4: Results and Discussions 61
of teaching with the aim of promoting the use of ELF among their students in their
classrooms.
In particular, high school teachers proved to have good knowledge of ELF in
the era of ELF and what they had to do in order for their students to get exposed to
ELF and be more accustomed to ELF in the classroom and outside. More
importantly, teaching practices carried out in the classrooms were related to different
aspect of language learning, such as language skills (speaking, listening, reading,
writing) and language functions (vocabulary, grammar, accents, cultures). This
meant that high school teachers in this study were really concerned about ELF and
how to apply it in the classrooms. The most obvious clue was the introduction of the
existence of ELF and its roles in different countries nowadays, which received a
great of attention among high school teachers.
Relating to teachers’ knowledge of ELF, high school teachers were favor of
the activities that show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form, which was
explained that those kinds of video were always available on the Internet; therefore,
teachers found it not too difficult to search for. This seemed to be new when
compared to the findings in other studies, because the results in previous studies did
not consider ELF as the important area of learning process. Thus, there have been
little research on teaching practices in the era of ELF in the world and in Vietnam.
Besides, high school teachers designed other activities related to the promotion of
ELF in language learning such as role-playing ones, difference-finding ones in ELF
accents, vocabulary-finding activities on ELF. Furthermore, in order to better
students’ language skill in the era of ELF, teachers let their students to be exposed to
different listening recordings, songs, poems, or real contact with foreigners coming
to their classes and even access to written texts/ newspapers printed in different
countries and a variety of grammar use of English in the world.
In connection with activities in the ELF classroom, high school teachers in Ba
Ria Vung Tau Province not only designed the lessons of ELF accompanying the
main lessons but also created activities including aspects in relation to ELF for
students to join. From the list of activities mentioned in the survey, high school
teachers expressed their preference to the use of pictures, posters of ELF and the
discovery of aspects relating to ELF in the content of the lesson among students. The
study done by Ho (2018) only showed that teachers had changing attitudes toward
ELF and integrated ELF through published materials or seminars; whereas this study
62 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions
presented the findings that teachers were trying to use ELF as indispensable part in
each lesson. The most important thing was on the differences of the structures of the
lesson in the era of ELF (Cogo & Dewey, 2011); they proposed that it was better for
the priority on speaking activities in order to increase the incorporation among
students. Using seminars to give students chances of discussing the varieties of
English accents, vocabulary and make comparison among those features in English
in different countries was one of the popular ways that high school teachers in Ba Ria
Vung Tau conducted. However, the difference was that the range in the application
of ELF in language classrooms were not only information in the cultures, accents,
vocabulary but also knowledge of four language skills and grammar. Because of this,
teachers also talk about the hinderance in their language teaching and learning
process. However, according to the teachers, they were still ready to continue with
the integration of ELF in the classrooms for the reason that this would help their
students build up confidence in using English in the class and in real life.
From the data collected in questionnaire, the participants in this study had
provided two kinds of information; first, high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province had a comparatively good attitudes toward ELF in terms of cognitive,
affective and behavioral attitudes; second, they were making great efforts on
integrating ELF in their classrooms with teaching practices which seemed to be quite
challenging in their context of teaching. Additionally, teaching practices conducted
by the teachers in language classrooms revealed that teachers not only paid attention
to ELF but also tried to promote the use of ELF among their students despite
obstacles which prevented them from designing or creating activities in association
with ELF.
4.3 Summary
This chapter provided the discussion and analysis of the data collected from
the questionnaire and semi-structured interview. First, the findings from the
quantitative data were reported; then, the qualitative data analysis were accompanied
to evaluate the quantitative results in order to find out whether there were any
similarities and differences between two research methods. After the findings of the
two research questions were collected, the discussion of them were presented and
compared with those in the previous studies in terms of teachers’ attitudes toward
ELF and teaching practices carried out in the language class in the era of ELF.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 63
Chapter 5: Conclusion and
Recommendations
In this chapter, conclusions are drawn from the findings and the pedagogical
implications for teachers and stakeholders. Then, some limitations of the study and
recommendations for further research are presented to give an overall picture of the
current study as well as for future research associated with the focus of this study.
5.1 Summary of the main findings of the thesis
The study at first raised two research questions relating to teachers’ attitudes
toward ELF in the classrooms and teaching practices used for the promotion of ELF
in the future. The findings of the study casted light on the two research questions
with detailed information, including the teachers’ attitudes toward ELF in terms of
cultural knowledge, vocabulary, pronunciation, grammar and four language skills as
well as teaching practices used to enhance the use of ELF in those eight aspects.
With respect to cognitive, affective and behavioral attitudes, the findings of
this study divulged that high school teachers had positive attitudes toward ELF in the
EFL classroom. In each particular aspect of attitudes, the study focused on eight sub-
variables relating to language learning such as cultural knowledge, pronunciation,
vocabulary, four language skills and grammar. Based on the qualitative and
quantitative data, the study presented the findings for each aspect in particular and in
general. Regarding to cognitive attitudes, the finding showed that high school
teachers had good understanding of ELF, its importance and benefits in their EFL
classrooms. As to affective attitudes, high school teachers expressed their strong
predilection on the use of ELF for the increase in their students’ knowledge of
English and ability of using English in authentic contexts. In the matter of behavioral
attitudes, it was noticeable that high school teachers were trying to implement ELF in
their classrooms by using different ways at different rate; in other words, they had an
optimistic view on ELF in EFL classrooms. Obviously, the study depicted the whole
picture of teachers’ attitudes toward the application of ELF in the classroom with
relatively constructive results which helped encourage the use of ELF in EFL
classrooms in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province.
64 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
In connection with teaching practices for the development of ELF in the
classrooms, the findings of the study revealed that high school teachers were willing
to apply different teaching ways to develop students’ awareness of ELF and
encourage the use of ELF in and outside the classrooms. Additionally, a variety of
teaching practices which high school teachers carried out in their EFL classrooms
comprised inviting non-native English speakers to talk to students about ELF, asking
students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF in groups, organizing seminars
for the students to compare English varieties, creating activities containing aspects
relating to ELF for students to take part in, asking students to discover any aspects
relating to ELF in the content of the textbook, and introducing pictures or posters
used ELF as well. Nevertheless, high school teachers found uneasy to create
activities relating to ELF because of preparation time limit and scarce of source of
materials. Notwithstanding that, teachers still tried their best to introduce the
existence of ELF and help their students be accessible to the use of ELF in language
learning.
In conclusion, high school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province had a clear
understanding of ELF, its fundamental roles in language learning as well as took a
diversity of actions to implement ELF in their classroom for the purpose of providing
knowledge of ELF as well as raising students’ awareness of ELF in the EFL
classrooms. Thanks to this, there was an increase in student’s cultural knowledge,
better pronunciation, grammar and four English skills.
5.2 Pedagogical implications
In reality, there has been little research on ELF and the use of ELF in EFL
classrooms in Vietnam, so ELF is still a new norm to almost language teachers,
especially at secondary and high school level. Moreover, in most of the research on
ELF, the results presented the preference on standard English to ELF, which is
totally different from the result of this study. However, in order to introduce the
existence of ELF in language teaching and learning and carry out teaching practices
for the promotion of ELF in the classroom, high school teachers faced with some
difficulties relating to time and materials as presented in the interviews. Therefore,
some pedagogical implications are introduced as follows.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 65
Teachers’ positive attitudes toward ELF
Apparently, once high school teachers have good knowledge of ELF and
positive attitudes toward ELF, they are always willing to conduct a wide range of
teaching strategies in order to introduce ELF to their students. In other words, high
school teachers need to be skilful in applying different teaching practices relating to
ELF so as to trigger students’ eagerness and interests. This will help students acquire
the knowledge of ELF actively and apply it into their authentic situations effectively
and efficiently. Additionally, teachers should spend more time on searching for
learning materials related to ELF in different aspects such as culture, pronunciation,
vocabulary, grammar and four language skills. Sharing knowledge of ELF and the
materials with their colleagues is also a good way that teachers should do in order to
boost the use of ELF among teachers.
More training for high school teachers
It is noticeable that teachers play a variety of roles in a language classroom
such as instructor, facilitator, supervisor and monitor, so they make great
contributions to the changes of and development of students’ language learning. This
means high school teachers should be supplied with more training courses relating to
ELF and teaching materials such as recordings, videos, textbooks, etc. Once teachers
are provided with valuable teaching and learning materials in relation to ELF, they
will be more creative and positive to carry out different other activities in the
classrooms. Clearly, it is really important to make sure that teachers have good
knowledge and adequate skills in order to carry out teaching activities in relation to
ELF in the classroom.
The support from the stakeholders
During the application of ELF in the classrooms, high school faced with some
difficulties which may hinder the promotion of ELF in the future. Thus, the support
from the principals and administrators of Ba Ria Vung Tau Provinces are great of
importance to high school teachers. The stakeholders should encourage teachers to
apply ELF in their classrooms and be creative in teaching practices for the promotion
of ELF. Besides, there should be seminars or workshops for teachers to share and
learn experiences from experts, experienced teachers and colleagues, which help
raise the spirit and strength for teachers who are trying to implement teaching
activities in respect to ELF.
66 Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations
5.3 Limitations
The study makes a certain contribution to the changes in language teaching
and learning at high school level in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province. However, it may
contain some limitations that need considering in later research.
First of all, though the study applied the mixed methods design comprising
questionnaire and semi-structured interview, it will be better if the researcher makes
some observations in the EFL classrooms so as to compare and contrast the results of
the study. In the real EFL classrooms, it may help the researcher to triangulate with
what was collected in the questionnaire surveys and semi-structured interviews.
Another shortcoming of this study is that the number of participants should be
expanded in high school students in some high schools instead of only high school
teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Provinces. This may help the researcher explore more
about the use of ELF in students’ attitudes. Last but not least, during the semi-
structured interviews of this study, the interviewees presented some challenges in the
implementation of ELF in the EFL classrooms; however, because of the time limit,
the researcher could not investigate this aspect into details.
5.4 Recommendation for the further research
From the discussion mentioned above, there are a number of recommendations
for further research as follows.
First, the future research should study students’ attitudes toward the use of
ELF in the classrooms for the whole generalization of ELF in language teaching and
learning. Next, it is necessary to make some observations in the real EFL classrooms
where teachers are applying ELF in language teaching. This aims to not only
compare with the findings in the mixed-methods research, including questionnaire
and semi-structured interviews and but also provides the in-depth information for
bettering the use of ELF in the future. Finally, high school teachers found some
obstacles which hinder them from the execution of ELF in the real classrooms; thus,
there should be research on challenges in the implantation of ELF and suggestions to
this problem in authentic contexts of teaching, especially in Ba Ria Vung Tau
Province so that high school teachers are more confident to teach ELF in their
classrooms.
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Recommendations 67
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Appendices 77
Appendices
APPENDIX A
APPENFIX A1. TEACHERS’ QUESTIONNAIRE (English Version)
This questionnaire was designed for a study named “Teachers’ attitudes toward
English as a lingua franca (ELF) and classroom teaching practices applied in
the era of ELF among high-school teachers in Ba Ria Vung Tau Province”.
It aimed to explore the attitudes of high-school teachers about ELF (ELF) and
classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. We highly appreciate it if you
could spend your time answering following questions. Your responses will
greatly contribute to the success of this paper. Your replies will be only used for
survey purposes.
Thank you very much for your cooperation.
PART 1: GENERAL INFORMATION
1. Gender: Male - Female:
2. Educational level: University - Master:
3. School’s name: ……………………………………………………
4. Working experience as an English teacher:
1- 5 years 6 – 10 years 11- 15 years over 15 years
5. Have you ever traveled abroad? Yes No
6. If yes, how many times? 1- 3 4 – 6 more than 7
PART 2: TEACHERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD ELF
Directions: Please put a tick (✓) and rate yourself honestly based on the given statements using
the following scale:
1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Not sure 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree
No. Statements 1 2 3 4 5
78 Appendices
Cognitive component
1. ELF can help enrich my students’ cultural knowledge of other countries
in the world.
2. ELF can help my students be familiar to different English accents in the
world.
3. ELF can help enrich my students’ vocabulary in relation to many
aspects in real life.
4. The knowledge of ELF can improve my students listening skills when
being exposed to different varieties of English.
5. The knowledge of ELF can help my students interact with others from
different cultural backgrounds effectively and appropriately.
6. ELF can improve my students my students’ reading skill because of the
increase in their vocabulary and background knowledge.
7. ELF can help my students use written forms with from different
cultural background effectively and appropriately.
8. ELF can help my students to express their ideas freely in terms of
grammar.
Affective component
9. I find it interesting to help increase my students’ understanding of
multilingual contexts.
10. I find it enjoyable to teach my students non-native accents from non-
native English- speaking countries.
11. I find it useful to get my students’ vocabulary in different aspects of
life increased.
12. I feel happy to see that my students can hear different accents of
English confidently.
13. I feel happy to see that my students’ communication is more effective
and appropriate.
14. I feel happy to see that my students can read faster thanks to their
background knowledge and vocabulary.
15. I find it comfortable to help my students to get accessible to different
varieties of English in written form.
16. I don’t feel worried about my students’ grammatical mistakes/ errors.
Appendices 79
Behavioral component
17. I try to integrate the knowledge of ELF in terms of culture into the
main lesson appropriately.
18. I try to introduce different non-native accents from non-native English-
speaking countries to my students.
19. I try to introduce new words and their meanings in different contexts to
my students.
20. I use different sources of listening materials to get my students familiar
to different non-native accents.
21. I try to organize many pair-work or group-work discussions relating to
life-like situations for my students to practice.
22. I try to provide my students with different reading texts relating to
many aspects of life in different countries.
23. I try to provide my students with different writing styles in different
non-native English-speaking countries.
24. I try to show the varieties of English grammar to my students.
PART 3: TEACHERS’ CLASSROOM TEACHING PRACTICES IN THE
ERA OF ELF
Directions: Please put a tick (✓) and rate yourself honestly based on the given
statements using the following scale:
1 = Strongly disagree 2 = Disagree 3 = Not sure 4 = Agree 5 = Strongly agree
No. Statements 1 2 3 4 5
Knowledge of ELF
1. I introduce the existence of ELF and its roles in different countries
nowadays to my students.
2. I ask my students to play roles of people from different cultural
backgrounds.
3. I introduce the differences of ELF accents in different countries to
my students.
4. I ask my students to search for the use of vocabulary in different
countries in terms of ELF.
80 Appendices
5. I let students listen to recordings from non-native speakers in order
to make them more familiar with different accents of English.
6. I provide songs / poems composed by Non-native English speakers.
7. I use “non-native speakers” as language models through audio
recordings and video clips from a wide range of ‘non-native’ voices.
8. I show films or videos containing ELF in spoken form.
9. I provide written texts/newspaper articles produced in different
countries in the world for students to read.
10. I ask my students to search for varieties of English grammar in the
world.
Other activities
11. I invite non-native English speakers from other countries to talk to
students about ELF.
12. I ask my students to make dialogues and play roles using ELF in
groups.
13. I organize seminars for the students to compare English varieties.
14. I create activities which contain aspects relating to ELF for students
to take part in.
15. I ask the students to discover any aspects relating to ELF in the
content of the textbook.
16. I introduce pictures or posters used ELF to attract my students’
attention to ELF.
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION!
Appendices 81
APPENDIX A2. QUESTIONNAIRE (Vietnamese version)
BẢNG CÂU HỎI KHẢO SÁT
Xin kính chào Quý Thầy Cô Giáo,
Bảng câu hỏi này được thiết kế phục vụ đề tài nghiên cứu “Thái độ của Giáo
viên Trung học phổ thông trong Thành phố Vũng Tàu với khái niệm Tiếng Anh
là ngôn ngữ chung và việc giảng dạy Tiếng Anh trong kỉ nguyên Tiếng Anh là
ngôn ngữ chung” nên rất cần sự giúp đỡ của Quý Thầy Cô. Rất mong Quý Thầy Cô
dành một chút thời gian quý báu để trả lời các câu hỏi khảo sát dưới đây. Tôi xin cam
đoan những nội dung trả lời của Quý Thầy Cô sẽ được giữ bí mật tuyệt đối và thông
tin này chỉ được sử dụng với mục đích nghiên cứu của đề tài luận văn này.
Xin chân thành cảm ơn sự hỗ trợ của Quý Thầy Cô!
PHẦN 1: THÔNG TIN CHUNG
1. Giới tính: Nam: - Nữ:
2. Trình độ: Đại học: - Cao học:
3. Đơn vị công tác: ………………………………………………………..
4. Kinh nghiệm giảng dạy Tiếng Anh:
1 đến 5 năm 6 đến 10 năm 11 đến 15 năm trên 15 năm
5. Thầy (Cô) đã bao giờ đi nước ngoài chưa? Có - Chưa
6. Nếu có, Thầy Cô đã đi nước ngoài bao nhiêu lần rồi?
1- 3 4 – 6 more than 7
PHẦN 2: THÁI ĐỘ CỦA GIÁO VIÊN VỚI KHÁI NIỆM TIẾNG ANH LÀ
NGÔN NGỮ CHUNG (ELF: ELF)
Xin Quý Thầy Cô vui lòng trả lời các câu hỏi sau bằng cách đánh dấu () vào ô theo
thang điểm sau đây:
1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý
2 = Không đồng ý
3 = Không chắc chắn
4 = Đồng ý
5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý
82 Appendices
TT Câu hỏi khảo sát 1 2 3 4 5
Thành phần nhận thức
1. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm kiến thức
văn hóa về các quốc gia khác trên thế giới.
2. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi làm quen với các
giọng tiếng Anh khác nhau trên thế giới.
3. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm vốn từ
vựng liên quan đến nhiều khía cạnh trong cuộc sống.
4. Kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể cải thiện kỹ năng nghe của
học sinh vì học sinh có thể tiếp xúc với nhiều loại tiếng Anh khác nhau.
5. Kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi tương
tác với những người đến từ các nền văn hóa khác nhau một cách hiệu quả và
phù hợp.
6. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể cải thiện kĩ năng đọc của học sinh vì sự
gia tăng vốn từ vựng và kiến thức nền tảng.
7. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi sử dụng các hình
thức bằng văn bản với các nền văn hóa khác nhau một cách hiệu quả và phù
hợp.
8. Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung có thể giúp học sinh của tôi thể hiện ý tưởng
của mình một cách thoải mái, không lo lắng về ngữ pháp.
Thành phần cảm xúc
9. Tôi thấy thật thú vị khi giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm sự hiểu biết về bối
cảnh đa ngôn ngữ.
10. Tôi thấy thú vị khi dạy cho học sinh của mình những giọng không phải là
tiếng mẹ đẻ từ các quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh.
11. Tôi thấy rất hữu ích khi giúp học sinh của tôi tăng thêm vốn từ vựng về các
khía cạnh khác nhau trong cuộc sống.
12. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi học sinh của tôi có thể nghe được các loại giọng
tiếng Anh khác nhau một cách tự tin.
13. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi học sinh của tôi giao tiếp hiệu quả và phù hợp
hơn.
14. Tôi cảm thấy hạnh phúc khi thấy học sinh của mình có thể đọc nhanh hơn nhờ
Appendices 83
kiến thức nền và từ vựng.
15. Tôi thấy thoải mái khi giúp học sinh của mình tiếp cận được với nhiều loại
tiếng Anh khác nhau ở dạng viết.
16. Tôi không có cảm giác lo lắng nhiều về khả năng ngữ pháp của học sinh.
Thành phần hành vi
17.
Tôi cố gắng tích hợp kiến thức về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở khía cạnh
văn hóa vào bài học chính một cách thích hợp.
18. Tôi cố gắng giới thiệu các giọng không phải tiếng mẹ đẻ khác nhau từ các
quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh cho các học sinh của tôi.
19. Tôi cố gắng giới thiệu những từ mới và ý nghĩa của chúng trong các ngữ cảnh
khác nhau cho các học sinh của tôi.
20. Tôi sử dụng các nguồn tài liệu nghe khác nhau để giúp học sinh của mình làm
quen với các giọng không bản địa khác nhau.
21. Tôi cố gắng tổ chức nhiều cuộc thảo luận theo cặp hoặc theo nhóm liên quan
đến các tình huống giống như cuộc sống để học sinh của tôi thực hành.
22. Tôi cố gắng cung cấp cho học sinh của mình những văn bản đọc khác nhau
liên quan đến nhiều khía cạnh của cuộc sống ở các quốc gia khác nhau.
23. Tôi cố gắng cung cấp cho học sinh của mình các phong cách viết khác nhau ở
các quốc gia không nói tiếng Anh khác.
24. Tôi cố gắng chỉ ra các loại ngữ pháp tiếng Anh cho học sinh của mình.
PHẦN 3: VIỆC GIẢNG DẠY TIẾNG ANH CỦA GIÁO VIÊN TRONG KỈ
NGUYÊN TIẾNG ANH LÀ NGÔN NGỮ CHUNG
Xin Quý Thầy Cô vui lòng trả lời các câu hỏi sau bằng cách đánh dấu () vào ô theo
thang điểm sau đây:
1 = Hoàn toàn không đồng ý
2 = Không đồng ý
3 = Không chắc chắn
4 = Đồng ý
5 = Hoàn toàn đồng ý
84 Appendices
TT Câu hỏi khảo sát 1 2 3 4 5
Kiến thức của Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung
1. Tôi giới thiệu cho học sinh của tôi sự tồn tại của Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ
chung và vai trò của nó ở các quốc gia khác nhau hiện nay.
2. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của tôi đóng vai của những người từ các nền văn hóa
khác nhau.
3. Tôi giới thiệu sự khác biệt trong phát âm Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở
các quốc gia khác nhau cho các học sinh của tôi.
4. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của mình tìm kiếm cách sử dụng từ vựng ở các quốc
gia khác nhau về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung.
5. Tôi cho học sinh nghe các bản ghi âm từ những người không phải người
bản ngữ để làm cho họ quen thuộc hơn với các giọng tiếng Anh khác
nhau.
6. Tôi cung cấp các bài hát / bài thơ được sáng tác bởi những người nói tiếng
Anh không phải là người bản xứ.
7. Tôi nhờ những người không phải là người bản ngữ làm mẫu nhờ vào các
bản ghi âm và video clip từ nhiều giọng nói khác nhau của người bản xứ.
8. Tôi chiếu phim hoặc video có chứa Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung ở dạng
nói.
9. Tôi cung cấp các văn bản / bài báo được viết ở các nước khác nhau trên
thế giới để học sinh đọc.
10 Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của tôi tìm kiếm các loại hình ngữ pháp tiếng Anh
trên thế giới.
Các hoạt động khác
11. Tôi mời những người nói tiếng Anh không phải là người bản xứ từ các
quốc gia khác đến nói chuyện với học sinh về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ
chung.
12. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh của mình thực hiện các cuộc đối thoại và đóng vai
bằng Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung theo nhóm.
13. Tôi tổ chức hội thảo cho các học sinh để so sánh các loại tiếng Anh.
14. Tôi tạo các hoạt động có chứa các khía cạnh liên quan đến Tiếng Anh là
ngôn ngữ chung để học sinh tham gia.
15. Tôi yêu cầu học sinh khám phá bất kỳ khía cạnh nào liên quan đến Tiếng
Anh là ngôn ngữ chung trong nội dung của sách giáo khoa.
16. Tôi giới thiệu hình ảnh hoặc áp phích được sử dụng Tiếng Anh là ngôn
ngữ chung để thu hút sự chú ý của học sinh của mình đến Tiếng Anh là
ngôn ngữ chung.
XIN CHÂN THÀNH CẢM ƠN QUÝ THẦY CÔ!
Appendices 85
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B1 - INTERVIEW PROTOCAL (English version)
Guideline for Group Interview
Date: ____________________ Location: __________________
Time to start: _____________ Time to finish: ______________
Introduction
Thank you for your voluntary participation in this interview that is expected to
last between twenty minutes and thirty minutes. You will answer some questions
during the interview, and you may wish to stop the interview at any time.
This interview aims to understand teachers’ attitudes toward ELF and their
classroom teaching practices in the era of ELF. This interview does not aim to
evaluate your knowledge or English level of proficiency.
With your permission, the interview will be audio-recorded. All the
information you share in the recording is treated confidentially and anonymously. If
you were not clear about the topic, it would be good to ask questions.
Questions A: Interviewee’s background information:
Name: ________________________________________________________
Age: ________________________________________________________
Educational level: ______________________________________________
Years of teaching experience: _____________________________________
Numbers of times to go abroad: ____________________________________
Which countries: ________________________________________________
Brief information about English in those countries (feelings/ special things
about English):
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
Questions B:
I. Teachers’ attitudes toward ELF:
1) In your opinion, is the use of ELF in the language classroom important for
high school students?
86 Appendices
2) In what ways does ELF help students in their learning?
3) Do you feel worried about that students’ knowledge of grammar may be
affected in the classroom with ELF? If yes, how can you improve this?
4) Do you think that your lessons with ELF are useful for students in their
language learning process? Why? Or Why not?
II. Classroom teaching practice in the EFL classroom:
1) How difficult is it when you teach ELF in your classroom?
2) What teaching practices do you think are the most difficult to carry out in
the ELF classrooms?
3) Which classroom teaching practices attract students’ attention most? Why?
4) Do you feel any progress in your students’ knowledge of English and its
culture after a long time they are taught ELF?
Appendices 87
APPENDIX B2. INTERVIEW (Vietnamese version)
GIỚI THIỆU
Cảm ơn Thầy Cô đã tham gia cuộc phỏng vấn này. Cuộc phỏng vấn có thời lượng từ
10-15 phút. Thầy/ Cô sẽ trả lời một số câu hỏi trong cuộc phỏng vấn, và Thầy/ Cô có
thể dừng cuộc phỏng vấn bất cứ lúc nào Thầy/ Cô muốn.
Mục đích của cuộc phỏng vấn này là để hiểu thái độ của Thầy/ Cô đối với việc sử
dụng Tiếng Anh như là một ngôn ngữ chung.
Cuộc phỏng vấn này không nhằm mục đích đánh giá kiến thức cũng như sự hiểu biết
về Tiếng Anh là ngôn ngữ chung. Ngoài ra, cuộc phỏng vấn này sẽ được ghi âm với
sự đồng ý của Thầy/ Cô. Tất cả thông tin Thầy/ Cô chia sẻ chỉ được sử dụng cho
nghiên cứu này. Trước khi cuộc phỏng vấn diễn ra, Thầy/ Cô có câu hỏi nào không?
Nếu không, chúng ta bắt đầu.
CÂU HỎI
A) Thông tin của Thầy/ Cô được phỏng vấn
Tên Thầy Cô: ________________________________________
Chuyên ngành: ________________________________________
Thầy Cô giảng dạy Tiếng Anh được bao lâu: ______________________
Số lần Thầy Cô đi nước ngoài: __________________________
Thầy Cô đã đi đến nước nào: ____________________________________________
Tóm tắt ngắn gọn về tiếng Anh ở những đất nước mà Thầy Cô đã đến (cảm giác và
những điều đặc biệt về tiếng Anh mà Thầy Cô có)
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
B) Câu hỏi phỏng vấn
I. Thái độ của Giáo viên đối với Tiếng Anh như là ngôn ngữ chung:
1) Theo Thầy Cô, việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ chung trong lớp học
ngoại ngữ có quan trọng đối với học sinh trung học không?
2) Việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ chung giúp việc học tập tiếng Anh của học
sinh như thế nào?
3) Thầy Cô có cảm thấy lo lắng về việc kiến thức ngữ pháp của học sinh có thể bị
ảnh hưởng trong lớp học với tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ không? Nếu có, Thầy Cô
có thể cải thiện điều này bằng cách nào?
88 Appendices
4) Thầy Cô có nghĩ rằng các bài học của Thầy Cô với tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ
chung có ích cho học sinh trong quá trình học ngôn ngữ của họ không? Tại sao?
Hoặc Tại sao không?
II. Việc thực hành giảng dạy trong các lớp học lấy tiếng Anh là một ngôn ngữ
chung
1) Khó khăn như thế nào khi Thầy Cô dạy tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ chung trong
lớp học?
2) Thầy Cô nghĩ thực hành giảng dạy nào khó thực hiện nhất trong các lớp học lấy
tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung?
3) Hoạt động giảng dạy nào lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung thu hút sự chú ý của
học sinh nhất? Tại sao?
4) Thầy Cô có cảm thấy sự tiến bộ nào trong kiến thức tiếng Anh và văn hóa của học
sinh sau một thời gian dài các bạn học sinh được dạy tiếng Anh như một ngôn ngữ
chung không?
Appendices 89
APPENDIX B3
A SAMPLE OF INTERVIEW TRASCRIPTS (English version)
The interview transcript with 7 high school teachers.
Q: Question T: Teacher
Question 2
Q2 In what ways does ELF help students in their learning?
T2 “Thanks to ELF, students were provided more new words relating to different
fields, but they are really useful for students in real life”.
T3 “With lessons containing EFL, students seemed to know more about different
cultures of different countries in the world”.
T9 “One of the most special things that ELF brought to my students was the
students’ familiarity to different English accents, which was really good for
them in real communication outside the classroom”.
T11 “That my students had chances to listen to recordings from different varieties of
English was a great thing to them because this could make their listening skills
better day by day”.
T15 While being encouraged to use the language in view of ELF, my students dared
to express their thoughts without paying much attention to grammar; however,
they still felt worried about making grammatical mistakes.
T16 I think because the topics in reading text in ELF classrooms were more various,
students’ background knowledge and vocabulary were really improved in a
better way.
T22 Knowledge of cultures provided in ELF lessons helped my students be more
active as well as react more appropriately when interacting with foreign people
from different countries.
90 Appendices
APPENDIX B4
A SAMPLE OF INTERVIEW TRASCRIPTS (Vietnamese version)
Bảng ghi cuộc phỏng vấn với 7 giáo viên
Q: Câu hỏi T: Giáo viên
Câu hỏi
Q2 Việc sử dụng tiếng Anh như ngôn ngữ chung giúp việc học tập tiếng Anh
của học sinh như thế nào?
T2 Nhờ lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh đã được cung
cấp thêm nhiều từ mới liên quan đến các lĩnh vực khác nhau, và những từ
mới đó thực sự hữu ích cho học sinh trong cuộc sống thực tế.
T3 Với các bài học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh dường như
biết thêm về các nền văn hóa khác nhau của các quốc gia khác nhau trên
thế giới.
T9 Một trong những điều đặc biệt nhất mà lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn
ngữ chung đã giúp cho học sinh của tôi làm quen với các giọng tiếng
Anh khác nhau, điều này thực sự tốt cho các em trong giao tiếp thực tế
bên ngoài lớp học.
T11 Việc học sinh của tôi có cơ hội nghe các bản ghi âm từ nhiều loại tiếng
Anh khác nhau là một điều tuyệt vời đối với các em vì điều này có thể
giúp kỹ năng nghe của học sinh tốt hơn từng ngày.
T15 Trong khi được khuyến khích sử dụng ngôn ngữ theo quan điểm của việc
lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung, học sinh của tôi đã dám bày tỏ suy
nghĩ của mình mà không cần chú ý nhiều đến ngữ pháp; tuy nhiên, các
em học sinh vẫn cảm thấy lo lắng về việc mắc lỗi ngữ pháp.
T16 Tôi nghĩ vì các chủ đề trong bài đọc trong lớp học lấy tiếng Anh làm
ngôn ngữ chung đa dạng hơn, nên kiến thức nền tảng và vốn từ vựng của
học sinh đã thực sự được cải thiện theo cách tốt hơn.
T22 Kiến thức về các nền văn hóa được cung cấp trong các bài học theo quan
điểm lấy tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ chung đã giúp học sinh của tôi năng
động hơn cũng như phản ứng phù hợp hơn khi tiếp xúc với người nước
ngoài đến từ các quốc gia khác nhau.