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MINIMALCHRISTIAN SCHREI
CONTENT
Preface 4
Reduction 10
Repetition 24
Mathematical Logic 34
Object Orientation/Perspective 44
Meditative Effect 54
Literature 66
Index 70
PREFACE
and visually. This realisation can be received via the attached Audio CD as well as
through the artworks at the beginning of each chapter. All pieces of music have
been composed, arranged and produced by the author. The same is true of the
artworks which have been designed autonomously, in order to achieve the high-
est possible individual involvement with the material.
At this point it seems reasonable to cast an eye on a problem that arose in the
course of the research. Throughout the history of art and music style definitions
have faced the challenge to assign a highly varying mass of artworks to a specific
cultural movement. As for Minimalism the problem is even more significant since
it is still debatable in art criticism if paintings and objects represent the prin-
ciples of Minimalism likewise. Painting basically concentrates on the reduction
of monochromatic and serially structured pictures, while in spatial art the object
quality, the resulting spatial perspective and the critical relation between art and
exhibition site play a decisive role. The present paper focuses on objects, since
some significant characteristics of Minimalism, like object quality and perspec-
tive, apply only to them.
As noted above, a digression to some areas of Minimalism beyond Minimal Art
and Minimal Music will be made at this point. However, it will be confined to a
short definition and a description of the most renowned artists. Although the
presented works are generally to be seen in the context of their own movement
it seems reasonable to briefly discuss the Minimalist approaches of other musi-
cal and artistic styles, so as to establish cross connections to Minimal Art and
Minimal Music.
Initially this paper contemplates on similarities and differences between Minimal
Art and Minimal Music. It is against this background that the question arises
whether the perceptible divergences can, to a certain extent, be combined to
form new conceptual ideas. At this point I should like to mention the compre-
hensive realisation process which refers to each chapter with a piece of music
and a piece of art. In order to create the greatest possible differentiation, the
preface will deal with Minimalist tendencies in disciplines rather attributed to
Minimal Art like architecture, design and photography but also dance, film and
literature will be studied for Minimalist aspects.
Contentwise the structure of this paper follows the most important characteris-
tics of the two styles discussed. The first three chapters interlink the constitutive
aspects of Minimalism which play a decisive role both in art and music. The first
one discusses reduction as the basis of Minimalism, the second one deals with
repetition as the most important technique of reduction while the third chapter
describes the mathematical logical processes used to intensify the Minimalist ele-
ments. The discussed pieces of art and music increase in intensity and so does the
content of this paper. The fourth chapter is dedicated to object orientation and
perspective in Minimalism and tries to find analogies to similar concepts in mu-
sic. The last chapter finally investigates the meditative impact of Minimalism.
This paper does not claim to be an exhaustive representation of all artists of Min-
imal Art and Minimal Music up to the present day (2005). The author rather tries
to specify Minimalist manifestations in art and music on the basis of important
criteria and distinguished artists and discusses them in a common context, draws
connections between them and realises the thereby gained findings auditorily
4
PREFACE
overlaps with their proper works in conceptual art.
Dance
In the mid-1960s dancers get involved with the ideas of reduction, the most
influential artists being Trisha Brown, Lucinda Childs, Simone Forti and Yvonne
Rainer. In 1966 the latter wrote an article about dance and reduction where
she defined the basic principles of Minimalist dance. Characteristically, concepts
such as development, climax and representation of characters are abandoned in
favour of the equivalence of all parts as well as a performance that is as neutral
as possible. The variations in rhythm, form and dynamics are replaced by repeti-
tions or discrete incidents.2
Film
In film there is no Minimalist movement of its own, rather individual approaches
of Minimalist aspects in films can be found. One early example is Hurlements en
faveur de Sade (1952) from Guy-Ernest Debord, where a black and a white screen
are shown alternately over a period of 80 minutes. During the white scenes texts
of laws, newspaper notices etc. are recited.3 However, Debord cannot be con-
sidered a Minimalist artist. He was closely connected with the Situationist Inter-
national, a radical group of artists who stuck to a strongly political programme
between 1957 and 1972. In Minimal Art, however, all forms of political commit-
ment were substituted by concentrating on aesthetics.
About 10 years later Andy Warhol’s film Empire (1963) shows the filming of the
Empire State Building in New York from the 44th floor of the Time Life Building
6
Architecture
Soon after the concepts of Minimal Art are established, they are taken up in
architecture. The critical attitude towards the traditional gallery room gives way
to an increased simplification of forms and to a concentration on only few ma-
terials in architecture. This style is still relevant as demonstrated by renowned
contemporary artists like the Swiss architect duo Herzog & de Meuron, the Eng-
lishman John Pawson and the Italian Claudio Silvestrin, who works in London.
Design
Towards the end of the 1950s Corporate Design calls for the creation of a uni-
form corporate identity for groups comprising the most diverse branches of in-
dustry. This results in the usage of geometric modular configurations and the ex-
act specifications of intervals and distances between the elements, making their
strong parallels to Minimal Art apparent. In the 1990s the Americans Kim John-
son Gross and Jeff Stone broaden the term Minimalism to include home design.
In their series of books Chic Simple they stick to the philosophy “Less is more“
and apply it, among others, to clothes, furniture and domestic appliances.1
Photography
At the end of the 1960s further Minimalist tendencies can be observed also in
conceptual photography where not only the serial sequence of pictures but also
the act of describing and the procedural nature like in conceptual art play a
vital role. Frequently, the representatives of conceptual photography such as Sol
LeWitt, Dan Graham, Douglas Huebler and Joseph Kosuth reveal parallels and
8 PREFACE
for a period of eight hours. He maintains the same camera position and angle
throughout the whole film. As the object itself does not change and there is no
sound track the lighting conditions are the only changing element in the film
but are also reduced to a minimum by the use of black and white as well as by
the fact that the image changes only slightly.
Similar to Debord, Warhol’s film stands out from the rest of his works as an
extraordinary piece of art which laid the basis for Pop Art. Although his artistic
movement evolved at the same time as Minimalism, it clearly distances itself
from the latter by elevating mass phenomena to works of art.
Literature
First Minimalist tendencies can be observed rather early, for example in Robert
Desnos’ L’Aumonyme (1923) which Marcel Duchamp’s pseudonym “Rrose Sélavy”
divides into twelve identical variations such as “Roseé, c’est la vie”. Similar ap-
proaches emerged in the mid-1950s in concrete poetry which reduces the mean-
ing of language to the phonetic level and aims at converging its visible form
with its structure.4 Similarly, Steve Reich as a representative of Minimal Music,
claims in his article Music as a Gradual Process (1968) that mainly the structure of
an opus should be perceived. In the 1970s and 1980s a new form of Minimalist
prose establishes in the USA. It is characterised by short words, sentences, para-
graphs or short stories as well as by a reduced range of vocabulary, limited syntax
or even minimal characters, expositions or scenes. The main representatives are
Raymond Carver, Donald and Frederick Barthelme and Ann Beattie.5
1 Nagel, Wolfgang: Reine Leere. Minimalismus: Ein Jahrhundert der Reduktion
geht zu Ende. In: Spiegel Spezial 5/1997, p. 96-98.2 Rainer, Yvonne: A Quasi Survey of Some ‚Minimalist’ Tendencies in the Quan-
titatively Minimal Dance Activity Midst the Plethora, or Analysis of Trio A. In:
Battcock 1968, p. 263-273.3 Strickland, Edward: Minimalism: Origins. Bloomington 1993, p. 11.4 Gomringer, Eugen (ed.): konkrete poesie. deutschsprachige autoren. Stuttgart
1972/1991, p. 120.5 Barth, John: A Few Words about Minimalism. In: New York Times Book Review,
Dezember 1986, p. 1ff.
REDUCTION
12
and intervals and the dynamics are reduced. Furthermore, artists avoid all forms
of complexity as far as rhythm, articulation and sound spectrum are concerned.
In the next scheme larger units are formed out of single parameters. For exam-
ple, a Minimalist composition may consist of one single tone or sound, include
especially long-lasting tones or pauses or connect single tones in the form of
root constellations such as broken triads, tone scales or circles. It is the composi-
tion method that enables connecting the above mentioned elements in the con-
text of the whole musical piece. These elements are then repeated with minimal
or without modifications at all. By the same token, slight changes such as addi-
tion, subtraction or shifts can be found in previously defined sequences, without
counteracting the Minimalist tendency of the composition. As for Minimal Music
in music theory, the considerations of the critic and composer Reinhold Urmetzer
are worth mentioning, who equals Minimal Music with those styles of music that
are not bound to serial, post-serial or atonal composition methods.2
Protagonists of the Minimalist Movement
Minimalism is considered mainly an American phenomenon, although its histori-
cal development is not limited to the USA. However, in art and music only Ameri-
cans are considered to be the most important representatives, mostly working in
New York. To be more precise, in Minimal Art mainly the five artists Carl Andre
(born in Massachusetts in 1935), Dan Flavin (born in Jamaica, NY, in 1933; died in
Riverhead, NY, in 1996), Donald Judd (born in Missouri in 1928; died in New York
in 1994), Sol LeWitt (born in Connecticut in 1928; died there in 2007) and Robert
Morris (born in Kansas City in 1931) are worth mentioning. The representatives
REDUCTION
The starting point of Minimalism and Minimal Music is reduction which forms
the basis of the techniques and aspects that will be presented in the following
chapters and makes the different variations of both Minimalist movements pos-
sible. First of all, a short overview of the main principles and the most famous
representatives of Object Art and Minimal Music will be provided, followed by
a historical outline. After that, the different positions of various artists will be
examined and compared with each other.
Definition of Minimalism
The majority of Minimalist artists work with simple geometric figures. Squares or
cubes are often used as they are considered ideal because of their identical side
lengths. The objects are related to the room in a natural way, situated parallel to
the walls and the grain. The material itself is hardly processed by the artist as it
is mostly automatically prefabricated and standardised.
So it already meets the minimum requirements for a sculpture, namely spatiality,
mass and material1, and only in a few cases the artist exceeds this minimum. An-
other essential aspect is the critical stance of Minimalists towards art in general
and towards traditional galleries in particular, which becomes visible for instance
by the unwieldy objects that seem totally oversized for small exhibition rooms.
Definition of Minimal Music
Similar to Minimal Art, reduction in music with Minimalist tendencies refers to
the material as well as to the structure of the composition. While in Minimal Art
the material is limited to geometric forms, in Minimal Music the number of tones
14
in 1953) and Alexander Rodtschenko (born in St. Petersburg in 1891; died in
Moscow in 1956) who wanted to integrate industrial production into an artistic
environment.
Further approaches, though not so much in an aesthetic but in a more concep-
tual way, were taken by Marcel Duchamp (born in Blainville-Creon in 1887; died
near Paris in 1968) who provoked a far-reaching scandal in the art world with
his Readymades already in 1914. In Duchamp’s view the definition of art should
include the selection of materials used. Following this definition, he simply ex-
hibits a urinal named Fountain in a museum. The reduction of his artistic work
reveals clear parallels to Minimal Art and especially Duchamp’s art criticism is
very closely tied to Minimalism. However, at a closer look slight differences can
be found. Duchamp tries to convert the existing conventions in the art world
into subjects of irony, whereas Minimal Art aims at revolutionising them.
The art historian Irving Sandler, too, describes it as an art that is exclusively cre-
ated to criticise art, without any other purpose.6 This intended possibility of Non-
Art holds also true for Pop Art, emerging at the same time as Minimalist ap-
proaches to art in around 1962. Yet, only from 1965 onwards attention is drawn
to Minimal Art in larger exhibitions in New York. While Pop Art elevates objects
of mass culture to objects of art, this concept is totally rejected in Minimal Art.
Contrary to contemplating previous movements that had an impact on Minimal
Art, it does not appear reasonable to go into detail concerning the history of
Minimal Art itself at this point, as conventional art chronologies do not live up
to the expectations of a differentiated discussion of this topic. In this context,
the art critic Peter Schjeldahl is worth mentioning who is of the opinion that the
REDUCTION
of Minimal Music are Philip Glass (born in Baltimore in 1937), Steve Reich (born
in New York in 1936), Terry Riley (born in California in 1935) and La Monte Young
(born in Idaho in 1935).
Nevertheless, the classification of their works was not suggested by themselves
but, as is often the case, by art and music critics. The term Minimal Art appears
for the first time in Richard Wollheim’s essay with this very title. As for Minimal
Music, however, it is unclear whether the concept was first used to name the
Minimalist movement by Michael Nyman (born in London in 1944) in 1968 or by
Tom Johnson (born in Colorado in 1939) in 1972.3
Some artists were opposed to subsuming the different approaches under the
concept of Minimalism. According to Steve Reich such a musical label does not
have a positive impact on musical thinking for it mostly determines who the art-
ist is and defines him. This is what a composer wants to avoid at all costs because
he wants to become part of something unknown.4
History of Minimal Art
Although in 1967 such an attentive critic as Lucy Lippart helplessly explained that
Minimalism was a virgin birth5 the idea of radical reduction as the basic principle
of minimal concepts did not emerge with Minimal Art but was already used by
Kasimir Malevich in Suprematism around 1912. Malevich’s Black Square on White
Ground (1913) exemplifies the reduction of elements to a basic quadratic form,
seeming to be detached from the picture itself.
There are also concrete analogies with Russian Constructivism in the early 1920s,
considering for instance Vladimir Tatlin (born in Moscow in 1885; died there
16
(born in Honfleur in 1866; died in Paris in 1925) make use of repetition as is clear-
ly reflected in his work Vexations (1893), which is to be repeated 840 times. Yet,
this form of repetition refers rather to the composition as a whole than to the
sound material. The world premiere of Satie’s work was performed in 1963 with
twelve pianists, among them the Experimentalist John Cage (born in Los Angeles
in 1912; died in New York in 1992), who, not only in music, had a great impact
on Minimalist tendencies on a conceptual level. In his work 4’ 33” (1952) which
is geared at the point of absolute zero with a length of 273 seconds, he reduces
the musical information to a minimum during the performance and declares the
noises produced by the audience as music that cannot be previously defined.
The pioneer of authentic Minimal Music at the beginning of the 1960s is La
Monte Young who meets Schoenberg during his studies and is strongly influ-
enced by the Twelve-Tone Theory. As far as Minimalist aspects are concerned,
especially Young’s detachment of musical elements from the time concept is es-
sential. Shortly afterwards Young gets in touch with Terry Riley in Berkeley, who
is concerned mainly with serial music up to that point and who composes his
first Minimalist piece of music called In C in 1964. At its premiere Steve Reich
is involved as well, who at that time experiments with material from speech
recordings in his work called It’s gonna rain (1965) and soon afterwards gets to
know Philip Glass.
After the climax of Minimal Music in the 1960s and 1970s previous radical ten-
dencies disappear to a large extent, also because of intercultural contacts. For
example, Young and Riley got intensively involved with raga music under the
guidance of the North Indian musician Pandit Pran Nath (born in India in 1918;
REDUCTION
history of Minimal Art cannot yet be written as it is still not finished.7 This remark
dating from the year 1984 is still true and confirmed by the fact that, above all,
formal criteria of Minimal Art are still applied in architecture and design. By con-
trast, Minimal Music has had a relatively low impact on comparable movements
in other fields.
History of Minimal Music
What in fine arts refers to the breaking of modern painting with its objects as
well as to Duchamp’s new perception of art, refers in music to the revolution-
ary Twelve-Tone Theory of Arnold Schoenberg (born in Vienna in 1874; died in
Los Angeles in 1951), a technique applied from 1922 onwards. According to the
philosopher Theodor W. Adorno (born in Frankfurt/Main in 1903; died in Visp
in Switzerland in 1969) Schoenberg’s works are in fact the first pieces in which
nothing could be changed. They are both protocol and construction. Nothing is
left in them of the conventions that guaranteed the liberty of the game.8
By expanding the sound spectrum and at the same time applying strict rules
Schoenberg creates the basis for developing all forms of Minimalist music. As
he includes atonal elements he adds to Minimal Music the possibility of slightly
changing musical material, which is very frequently used. However, he does not
create a style of music that is totally bound to atonality. Schoenberg is a critic
of redundancy which can be deducted already when the hero in his drama with
music Die Glückliche Hand (1913) says that everything could be done more eas-
ily.
But even before the turn of the century some individualists such as Erik Satie
18
interview with Judd and the art historian Glaser. On the other hand, a simple
implementation can be based on a complex concept, still preserving its Minimal-
ist approach.
Furthermore, there is a difference between material and structural Minimalism.
While the former reduces the objects and the sound material to a minimum, the
latter aims at reducing the aesthetic or musical structure. This structure is char-
acterised by implementing particularly simple principles of composing in a con-
sequent manner, which holds true for Minimal Art as well as for Minimal Music.
Yet, only in fine arts the artist’s personality takes a back seat in the context of his
or her work. This concept of repressing the artist’s personality is, however, aban-
doned to a large extent during the so-called second generation of artists such as
Bruce Nauman (born in Indiana in 1941), Richard Serra (born in San Francisco in
1939) and Eva Hesse (born in Hamburg in 1936; died in New York in 1970).
The rudimental method of reduction refers to the use of basic forms that cannot
be further simplified, where the possible minimum of forms is achieved. There-
fore, in Minimal Art frequently elements with equal side lengths are used. For in-
stance, from 1956 until his death Ad Reinhardt painted nothing but ‘Black Paint-
ings’. From 1960 onwards he designed them in a quadratic format of 152.4x152.4
cm, each with black shadings that can hardly be differentiated from each other.
He defines the format as ‘sizeless’ and describes it as being as high as a human
being and as wide as the spread arms of a human being (not tall, not small, size-
less).10
From the beginning of the 1950s a similar style can be observed in Yves Klein’s
monochromatic paintings. In order to conceal all the hints of the act of painting
REDUCTION
died in Berkeley, CA, in 1996), whose influence is strongly reflected in Riley’s
works Shri Camel (1976-78) and The Harp of New Albion (1984) among others.
Indian music, which is characterized by microtonal changes as well as additive
rhythms, raises great interest among Minimalist composers, as testifies Glass’s
connection with Ravi Shankar (born in Varansi, India, in 1920). However, Glass,
as opposed to Young, is not limited to Indian influences. Later on, for example,
he composes the soundtrack for the anti-globalisation film trilogy Koyaanisqatsi
(1983), Powaqqatsi (1988) and Naqoyqatsi (2002) in cooperation with the direc-
tor Godfrey Reggio.
Reich, on the other hand, becomes intensively involved with Ghanaian drum
music, which is especially evidenced in his work Drumming (1971). Later he starts
to study Hebrew written language and the traditions of synagogal psalms. In his
theatre piece The Cave (1993), a production with video and music effects that
was developed together with his wife Beryl Korot, he contrasts Jewish and Arab
views in Abraham’s times with today’s views. This reveals his interest for political
and religious topics.
Reductive approaches
Reduction can refer to the concept or to the execution or even to both. Mini-
malist concepts such as reduction or mathematical logical methods are based
on exactly defined reduction processes and can become rather complex when it
comes to implementing them. If the final result of the reduction of the concep-
tual basis is a Minimalist one, then ‘what you see is what you see.’9 This is how
the Minimalist artist Frank Stella (born in Massachusetts in 1936) puts it in an
20
way for the early days of Minimalism about which the art historian Irving Sandler
says that there was nothing that looked uglier, less related to art or more trans-
gressive at that time.13
REDUCTION
he applies each colour extremely evenly on the canvas (yellow, orange, red, gold,
or later a self-developed ultramarine called International Klein Blue or IKB).
Klein is one of the few artists whose works are appreciated not only in Minimal
Art but also in Minimal Music. He translates the radical approach of his mono-
chromatic paintings directly into his compositions such as Symphonie Mono-
ton-Silence (1947), consisting only of a sole, long-lasting major triad and, sub-
sequently, silence. Abandoning the concept of time lends a strongly meditative
element to his work. This element is often used in Minimal Music, especially in
La Monte Young’s works, and will be described in more detail in the last chapter.
Young defines this particular form of Minimalist music as something achieved by
a minimum of means. Harmony, rhythm, dynamics and instrumentation stay the
same or change only slightly during the whole performance. This determines the
prerequisite of minimalism i.e. the reduction of material which entails certain
methods such as repetition, being one of the most important ones.11
Applying the definition of the reduction of material to Minimal Art brings along
the considerations of Richard Serra, who rose to fame by the startling directness
of his iron slabs. His objects claim purity and absoluteness and by Serra’s concen-
tration on the basic characteristics of the material used they approximate the
minimum of means defined by Young. For example, in One Ton Prop (House of
Cards) (1968/69) he uses only metal slabs leaning against one other, while their
structure is determined only by gravitation.
The aesthetic decision of absolute reduction can be noted already in Schoen-
berg, claiming that music should not embellish but be true. He states that art is
not related to what one can do but what one must do.12 Thereby he paves the
22 REDUCTION
1 Lippert, Werner: 1965. Fragmente einer Reise durch die Kunst. 1975. In: Kunst-
halle Bielefeld (ed.), Concept Art, Minimal Art, Arte Povera, Land Art. Marzona
Collection. Bielefeld 1990, p. 29.2 Urmetzer, Reinhold: Abschied von der Kopfmusik. In: NZ 12/1984, p. 18.3 Schaefer, John: New Sounds. A Listener’s Guide to New Music. New York 1987,
p. 64.4 Lovisa, Fabian R.: minimal-music. Darmstadt 1996, p. 15.5 Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/
Basel 1995, p. 559.6 Gibson, Eric: Was Minimalist art a political movement? In: The New Criterion,
Vol. 5, No. 9, May 1987, p. 63.7 Schjeldahl, Peter: Minimalism. In: Art of Our Time: The Saatchi Collection, Vol. 1.
New York 1984, p. 17.8 Adorno, Theodor W.: Philosophie der neuen Musik. Frankfurt am Main 1976,
p. 46.9 Glaser, Bruce: Questions to Stella and Judd. In: Art News, Vol. 65, No. 5, Septem-
ber 1966, p. 58.10 Heere, Heribert: Ad Reinhardt und die Tradition der Moderne. Frankfurt am
Main 1986, p. 44.11 Schwarz, K. Robert: Minimalists. London 1996, p. 9.12 Schoenberg, Arnold: Probleme des Kunstunterrichts. In: Musikalisches Taschen-
buch 1911, Vol. 2., Vienna 1911.13 Gibson, Eric: Was Minimalist art a political movement? In: The New Criterion,
Vol. 5, No. 9, May 1987, p. 63.
REPETITION
26 REPETITION
more.2 The truth or non-thruth of a material is not decided on its isolated ap-
pearance but on its position within the prevailing standards of aesthetics.
In order to escape this historical dilemma, Minimal Art uses materials which are
deliberately contrary to the idea of art in the 1960s and earlier. Industrially pro-
duced materials and everyday objects like Dan Flavin’s fluorescent tubes defy the
traditional artistic materials and result in an understanding of art typical of Mini-
malism, which Flavin describes as follows: we are moving towards a complete
absence of art – a common sense of psychologically indifferent decoration – we
simply enjoy contemplating, something everybody is able to do.3
Minimal Music in turn extensively eliminates atonality from its repertoire and
implements forms by applying repetition not only to the composition as a whole
but also to the material itself.
It is undoubtedly remarkable that Minimalist tendencies in art and music de-
velop around the same time in the USA, without clinging to historical material.
The German composer Dieter Schnebel (born in Lahr/Baden in 1930) thinks that
it is not by chance that this creative spirit comes from America: Once, and in its
essence, at the same time New World and Wild West, America encouraged an
orientation towards the future, without having to demolish existing structures,
and it fostered a pioneering spirit that was not afraid to take on experiments.4
Repetitive approaches
In music there are only few compositions that consist of merely perseverative
repetitions. The composers rather express themselves by gradual changes of
certain individual notes or entire figures. Minimal Art produces several pieces
Repetition is one of the most important techniques of reduction and is applied
in art and music likewise. It mainly depends on the material, which will subse-
quently be discussed in further detail.
Material
The philosopher and musicologist Theodor W. Adorno describes material as
something which is a self-sedimented spirit, predetermined by society, in the
minds of people.1 Although he is referring to musical material, this also holds
true for the notion of the term in visual art. Based on this theory, the artist can
only choose from a limited range of materials as dealing intensively with the
material inevitably leads to a discussion with society. If an artist consciously tries
to abandon this repressive paradigm he or she might only partly succeed since
historical patterns will immediately be recalled.
Schoenberg’s early atonal music does not meet with approval because, among
others, the radicality of the used dissonances is completely unknown at this
point in time and thus the music seems dissociated from its historical context.
Adorno adds that the disharmony openly reflects the state of the audience at
that time which is why the music is rejected as intolerable. As a result a composer
can never make use of all the note combinations, just like a painter and a sculp-
tor must accept the limitations of colours, shapes and materials determined by
their historical development. Adorno exemplifies the shabbiness and abrasion
of the diminished seventh chord or certain chromatic passing notes in the Palm
Court Music of the 19th century as musical taboos. According to him, these tones
were not only outmoded but utterly wrong and did not fulfill their function any
28 REPETITION
the sense of Popular music, but rather creates a visual rhythm or specific mo-
tion models. This becomes especially apparent in Donald Judd’s Stacks (1966,
1968, 1970) which are composed of modular boxes with identical distances be-
tween the individual elements. In order to achieve the most exact repetition of
all boxes, Judd, as in many other cases, resorts to the industrial production of
the objects. This does not only create precise indistinguishable copies, but also
makes it possible to see the artwork as what it really is, without distraction of
their individual developing process.
He shares this view with Frank Stella’s approach of “What you see is what you
see“7, which primarily refers to the relationship with a reduction of the con-
ceptual background. If the principle of repetition is to be maintained and the
Minimalist concept is to be replaced by a more complex one, the artists and musi-
cians generally employ mathematical logical processes, which will be discussed in
detail in the following chapter.
Repetition and chance
Repetition creates patterns either according to an exactly defined plan or by
chance. The first way usually means employing mathematical logical processes
and takes place in an environment of which the artist is fully aware, while the
final result of the second way, a random process, is not directly predictable.
Morton Feldman (born in New York in 1926; died in Buffalo, NY, in 1987) rep-
resents a prominent example; he tells the four pianists playing his composition
Piece for Four Pianos (1957) to each play the same piano movement in an indi-
vidually chosen tempo. As expected, this individualisation leads to a delicately
which use repetitions whose components do not change. Initially the repetitive
moment is the most striking feature of Minimalist music. Later on, this musical
style also employs other techniques, which is also stated by the composer of the
first serial piece Nummer 2, Karel Goeyvaerts (born in Antwerpen in 1923; died
there in 1993).5
At the beginning of their Minimalist-oriented period many Minimalist compos-
ers work with highly repetitive patterns, like Philip Glass, who concentrates ba-
sically on repetition and static harmony for the electrically amplified violin in
his composition Strung Out (1967). While Glass tends to vary the repetitions,
Steve Reich employs this musical technique for his audiotape compositions and
his piece Piano Phase (1967) in a continually unaltered way.
The Englishman Michael Nyman and the founder of the Scratch Orchestra, Cor-
nelius Cardew (born in Gloucester in 1939, died in London in 1981), are the most
important European representatives of Minimalism. In his compositions Nyman
primarily uses historic models and exposes them to never-ending repetitive pro-
cedures which vary only insignificantly.6 For his soundtrack for director Peter
Greenaway and particularly for Jane Campion’s The Piano (1993) Nyman gained
recognition beyond the small circle of connoisseurs of Minimalist music. Nyman
and Glass are united in that they both employ a tendential fusion of Popular
with Serious music, considerably influenced by the repetitive moment. While in
classical E-music the stringing together of the same notes is still disdained as un-
creative monotony, this technique has already established itself as a legitimate
composition mechanism in Pop music.
In Minimalism repetition does not mean an approximation to inartificiality in
30
By the end of the 1970s at the latest, the term Minimalist is used more frequently
as a swearword than as an art term. However, in the following decade Minimal-
ism and particularly Minimal Art, which is highly contrastive to painting in the
1980s, is primarily perceived as reductive and confined to rules. Nevertheless,
retrospectively it is the expressionism that is to a large extent held responsible
for the cultural setbacks during the Reagan era, while Minimalism in the 1960s,
despite its restrictivity, allows for various cultural flows to develop.10
By restricting the material and the possibility of its modification, the criticised
repetition inevitably leads to a Minimalist principle, even if some artists regard
repetition as an independent movement. The composer Louis Andriessen (born
in Utrecht in 1939) argues that for him the repetitive moment is always more
important than the so-called Minimalism.11
In the 1970s the repetitive school turns against the serial composition doctrine
and against Process Art, which is initiated by Robert Morris and basically concen-
trates on the development of the artwork or piece of music itself. The seriality,
based on Schoenberg’s theory, rationalises the sensitivity towards a too early
a repetition of the same note, unless it is repeated immediately.12 This clearly
shows the objection to direct repetition.
Among the visual artists it is particularly Carl Andre who is said to have cre-
ated monotonous works. Endlessly repeating formats like his brick arrangements
Equivalent VIII (1966) exert a considerable obtrusiveness which is described as
perseverant, motionless, meaningless and provoking.13 Andre rejects the criti-
cism arguing that he sees his whole work as a representation of just these char-
acteristics which lead from monotony to a higher self-contained unit.
REPETITION
performanced composition and to an unpredictable result. Thus, Feldman chal-
lenges one of the fundaments of musical theory, namely the exact notation of a
composition. Something similar happens in Minimal Art when the foundations
of the traditional artistic establishment – the gallery as an exhibition site – are
critically questioned.
Another analogy between Feldman and Minimalism can be seen in the clear
withdrawal of the artist from his own artwork. What is the usage of industrially
produced materials in Minimal Art is Feldman’s instruction to the four pianists
to imperturbably play their own tempo in Minimal Music. By doing so he leaves
the finalisation of the composition to the performers and thus attaches great
importance to them.
Steve Reich commonly repeats longer tone units too, played by diverse instru-
ments and for different periods of time. This results in a phase shift, extended to
the timely component, which can, among others, be observed in his composition
Four Organs (1967). The German Minimalist Erhard Grosskopf (born in Berlin in
1934) addresses the interesting development of the randomly developing tonal-
ity. He says, there can even be triads, but they do not fulfil a function, as they are
just ‘visiting’ during the performance.8
The criticism of monotony
Repetition is seen as one of the central characteristics of Minimalism but at the
same time it is defamed as monotony or a consequence of a lack of originality.
Minimalists are commonly accused of only seeking to disguise the centripetal
force in music that inclines towards monotony.9
32 REPETITION
1 Adorno, Theodor W.: Philosophie der neuen Musik. Frankfurt am Main 1976,
p. 39.2 Ibid., p. 40.3 Lippard, Lucy: 10 Structurists in 20 Paragraphs. In: Minimal Art, Kat. Haags Ge-
meentemuseum. Den Haag 1968, p. 25-31. German translation by Birghild Wilke
in: Minimal Art, Kat. Städtische Kunsthalle Düsseldorf 1969, p. 16.4 Schnebel, Dieter: Denkbare Musik. Schriften 1952-1972. Cologne 1972, p. 144.5 Karel Goeyvaerts 1980 im Gespräch mit Wim Mertens. In: Fahres, Michael (ed.):
European Minimal Music Project. Projektbericht. Utrecht 1982, unpublished.6 Motte-Haber, Helga de la (ed.): Geschichte der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert: 1975-
2000. Laaber 2000, p. 33.7 Glaser, Bruce: Questions to Stella and Judd. In: Art News, Vol. 65, No. 5, Septem-
ber 1966, p. 58.8 Lovisa, Fabian R.: minimal-music. Darmstadt 1996, p. 210.9 Dibelius, Ulrich: Moderne Musik II 1965-1985. Munich 1988, p. 380.
10 Buchloh, Benjamin H.D.: Figures of Authority, Ciphers of Regression. In: October,
No. 16, Spring 1981, p. 39-68.11 Lovisa, ibid., p. 15.12 Adorno, ibid., p. 65.13 Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/Ba-
sel 1995, p. 581.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
36
plies with the criteria of Minimalism.
Mathematical logical approaches
Since composing his work Nine Bells (1979) the music critic and later composer
Tom Johnson, who was the first apart from Michael Nyman to coin the term
Minimal Music, remains committed to his own style of Minimalist Music which is
guided by mathematical logical phenomena. The best example of his rationally
predicable compositions is the religious, serious oratorio Bonhoeffer-Oratorium
(1988-92).
In his work The Chord Catalogue (1986) Johnson creates a close relation between
chords and tone scales and he writes down all the 8178 possible chords of one
octave in chromatic tone scales. He follows a previously exactly defined process
which determines the whole composition without further interventions from
the artist. The use of certain processes is a typical feature of mathematical logical
methods. They foster the reduction of the artistic ego, an element already widely
applied in Minimal Art rather long before. Hanne Darbovens (born in Munich in
1941) deals with mathematics not so much on a conceptual but on a meta-level
and reduces her artistic material to numbers. Her painting 4868 (1969) consists
solely of the four numbers mentioned in the title. They are repeated according
to their numerical value in rows with a length of 104 characters. Since 1980 she
applies the mathematical structure of her paintings to her musical pieces where
she assigns a specific tone pitch to each visual element.
The writer and art collector Donald Karsham defines Minimalist artworks as
mostly being arranged mathematically in space, in their own seriality of inter-
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
Mathematical logical techniques resemble repetition. In the context of these
techniques additional and logically deductible considerations are made concern-
ing the grade and the frequency of repetition instead of serially arranging the
existing elements without modifying them. While repetition is closely connected
to the material, the mathematical logical method focuses more on the structure
of the work.
Techniques
The three most famous methods of mathematical logic in Minimal Art and Mini-
mal Music are addition, subtraction and substitution. They are applied either
jointly to smaller units or to the work as a whole. Musical addition means add-
ing one tone to the composition. For example, if a third is added to an existing
fifth, a decision has to be taken between a major and a minor key. Thus, the
importance as well as the effect changes significantly. Vice versa this applies also
to subtraction which is frequently used as a kind of mirrored reflection after an
addition, like in Steve Reich’s Drumming (1971).
Musical substitution is not limited to replacing notes but is also applied for paus-
es. Similarly, in Minimal Art the technique of substitution refers to single ele-
ments and empty spaces. The same holds true for adding and subtracting as well.
All of these methods can change the objects or its characteristics in fine arts,
and, in music, the tone or the length of a tone. The techniques used, however,
should bring along only slight changes in order to maintain the Minimalist form
even when applying complex techniques. After all, the prerequisite of Minimal-
ist work is that at least either the concept or the resulting implementation com-
38
LeWitt’s works often seem like the visual solution of a simple mathematical ques-
tion. The concept is for him the essential component of his artistic work, which
is reflected by the fact that he does not make any modifications during the pro-
duction process as he wants to emphasise the disproportion of the object and
the idea.
Donald Judd is considered to be the most famous representative of Minimal
Art and the master of conveying the tension between visuality and material.
He agrees with Sol LeWitt who says that irrational thoughts should be followed
strictly and logically.2 Judd’s specific objects are invented rationally as confirmed
by the use of mathematical series to determine the exact distance between the
single elements of an object. Robert Morris, too, uses this technique but the
effects of his objects are often irrational. The reason for that is that it seems
impossible to grasp the different perspectives as a clear entity as e.g. with Mir-
rored Cube (1963).
Criticising the lack of emotions
When arranged the single elements lose some of their individuality and become
interchangeable. Thus, the individualising form of the work is shifted from the
concept to the implementation. The majority of Minimalist Artists, however, ab-
stains from demonstrating their own emotions. Instead, they create mathemati-
cal logical entities in order to ban their artistic ego as much as possible from
their works.
Sigmund Freud (born in Freiberg in 1856; died in London in 1939) also deals with
the relationship between the artwork and its creator, stating in one of his late
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
vals.1 Sol LeWitt is one of the most renowned representatives of this technique.
With his serially structured paintings, cubic objects, grids and, above all, with his
strongly conceptual approach he has gained international recognition.
In his pencil walldrawings (1969) sized 190x190 cm Sol LeWitt works with verti-
cal, horizontal and diagonal lines, all placed very closely next to each other. The
whole series is composed of 15 quadratic drawings and is divided into groups of
three that are again arranged within themselves. When adding the first element
to the second the result one gets is the last drawing of each row. Surprisingly
though, LeWitt breaks his own rules by creating a hardly identifiable divergence
in the combinations of his drawings.
Usually artists distance themselves from the artistic act when applying math-
ematical logical methods, and they imperturbably finish a certain process. Sol
LeWitt, by contrast, intervenes deliberately in the process of addition of his wall-
drawings. In doing so he responds to the criticism that holds the artists’ with-
drawal from their works responsible for the lack of emotions that Minimalist
works evoke.
The cube takes a central role in LeWitt’s whole oeuvre. His series Variations of
Incomplete Open Cubes (1974) consists of a schematic drawing showing all the
different permutations of a cube, describing a cubical form with three to eleven
straight lines. LeWitt translates the drafts of this series also into the third dimen-
sion. The resulting objects made from enamelled aluminium automatically bring
the recipients to complete the cubic form in their minds. Later on, LeWitt applies
the idea of the puristic geometry of a cube also to photography. In his work Cube
(1988) he exposes the same cube in more than 500 different light situations.
40
and therefore the differences in feelings are totally abstract and do not refer to
differences in the work itself.7
In general the relationship between expression and construction, between pa-
thos and logos8 seems to be one of the central problems of music in the 20th cen-
tury. At the end of the 20th century an increasing number of composers become
opposed to rigorously concentrating on the form and structure of music. Instead
of that they prefer an emotional representation of their ideas that goes beyond
material reality. Nevertheless, even at the climax of Minimalism there are some
artists who feel related to the roots of Minimalist ideas but produce emotional
works as well. The most intensive discussions about emotions as part of the artis-
tic work take place, above all, during the second generation of Minimal Art.
In 1968 e.g. Bruce Nauman shows fiberglass objects that take the form of loaves
in his promising debut exhibition in New York. They reveal Minimalist elements
but are combined with disturbing overtones of organic life.9 The same holds true
for his body casts, neon tubing as well as for the use of rarely applied materials
such as styrofoam, felt and grease in his work Collection of Various Materials
Separated by Layers of Grease with Holes the Size of My Waist and Wrists (1966).
His apparently organic forms and materials instigate a debate in Minimal Art
concerning the emotional value, a debate unheard-of at that time.
Another artist that ranks among the second generation of Minimalists is Eva
Hesse. Her works glow with a strong feeling of intimacy or well a feeling of self-
confident sexuality like in Ingeminate (1965). She attaches great importance to
the production process and therefore makes visible all the decisions and actions
during this process. Thereby she concedes herself a lot of space in the context of
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
writings that the force of creation does not always obey the artist’s will. He says
that the work gets the way it can get and confronts the author in an unruly and
even unfamiliar manner.3 Freud implies a previously given distance between the
work and the artist. This distance deliberately reaches its limit in Minimalism.
Emotions are a much discussed problem in artistic and musical works. Already in
the early 20th century intellectualism blames the so called new music to origi-
nate in the head and not in the heart or the ear.4 While this criticism refers
mainly to serial composition techniques and to atonal music, objections in Mini-
malist art predominantly refer to mathematical logic, repetitive elements and
restricted forms.
In music already the philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (born in Stutt-
gart in 1770; died in Berlin in 1831) criticised the increasing lack of emotions of
the instrumental virtuosos of his days. He says that, as a consequence, the com-
poser can concentrate fully on the musical structure of his work and the witty
elements of its structure. He complains that musical production could become
something lacking thoughts and emotions and therefore not requiring a deeper
consciousness of knowledge or mind.5
The lack of emotions, however, can also be traced back to the expectations of
consumers who apparently are not as concerned with the conceptual back-
ground as with the returned benefit in terms of delight as Adorno says.6 Hegel
examines in more detail the recipients’ perception which differs substantially
from the object i.e. the proper work. According to Hegel the reason for this is
that feelings belong to the region of mind that is unascertained and dull. He
says that a feeling is hidden in the most abstract form of individual subjectivity
42
1 Karshan, Donald: After Malevich. Unpublished manuscript 1977.2 Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/Ba-
sel 1995, p. 576.3 Freud, Sigmund: Gesammelte Werke, Vol. 16. London 1950, p. 211.4 Adorno, Theodor W.: Philosophie der neuen Musik. Frankfurt am Main 1976,
p. 20.5 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe durch den Verein
von Freunden des Verewigten, Bd. 10: Vorlesungen über die Aesthetik. Berlin
1842/43, p. 42f.6 Adorno, ibid., p. 20.7 Hegel, ibid., p. 43.8 Motte-Haber, Helga de la (ed.): Geschichte der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert: 1975-
2000. Laaber 2000, p. 97.9 Stemmrich, ibid., p. 585.
10 Ibid., p. 574.
MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
her artistic work. So Hesse broadens the artistic result by the emotional compo-
nent and like Nauman she clearly delimits the scope of her work compared to
the work of the first generation of Minimalist Artists.
Although these artists meet the claims for more emotions in their artworks at
the end of the 1960s they cannot prevent the public from abandoning Minimal
Art. One of the reasons for this is certainly the sinister and partly menacing ef-
fect of Minimalist works.
Dan Flavin’s oeuvre ranks among the few works that succeed to create a balance
between the inexorable nature of geometry and oddly sentimental feelings. His
work The Diagonal of May 25, 1963 (1963) consists solely of a fluorescent light.
Nonetheless, it already joins all the essential aspects of Flavin’s future works such
as the look of Non-Art of the unprocessed commercial light, the art-historical
nostalgy of diagonals (the definite metaphor of Constructivism) and the urban,
diary-like glamour of the title.10
OBJECT ORIENTATION/PERSPECTIVE
46
Donald Judd criticises that the rectangular canvas and its limited space do not
offer enough space and possibilities for the desired simplicity. In comparison to
colours on just one and the same level, space seems to be much more interesting
and powerful to him. With this explanation he predicts a soon end for paintings
in general, which he considers as remnants of earlier European times. This push-
ing for absolute reduction is also limited within space. According to the curator
George Stolz Minimalism has always tended to destroy itself because of its own
perfectionism. He remarks that immaculate simplicity of a white cube fixed on a
white wall can neither be more immaculate nor simpler.1 Morris and Judd even
turn their backs to sculptures which are, like paintings, constructed step by step
by means of addition and composition.2 Therefore both of them support the
idea of the inseparability of a work of art. Since an object can just be composed
of a minimum of separate parts in order to be minimal, in the ideal case the form
itself becomes the object.
Function of three-dimensionality
According to Morris’ essay Notes on Sculpture (1966) the internal relation of
former works does no longer exist in the work of art itself but develops a func-
tion of space, light and range of vision. This new orientation towards reception
can be traced back to the personal withdrawal from their own work by several
Minimalist Artists.
Since the recipient is now located in the same space as the work one gets the op-
portunity to create their own relation to the work. By taking different positions
in the room and by the changing lighting conditions new aspects of perception
OBJECT ORIENTATION/PERSPECTIVE
Obviously object orientation and perspective are terms coming from Minimal
Art. Nevertheless, some comparative considerations can be made about these
concepts and Minimal Music. This chapter will deal with Object Art in the first
place, but Minimalist tendencies in painting and the ambiguous proportion to
objects in Minimal Art will also be taken into account.
Painting and object
Painting and Object Art form part of Minimal Art from the beginning onwards.
From a quantitative point of view the latter is dominant and better known to
the public. Critics have always been arguing with artists, or vice versa, about
which art movement represents Minimal Art. The fact that Object Art develops
out of the paintings of Frank Stella does not seem to play a major role for this
discussion. Jo Baer (born in Seattle in 1929), Robert Mangold (born in North
Tonawanda, NY, in 1937), Brice Marden (born in Bronxville, NY, in 1938) and Ag-
nes Martin (born in Maklin, Canada, in 1912; died in Taos, New Mexico, in 2004)
are painters that form part of this art movement. However, they do not further
develop the Minimalist idea but implement their influences to the medium they
are working with. While this group explores monochromatic painting by a re-
ductive approach and seriality, Object Art is busy with factors like material, form
and space. Due to the dislike of Object Art of all forms of paintings, the art of
painting and its right to exist are questioned. In comparison to The Bricks of
Carl Andre a picture can not lay claim to Non-Art, which excludes the criticism
referring to the established area of art and its exhibition halls that is typical of
Minimal Art.
48
materials and forms that are often very large and heavy is of singular importance
to Object Artists. In art history and particularly during the period of Minimal Art
all synonyms for power, like authoritarian, strong or dominating are bywords for
a successful work of art. Qualities like soft or flexible, though, are seldom taken
seriously. With the second generation of Minimal Art and the discovery of new
materials and forms this interpretation is forced onto the sidelines.
An artwork is considered as vigorous if it is perceived as a whole, with all the ele-
ments integrated into the same entity. Instead of forming a unit out of the most
diverse individual elements afterwards, Minimalist Object Artists avoid unequal
parts within their artworks from the very beginning by emanating from absolute
forms like cubes.
One example of this unconditioned form of reduction in space as well as of
clearly claiming authority is e.g. the cube Die (1962) from Tony Smith (born in
New Jersey in 1912; died in New York in 1980). This object’s side lengths are six
feet long each, which corresponds to about 180 cm, the dice being an ultimate
obstacle because of its magnitude. Even the title fits in with the characteristic of
unity that embraces the whole work because the length of six feet refers to the
term ‘six feet under’ meaning the state of a buried person.
Smith’s definition of the specific size of this cube is worth mentioning, to which
he refers in more detail in the question-and-answer game described as follows.
Being asked why he did not make his work bigger so as to surmount the viewer,
he replies that he did not create a monument. When he is posed the question
why he did not make his work smaller so as to be able to see over it he re-
sponds that he did not create an object.4 That draws the attention to Smith’s
OBJECT ORIENTATION/PERSPECTIVE
evolve. If the recipient moves while looking at the work a dynamic feeling of
size develops. If one views a large-scale object an involuntary distance between
recipient and work is caused because of the pragmatic desire to perceive the
entirety of the work. These physical and psychic distances are to be seen in Carl
Andre’s works. The wooden object Shape and Structure (1965), which was exhib-
ited during the first group show of Minimal Art, was so massive that the gallery
floor ran the risk of caving in, and therefore the object had to be removed. The
artist’s comment was that he wanted to take up the whole space, hold it back
and not just fill it.3
Richard Serra also produces imposing objects that are usually positioned in pub-
lic spaces in order to cause a surprising effect on the people passing by. Since this
is not possible in an empty, white showroom he dissociates himself from Mini-
malists like Judd and their concept of space. He follows a similar approach of the
space concept as Andre and, furthermore, abandons the traditional showrooms
of galleries and confronts the public with partly monumental objects. Thus, con-
flicts are inevitable.
His most famous piece of art of this type is the sculpture Tilted Arc (1981) which
was exhibited on the Federal Plaza of New York. The slightly bent wall made of
steel was over three metres high and provocatively placed on the plaza to be-
come an obstacle to the people passing by. Serra is interested in creating a com-
pletely new situation and forces the public to tackle this situation in daily life
far away from the galleries. The public’s response to the sculpture was largely
negative and people campaigned vociferously for the removal of the object,
which they achieved in 1989. The application of authority transmitted by the
50
which he applies this technique throughout the whole piece is It’s gonna rain
(1965). Therein he plays several tape loops of a lay sermon, the content of which
is confined to the phrase mentioned in the title, with several tape recorders at
the same time. Since the speed of reproduction differs slightly from recorder to
recorder, the original theme is perceived from a new perspective because of the
interfering tracks.
This effect becomes particularly obvious in Reich’s work Piano Phase (1967)
where the original pattern is relatively complex, consisting of simultaneously
played triadic and shifting figures. By the gradual shift of these figures new in-
tervals can be perceived which do not form part of the original pattern. This ef-
fect corresponds to the viewers moving around an artwork in Minimal Art who,
as a consequence, gain a new perspective of it.
On a superficial basis the differences between art and music persist since the
change of perspectives in music has to be determined previously by a strict con-
cept and cannot be influenced by the listener, whereas in art the spectator is
awarded the individual right to choose any viewing position he likes.
At a closer look, however, particularly Reich’s compositions reveal psycho-acous-
tic by-products such as e.g. the shifts between unisons and overlapping sounds
or the microtonal changes of intervals. The composer does not cause these shifts
deliberately, rather they are perceived only in the context of all the single voices.
To a large extent, the effect depends on the interpretation by the musician as
well as on the reception by the audience.5 That is to say, how acoustic phenom-
ena are finally perceived by the listener is influenced strongly by individual con-
centration. As in Minimal Art, up to a certain extent the recipients are granted
OBJECT ORIENTATION/PERSPECTIVE
individual classification of the size of three-dimensional artworks, situating his
work between the public character of a monument and the intimacy of a smaller
object.
Richard Serra reveals a particularly strong will of power which takes shape not
only in his scandalous work at the Federal Plaza in New York but becomes ap-
parent also one decade before in his series Prop Sculptures (1969-1987). In this
series, aside from the most works’ immense size there is the constant danger
that the single iron slabs which are simply leaned against one another could fall
apart. In fact, the slabs are kept together solely by gravitation and their own
weight, which even causes some injuries of the workers in charge of assembling
and disassembling the installation.
Furthermore, not only a certain size but also the directness of a work can trans-
mit a feeling of vigour. Robert Morris’ construction Untitled (1966), which is
about 80 cm high, has the structure of a wire netting that evokes associations
with a cage or a prison and claims absolute authority in spite of its relatively
small size.
Analogies with music
Although there are no direct parallels of Object Art and perspective with Mini-
mal Music some similar approaches can be noted. While the spatiality of Minimal
Art allows for new perspectives on non-changing elements, the technique of
phasing brings along a similar change in the reception of Minimal Music.
From 1963 onwards Steve Reich as the first Minimalist composer deals inten-
sively with phasing models in tape music. The title of the first composition in
52 OBJECT ORIENTATION/PERSPECTIVE
control when it comes to perceiving the fine details of a composition.
The most radical example of phasing while at the same time reducing the origi-
nal material in Minimal Music is represented by the work Poème symphonique
(1962) by György Ligeti (born in Transylvania, Romania, in 1923). The composer is,
however, not considered as one of the classical representatives of Minimal Music.
100 metronomes keep ticking at different speeds, which results in identifying an
acoustic whole instead of highly complex polyphonic sounds. This, in turn, results
in what the Minimalists Judd and Morris claim, namely in replacing the artwork
consisting of many components by an artwork considered an entity.
1 Stolz, George: Clues from the Known: Sol LeWitt and Photography. In: Sol Le-
Witt: Fotografía. Madrid 2003.2 Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/Ba-
sel 1995, p. 337.3 Tuchman, Phyllis: An Interview with Carl Andre. In: Artforum, June 1970, p. 61.4 Morris, Robert: Notes on Sculpture, Part 2. In: Artforum, Vol. 5, No. 2, October
1966, p. 20.5 Reich, Steve: Writings about Music. New York 1974, p. 10.
MEDITATIVE EFFECT
56 MEDITATIVE EFFECT
given priority to a way of thinking that includes past and future perspectives.
The conceptual artists of Minimal Art try to reach a similar aim when putting
the visitor and the object in a gallery or in a public space at one and the same
level so that the presence of a work of art can be perceived intensively. As an
example for this approach the work One Ton Prop (House of Cards) (1968/69) by
Serra shall be mentioned. The very fragile structure consists of iron plates that
are leaned against one another. In the face of the imminent danger of collapsing
the recipient is urged to perceive the work right at the current time and place.3
There are also some analogies between the meditative aspect of Minimal Music
and Optical Art that experienced an impetus in the middle of the 1960s in New
York. Both currents have the reception of psychic phenomena and their remark-
able precision in common. The latter is striking in the extensive investigation of
frequency realised by Young. The optical illusion of Optical Art corresponds not
only to Young’s experiments with overtones but also to the psycho-acoustic side-
effects that are heard in the Reich’s phasing.
Morton Feldman (born in New York in 1926, died in Buffalo, NY, in 1987) reveals
another access to the meditative quality of a piece of music. From 1977 onwards
he exclusively works with repetitions and changes of sound patterns and com-
bines this form of composing with an often exhausting length and a very low
volume. These qualities can e.g. be found in his work String Quartet II (1983).
Feldman does not only take the artists but also the audience to their limits of
concentration with a performance that lasts more than five hours.
In the first place, objectivity and perspective are related with plastic arts but,
nevertheless, interesting parallels with Minimal Music can be observed. Although
the meditative effect is almost exclusively provided by Minimal Music, possible
links to other fields of art will be shown to complete the sophisticated picture of
Minimal Art and Minimal Music depicted in the preface.
The time factor
One of the most important prerequisites to reach the meditative effect is to dis-
sociate the temporal reference from the composition. The logical and strict time
structure is given up and replaced by an extreme lengthening of the tones. This
technique leads to a performance of nearly epic breadth and can be observed
especially in the works of La Monte Young and Steve Reich. The former used
to work with endless seaming tones and overtones until the 1990s. Reich, by
contrast, opts for phasing to give a meditative quality to his repetitive music,
but he moves away from the strict, Minimalist principle right at the beginning
of the 1970s. Young and Reich have one thing in common: both of them strive
to omit all subjective decisions while composing.1 Several Minimal Artists, too,
make use of the experience that a process works completely autonomously after
finishing its concept. This has also been shown by Sol LeWitt in his mathematical
logical works.
Another basic quality of the meditative effect is to do away with the classical
music form, i.e. to leave the unambiguous structures of the composition and
just concentrate on the tone hic et nunc.2 In a certain way Minimal Music fol-
lows the philosophical approach that the perception in the present has to be
58 MEDITATIVE EFFECT
times it is considered a commercial success, because only very few compositions
of modern music can record a similar success.
Philip Glass is another internationally renowned composer. He mostly owes his
success to his later artistic period during which he no longer applied the very
strict concept of Minimalism but worked particularly in the field of film music.
During his early period when applying the strict rules of Minimal Music to his
works he takes a stand towards the criticism that nothing was happening in his
music. Glass is conscious of the fact that, from a classical point of view, nothing
or nearly nothing seems to be happening. That is the reason why he calls on the
audience to turn away from the formal structure of a piece of music and to dedi-
cate themselves to the results of the gradual development of the composition
process.5 He also frees himself, as does La Monte Young, from the conventional
context of the concept of time. This can be observed in Music in Twelve Parts
(1971-1974) where repetitive elements as well as the whole length of the com-
position transmit this concept. Not only because of the performance length of
more than four hours but also because of being his last Minimalist composition
this is Glass’ most important work. In his following composition Another Look
At Harmony (1970-1975), Glass turns towards more harmony and a denser tech-
nique of composition. Tom Johnson tries to give another definition for Minimal
Music in his essay What is Minimalism really about (1977). In this article he gives
a description of the different tendencies of describing this kind of music and
makes an attempt to present music less dramatically. Contrary to other music
critics Johnson confines himself to describing in a neutral way the so-called Non-
Dramatic, the result of the lacking formal structure in a piece of music, just as an
It seems as if nothing happens
Minimal Music, often referred to as meditative music, is frequently confronted
with critical voices saying that nothing were happening, mainly if the repetitions
do not vary or the tones are sustained for quite a long time – qualities that are
characteristic of Young’s compositions. On the one hand the effect of this com-
positional technique can express a meditative feeling with reference to time, on
the other hand this incessant repetition of the elements creates a cloud of sound
that seems to completely possess the audience.
It has been criticised that this kind of music was long-winded, not expressive and
even nerve-racking.4 However, the composer Wim Mertens (born in Belgium in
1952) argues that Minimal Music neither wants to be expressive nor follows the
classical striving for the end of a piece of music. Nevertheless, exceptions can be
found within the row of Minimalist Composers. On the one hand these excep-
tions apply the technique of Minimalism but on the other hand they tend to use
a very expressive approach to music. The compositions of Henryk Mikolaj Górecki
(born in Poland in 1933) between the 1950s and 1960s are designed according to
the concept of seriality. At the end of the 1960s he turns towards the concepts
of simplification and reduction. Modal elements that are joined by simple triads,
though often interpreted as very naïve, enable Górecki to find an emotional
access to Minimalism. This feature is typical of his late compositions. It can be
said that Górecki opposes a lot of expressivity to the criticism that there was
nothing happening during the pieces of Minimal Music. Therefore his works are
sometimes referred to as the Holy Minimalism. His most famous composition of
this type is Symphony No. 3 (1976). Since it has been sold more than two million
60 MEDITATIVE EFFECT
the feeling of this kind of peace enables us to see that we can not have the
whole universe in our minds.10
Far away from American Minimalists some composers from Eastern Europe deal
with religious themes that are nearly always closely related to Christian motifs.
The Polish composer Górecki introduces religious traditions from his homeland
in his late works Old Polish Music (1969). This kind of music also occupies a cen-
tral role in his third symphony. The first movement is based on fragments of
folk music from the collection of the Polish father Wladyslaw Swietokrzyski. In
this song Mary begs the dying Christ to share his sorrow and pain with her. In
the next moment an 18-year-old girl carves a text into the wall of the cell in
the prison of Zakopane. Despite the few instruments that are applied and the
short length the piece lasts about eight minutes only, and the second movement
generates an oppressive atmosphere which alternates between hope and agony.
The piece ends with the lament of a mother that mourns over her son who died
during World War One. Arvo Pärt (born in Estonia in 1935) is another composer
from Eastern Europe who shows great interest in religiosity. He tries to elegantly
join reduction and repetition with transcendental experiences. There are sig-
nificant parallels to other Minimalist Artists and Composers who want to hide
their individuality as far as possible from their works. Pärt curbs his creativity to
come closer to the revelation of the cosmic secrets as a timeless and unchanging
reality.11
In the piece Für Aline (1976) he makes use of the ‘tintinnabuli style’, a new style
which was coined by himself. The name comes from Latin and means ‘little bell’.
One voice that moves by step and develops the principal melody is typical of this
important feature of Minimal Music.6
The spiritual background
In the early 1960s the Minimalists La Monte Young, Terry Riley and Steve Reich
composed a series of music that is considered an early form of meditative music
which shows a great range of spiritual qualities. The longest and most intense
treatment of the spiritual way of thinking can be found in Young’s composi-
tions. His strong relation to the Far Eastern culture and philosophy is reflected
already in the establishment of an office for meditation as well as in his interest
in the Japanese haiku. The simple overtone frequencies are very important in the
compositions of Young. During his studies with the Indian guru Pandit Pran Nath
which he started in 1970 he got conscious of the fact that these frequencies are
based on universal principles of the oscillations of the universe.7 His tutor also
showed him that minimal changes of the frequency can have a direct impact on
humans. Experimenting with this background knowledge he wants to mediate
a primarily spiritual experience, “If people just aren’t carried away to heaven,
I’m failing.”8
Minimal Art is led by similar ambitions but wants to reach its aims by other
means. The recipient should perceive his relation to the Minimalist object and
the present to finally become conscious of his own relation to the universe. Ac-
cording to Morris it is the function of the object to provoke this feeling of re-
spect.9
Carl Andre draws a good comparison to that by describing the peace that ema-
nates from places like Stonehenge or from Japanese gardens. According to him
62 MEDITATIVE EFFECT
1 Reich, Steve: Music as a Gradual Process (1968). In: Reich, Steve: Writings about
Music. New York 1974, p. 9.2 Danuser, Hermann: Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts. In: Neues Handbuch der
Musikwissenschaft, Vol. 7. Laaber 1984, p. 393.3 Krauss, Rosalinde: Sense and Sensibility. Reflections on Post ’60s Sculpture. In:
Artforum, Vol. 7, No. 3, November 1973, p. 51f.4 Lovisa, Fabian R.: minimal-music. Darmstadt 1996, p. 12.5 Mertens, Wim: American Minimal Music. La Monte Young. Terry Riley. Steve
Reich. Philip Glass. New York 1983, p. 79.6 Johnson, Tom: The Voice of New Music. New York City 1972-1982. A Collection of
articles originally published in The Village Voice. Eindhoven 1989, p. 296.7 Gligo, Nikša: Ich sprach mit La Monte Young und Marian Zazeela. In: Melos 40,
1973, p. 338.8 Kostelanetz, Richard: The Theatre of Mixed Means. New York 1968, p. 218.9 Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/
Basel 1995, p. 552.10 Serota, Nicholas: Carl Andre: Sculpture 1959-1978. London 1978, p. 19.11 Motte-Haber, Helga de la (ed.): Geschichte der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert: 1975-
2000. Laaber 2000, p. 269.
style. A texture of major or minor triads is then laid over this principal melody by
which the triads sound either more strongly or create a dissonance. Most of his
contents are based on religious texts. So he reproduces e.g. the whole St. John
Passion in this style and names the work Passio (1982).
In conclusion it shall be said that the meditative tendency of Minimal Music must
not be mixed up with the genre of Meditation Music, which strongly tends to be
popular music. Even if Philip Glass and Michael Nyman tend to compose popular
music in their late artistic periods the difference in the conceptual and composi-
tional approaches between Minimal Music and its counterparts in popular music
still exists.
64
66 LITERATURE
Heere, Heribert: Ad Reinhardt und die Tradition der Moderne. Frankfurt am
Main 1986.
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich: Werke. Vollständige Ausgabe durch den Verein
von Freunden des Verewigten, Vol. 10: Vorlesungen über die Aesthetik. Berlin
1842/43.
Johnson, Tom: The Voice of New Music. New York City 1972-1982. A Collection of
articles originally published in The Village Voice. Eindhoven 1989.
Karshan, Donald: After Malevich. Unpublished manuscript 1977.
Kostelanetz, Richard: The Theatre of Mixed Means. New York 1968.
Krauss, Rosalinde: Sense and Sensibility. Reflections on Post ’60s Sculpture. In:
Artforum, Vol. 7, No. 3, November 1973.
Linke, Ulrich: Minimal Music. Dimensionen eines Begriffs. Essen 1997.
Lippard, Lucy: 10 Structurists in 20 Paragraphs. In: Minimal Art, Kat. Haags Ge-
meentemuseum, Den Haag 1968. German translation by Birghild Wilke in: Mini-
mal Art, Kat. Städtische Kunsthalle Düsseldorf 1969.
Lippert, Werner: 1965. Fragmente einer Reise durch die Kunst. 1975. In: Kunst-
halle Bielefeld (ed.), Concept Art, Minimal Art, Arte Povera, Land Art. Marzona
Collection. Bielefeld 1990.
Adorno, Theodor W.: Philosophie der neuen Musik. Frankfurt am Main 1976.
Barth, John: A Few Words about Minimalism. In: New York Times Book Review,
Dezember 1986.
Danuser, Hermann: Die Musik des 20. Jahrhunderts. In: Neues Handbuch der Mu-
sikwissenschaft, Vol. 7. Laaber 1984.
Dibelius, Ulrich: Moderne Musik II 1965-1985. Munich 1988.
Fahres, Michael (ed.): European Minimal Music Project. Projektbericht. Utrecht
1982, unpublished.
Freud, Sigmund: Gesammelte Werke, Vol. 16. London 1950.
Gibson, Eric: Was Minimalist art a political movement? In: The New Criterion,
Vol. 5, No. 9, May 1987.
Glaser, Bruce: Questions to Stella and Judd. In: Art News, Vol. 65, No. 5, Septem-
ber 1966.
Gligo, Nikša: Ich sprach mit La Monte Young und Marian Zazeela. In: Melos 40,
1973.
Gomringer, Eugen (ed.): konkrete poesie. deutschsprachige autoren. Stuttgart
1972/1991.
68 LITERATURE
Schjeldahl, Peter: Minimalism. In: Art of Our Time: The Saatchi Collection, Vol. 1.
New York 1984.
Schnebel, Dieter: Denkbare Musik. Schriften 1952-1972. Cologne 1972.
Schoenberg, Arnold: Probleme des Kunstunterrichts. In: Musikalisches Taschen-
buch 1911, Vol. 2., Vienna 1911.
Schwarz, K. Robert: Minimalists. London 1996.
Serota, Nicholas: Carl Andre: Sculpture 1959-1978. London 1978.
Stemmrich, Gregor (ed.): Minimal Art. Eine kritische Retrospektive. Dresden/
Basel 1995.
Stolz, George: Clues from the Known: Sol LeWitt and Photography. In: Sol Le-
Witt: Fotografía. Madrid 2003.
Strickland, Edward: Minimalism: Origins. Bloomington 1993.
Tuchman, Phyllis: An Interview with Carl Andre. In: Artforum, June 1970.
Urmetzer, Reinhold: Abschied von der Kopfmusik. In: NZ 12/1984.
Lovisa, Fabian R.: minimal-music. Darmstadt 1996.
Mertens, Wim: American Minimal Music. La Monte Young. Terry Riley. Steve
Reich. Philip Glass. New York 1983.
Morris, Robert: Notes on Sculpture, Part 2. In: Artforum, Vol. 5, No. 2, October
1966.
Motte-Haber, Helga de la (ed.): Geschichte der Musik im 20. Jahrhundert: 1975-
2000. Laaber 2000.
Nagel, Wolfgang: Reine Leere. Minimalismus: Ein Jahrhundert der Reduktion
geht zu Ende. In: Spiegel Spezial 5/1997.
Rainer, Yvonne: A Quasi Survey of Some ’Minimalist’ Tendencies in the Quan-
titatively Minimal Dance Activity Midst the Plethora, or Analysis of Trio A. In:
Battcock 1968.
Reich, Steve: Music as a Gradual Process (1968). In: Reich, Steve: Writings about
Music. New York 1974.
Reich, Steve: Writings about Music. New York 1974.
Schaefer, John: New Sounds. A Listener’s Guide to New Music. New York 1987.
70 INDEX
Klein, Yves 19f
Korot, Beryl 18
Kosuth, Joseph 6
LeWitt, Sol 6, 13, 38f, 56
Ligeti, György 52
Malevich, Kasimir 14
Mangold, Robert 46
Marden, Brice 46
Martin, Agnes 46
Mertens, Wim 58
Morris, Robert 13, 31, 39, 47, 50ff, 60
Nath, Pandit Pran 17, 60
Nauman, Bruce 19, 41f
Nyman, Michael 14, 28, 37
Pärt, Arvo 61
Pawson, John 6
Rainer, Yvonne 7
Reggio, Godfrey 18
Reich, Steve 8, 14, 17f, 28ff, 50f, 56ff
Reinhardt, Ad 19
Riley, Terry 14, 17f, 60
Rodtschenko, Alexander 15
Satie, Erik 16f
Schnebel, Dieter 27
Schoenberg, Arnold 16f, 26, 31
Serra, Richard 19f, 48, 50, 57
Shankar, Ravi 18
Silvestrin, Claudio 6
Smith, Tony 49
Stella, Frank 18, 29, 46
Stone, Jeff 6
Tatlin, Vladimir 14
Warhol, Andy 7f
Young, La Monte 14. 17f, 20, 56ff
Adorno, Theodor W. 16, 26, 40
Andre, Carl 13, 31, 46, 48, 60
Andriessen, Louis 31
Baer, Jo 46
Barthelme, Donald 8
Barthelme, Frederick 8
Beattie, Ann 8
Brown, Trisha 7
Cage, John 17
Campion, Jane 28
Cardew, Cornelius 28
Carver, Raymond 8
Childs, Lucinda 7
Darbovens, Hanne 37
Debord, Guy-Ernest 7f
Desnos, Robert 8
Duchamp, Marcel 8, 15f
Feldman, Morton 29f, 57
Flavin, Dan 13, 27, 42
Forti, Simone 7
Freud, Sigmund 39f
Glass, Philip 14, 18f, 28, 59, 62
Goeyvaerts, Karel 28
Górecki, Henryk Mikolaj 58, 61
Graham, Dan 6
Greenaway, Peter 28
Gross, Kim Johnson 6
Grosskopf, Erhard 30
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich 40
Hesse, Eva 19, 41f
Huebler, Douglas 6
Johnson, Kim 6
Johnson, Tom 14, 37, 59
Judd, Donald 13, 19, 29, 41, 47f, 52
72
MINIMAL
Printed copies: 500 Units
Printed through: Fuchs Druck GmbH, Germany
English translation (2007): Andrea Schmidt, Julia Harrer, Anita Ertl
Music composed, arranged and produced by Christian Schrei.
Diploma thesis at the Institute of Information Design, University of Applied
Sciences Joanneum Graz, Austria. © 2005 Christian Schrei. All rights reserved.
Dedicated to Jörg Schlick. Thanks to Ao.Univ.Prof. Mag.phil. Dr.phil. Harald
Haslmayr, Ao.Univ.Prof. Mag.phil. Bernhard Lang, Ao.Univ.Prof. Mag.art Georg
Friedrich Haas and Christine Frisinghelli.