minib.plminib.pl/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/MINIB_32_2019_ang.pdf · Dear All, We present to You the 32nd issue of our periodical. The issue contains nine interesting articles discussing

Dear All,

We present to You the 32nd issue of our periodical. The issue contains nineinteresting articles discussing various areas of marketing of research and scientificinstitutions.

The article of Dr. Daniel Adrian Doss, Dr. Russ Henley, Qiuqi Hong, MBA, andTrey Pickett, MBA examined a variant of the Capability Maturity Model integratedthrough the lens of advertising process improvement.

The article written by Helena Rachwał, M.A. puts forward the thesis that outdooradvertising is an important element that enriches college recruitment campaigns if itmeets certain conditions. The basic factors determining the effectiveness of outdoor is theconciseness and simplicity of the message, the creation taking into account the propercharacter of the advertisement and referring to the emotions of the recipient, thecomposition based on the appropriate arrangement of elements, intriguing advertisingtext forcing the recipient to think, integrate outdoor communication with the internettransmission and the correct location of the advertising medium.

The goal of Marzena Feldy PhD. article is highlighting the aspects of work whichmake it possible to young scientists to achieve satisfaction from professional sphere of lifeand thus could prevent their outflow from the sector of science.

Marketing for research and science-based organizations is complex and not wellunderstood; especially by the research, scientific, and technical communities. The paperby Prof. William Bradley Zehner II and Jacquelyn Anne Zehner presents a conceptualframework for scientists in research and science-based organizations to think about theirorganization's marketing and sales functions, and related processes.

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MINIB, 2019, Vol. 32, Issue 2, p. I–VII

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The aim of the article by Piotr Mikosik PhD is to present the methodology of buildingan organization strategy which the author has been working on for 8 years. Althoughthe article is based on the case study of the Academy of Fine Arts (ASP) in Łódź, in whichthe author conducted a series of strategic sessions, the methodology itself is universaland can be successfully applied both in enterprises, non-profit organizations and offices.

The article written by Professor Agnieszka Izabela Baruk aims to achieve the goal,which is to identify associations of young potential employees with the university as aworkplace and indicate the changes taking place in them. In order to achieve this goal,three editions of empirical research were conducted, using the survey method to collectprimary data.

An essential role in the constant overcoming of barriers as well as in the developmentof cooperation on the line "sciencebusiness" is played by proper marketingcommunication carried out by scientific units, being the party initiating thecommercialization processes. The aim of the article by Sławomir Milczarek, PhD. andPhD. hab. Eng. Magdalena Grębosz-Krawczyk, Professor of Łódź University ofTechnology is to evaluate selected aspects of marketing communication carried out byscientific units during cooperation with small and medium enterprises (SMEs)representing the smart specializations of the Lodz region.

The main objective of research conducted in the article of Markun Hanjaya, S.T.Kenny. S. Kom., Freddy Gunawan, S.S., S.E. is to distinguish the significant influenceof ease of use, usefulness, system quality, information quality, and service qualitytowards consumer's behaviour in having online purchase intention via mobile app inIndonesia and Singapore.

The article by Professor Agnieszka Izabela Baruk and Anna Goliszek, Phd has thetheoretical-empirical character. Identifying the internal structure of reasons of lack ofPolish youngpotential employees' interest in universities as employers was the main goalof this paper.

I invite you to read the articles and encourage you to submit articles presenting theresults of own research.

I wish You a pleasant reading,Aneta Olejniczak

Łukasiewicz Research Network — Institute of Aviation

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TABLE OF CONTENTSFrom the Editor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I

Scientific Council . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V

Editorial Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VI

Investigating Process Maturity Modeling as an Advertising Process Improvement Paradigm 1Badanie modelu dojrzałości procesu jako paradygmatu doskonalenia procesu reklamowegoDr. Daniel Adrian Doss, Dr. Russ Henley, Qiuqi Hong, MBA, Trey Pickett, MBA

Outdoor advertising as an element strengthening the recruitment campaigns of tertiare education institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Reklama zewnętrzna jako element wzmacniający kampanie rekrutacyjne szkół wyższychHelena Rachwał, PhD Student

How can we attract and keep young talents in the science sector? Work satisfaction and the inclination to change your workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51Jak pozyskać i zatrzymać młode talenty w sektorze nauki? Satysfakcja z pracy a skłonność do zmiany miejsca zatrudnieniaMarzena Feldy, PhD

Marketing for Science Based Organizations — Perspectives and Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77Marketing dla organizacji naukowych — perspektywy i pytaniaProfessor William Bradley Zehner II, Jacquelyn Anne Zehner

Building a strategy for the development of a university using the methodology of strategicsessions on the example of the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107Budowa strategii rozwoju uczelni wyższej z wykorzystaniem metodyki sesji strategicznych na przykładzie Akademii Sztuk Pięknych w ŁodziPiotr Mikosik, PhD

Associations with the university as an employer in the years 2016–2019 — young potentialemployees perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131Skojarzenia z uczelnią jako pracodawcą w latach 2016–2019 — perspektywa młodych potencjalnych pracownikówProfessor Agnieszka Izabela Baruk

Evaluation of the marketing communication of scientific units in the context of cooperation with the sector of small and medium enterprises in Lodz region . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Ocena komunikacji marketingowej jednostek naukowych w kontekście współpracy z sektorem małych i średnich przedsiębiorstw w regionie łódzkimSławomir Milczarek, PhD, PhD hab. Eng Magdalena Grębosz-Krawczyk

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Understanding Factors Influencing Consumers Online Purchase Intention via Mobile App: Perceived Ease of Use, Perceived Usefulness, System Quality, Information Quality, and Service Quality . . . 175Zrozumienie czynników wpływających na intencje zakupowe konsumentów w Internecie zapośrednictwem aplikacji mobilnej: Postrzegana łatwość użytkowania, postrzegana użyteczność, jakość systemu, jakość informacji oraz jakość usługMarkun Hanjaya, S.T., Kenny, S.Kom., Freddy Gunawan, S.S., S.E.

The reasons of lack of polish young potential employees' interest in universities as employers in the context of perception of people working in these organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207Przyczyny braku zainteresowania polskich młodych potencjalnych pracowników uczelniami jako pracodawcami w kontekście postrzegania osób pracujących w tych organizacjachProfessor Agnieszka Izabela Baruk, Anna Goliszek, PhD

Publication rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIII

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Scientific CouncilPPrrooff.. BBooggddaann SSoojjkkiinn,, Poznań University of Economics, Poland —— CChhaaiirrmmaann ooff tthhee SScciieennttiiffiicc CCoouunncciill

PPrrooff.. GGeeoorrggee JJ.. AAvvlloonniittiiss,, Athens University of Economics and Business, GreecePPrrooff.. AAggnniieesszzkkaa IIzzaabbeellaa BBaarruukk,, Lodz University of Technology, PolandPPrrooff.. GGiiaanniittaa BBlleeoojjuu,, Universitatea Dunarea de Jos Galati, RomaniaPPrrooff.. HHoorrsstt BBrreezziinnsskkii,, Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg, GermanyPPrrooff.. JJooaannnnaa CCyygglleerr,, Warsaw School of Economics, PolandAAnnnnaa DDrraappiińńsskkaa,, PPhhDD,, Gdańsk University of Technology, PolandPPrrooff.. JJaarroossllaavv DDvvoorraakk,, Klaipeda University, LithuaniaPPrrooff.. EEggoonn FFrraanncckk,, University of Zurich, SwitzerlandMMaarrcciinn GGęębbaarroowwsskkii,, PPhhDD,, Cracow University of Economics, PolandPPrrooff.. EElliinnaa GGaaiillee--SSaarrkkaannee,, Riga Technical University, LatviaPPrrooff.. BBooggddaann GGrreeggoorr,, University of Lodz, PolandPPrrooff.. EElleennaa GGuurrgguu,, Spiru Haret University of Bucharest, RomaniaPPrrooff.. HHååkkaann HHååkkaannssssoonn,, Norwegian Business School in Oslo, NorwayJJaaddrraannkkaa JJeezzeerrššeekk TTuurrnneess,, PPhhDD..,, Kontekst, SloweniaAAnniittaa KKoollnnhhooffeerr--DDeerreeccsskkeeii,, PPhhDD..,, Óbuda University, HungaryPPrrooff.. LLeeaa KKuubbíícckkoovváá,, Mendel University in Brno, Czech RepublicPPrrooff.. SSuussaannaa LLaappoorrsseekk,, University of Primorska, SloveniaPPrrooff.. JJuuaann GGaarrcciiaa MMaacchhaaddoo,, Univesity of Huelva, SpainPPrrooff.. VVaannddaa MMaarraakkoovvaa,, Matej Bel University of Banská Bystrica, SlovakiaPPrrooff.. BBoobbaann MMeelloovviićć,, University of Montenegro, MontenegroPPrrooff.. PPeettrraa MMoorrsscchhhheeuusseerr,, Baden-Wuerttemberg Cooperative State University, GermanyPPrrooff.. ÐÐuurrððaannaa OOzzrreettiićć DDooššeenn,, University of Zagreb, CroatiaPPrrooff.. MMiirroossłłaawwaa PPlluuttaa--OOlleeaarrnniikk,, Wrocław University of Economics, PolandPPrrooff.. JJooeerrnn RReeddlleerr,, Mainz University of Applied Sciences, GermanyMMaarriiaa RRyybbaacczzeewwsskkaa,, PPhh..DD.. EEnngg..,, Stirling University, UKPPrrooff.. EEddggaarr JJuuaann SSaauucceeddoo AAccoossttaa,, University of Veracruz, MexicoPPrrooff.. HHaannnnaa SShhvviinnddiinnaa,, Sumy State University, UkrainePPrrooff.. MMaarriinnaa SSoolleessvviikk,, Nord University, NorwayPPrrooff.. AAnnddrreeaa SSuujjoovvaa,, Technical University in Zvolen, SlovakiaPPrrooff.. DDiinnddaayyaall SSwwaaiinn,, International Management Institute, IndiaPPrrooff.. RRoommaann ŠŠppeerrkkaa,, Silesian University in Opava, Czech RepublicPPrrooff.. RRiicchhaarrdd SSzzaannttoo,, Corvinus University of Budapest, HungaryPPrrooff.. LLiibbeennaa TTeettrreevvoovvaa,, PPhhDD.. EEnngg..,, University of Pardubice, Czech RepublicPPrrooff.. DDaarriiuusszz TTrrzzmmiieellaakk,, University of Lodz, PolandDDaarriiuusszz TTwwoorrzzyyddłłoo,, SScc..DD..,, Warsaw University, PolandPPrrooff.. NNeevveenn VVrrcceekk,, University of Zagreb, CroatiaPPrrooff.. JJoolliittaa VVvveeiinnhhaarrddtt,, Vytautas Magnus University, LithuaniaPPrrooff.. HHaabbttee GG.. WWoolldduu,, The University of Texas at Dallas, USAPPrrooff.. WWiilllliiaamm BBrraaddlleeyy ZZeehhnneerr IIII,, University of Texas at Austin, USA

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Editorial Board

EEddiittoorr--iinn--CChhiieeff

Witold Wiśniowski, Ph.D. Eng.

EEddiittoorriiaall BBooaarrdd

Beata Kozyra, Poznan University College of Business, Poland — Statistical EditorWojciech Łukowski — Theme EditorAneta Olejniczak, Łukasiewicz Research Network — Institute of Aviation, Poland Joanna Pieniążek, Łukasiewicz Research Network — Institute of Aviation, Poland — Assistant Editor,Certified Editor and Proofreader of the Polish LanguageCarl Chandra, Goldsmiths, University of London, UK — Native Speaker of English LanguageSimone Hinrichsen, South Africa — Native Speaker of English LanguageAnne Johnson, Canada — Native Speaker of English LanguageDominika Palmowska, Alias DP, Poland — English Language Philologist, and TranslatorAnna Łyczewska, Primary School No. 38 in Lublin, Poland — Polish Language PhilologistIwona Tkacz, High School No. XCIX in Warsaw, Poland — Polish Language PhilologistRadosław Suchożebrski, Łukasiewicz Research Network — Institute of Aviation, Poland — Graphic DesignerKatarzyna Wrona, Łukasiewicz Research Network — Institute of Aviation, Poland — GraphicDesigner, Online EditorAnna Surzycka-Kucharczuk, Koncept, Poland — Typesetting

AAssssoocciiaattee EEddiittoorrss

Sascha Alavi, Ruhr-University of Bochum, GermanyDacha Atienza, Museu de Ciencies Naturals de Barcelona, SpainFrançois Carrillat, University of Technology, Sydney, AustraliaKimmy Chan, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong KongCarl Chandra, Goldsmiths, University of London, UKDan Dobra, Incas S.A.- National Institute for Aerospace Research, RomaniaYogesh Kumar Dwivedi, Swansea University, UKCarlos Herrera, Universidad de Antofagasta Asistencia Tecnica, ChileMichael Jones, Southeastern Louisiana University, USAFrancisco Martínez-López, University of Granada, SpainJuan Manuel del Nido, The University of Manchester, UKLeonard Ulmeanu-Angelescu, Incas S.A.- National Institute for Aerospace Research, RumuniaAviv Shoham, University of Haifa, IsraelAna Alina Tudoran, Aarhus University, DenmarkWalter Wymer, University of Lethbridge, Canada

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INVESTIGATING PROCESS MATURITY MODELING AS AN ADVERTISING

PROCESS IMPROVEMENT PARADIGM

Open Access

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MINIB, 2019, Vol. 32, Issue 2, p. 1–26

INVESTIGATING PROCESS MATURITY MODELING AS AN ADVERTISING PROCESS IMPROVEMENT PARADIGM

Dr. Daniel Adrian DossUniversity of West Alabama, [email protected] Dr. Russ Henley University of West Alabama, [email protected] Qiuqi Hong, MBA Guangzhou College of Technology and Business, International Educational College, Guangdzu,Guangdong, [email protected] Pickett, MBAUniversity of West Alabama, [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/minib-2019-0028

This article examined a variant of the Capability Maturity Model integrated (CMMi) through the lens of advertisingprocess improvement. The population and sample were taken from a national array of U.S. marketing organizations.Using ANOVA, a 0.05 significance level, and a stratification of service marketing organizations versus product marketing

organizations, the study showed a statistically significant difference (F(1, 304) = 4.03; p = 0.04; ω2 = 0.00) regarding

the hypothesis representing the notion that processes were potentially sporadic, chaotic, and ad hoc. This notioncorresponded to the first maturity level of the examined process maturity framework. With respect to the Likert-scale datarepresenting the first maturity level, the successive means analysis showed that both service marketing firms (M = 2.99)and product marketing firms (M = 2.74) reported neutrality regarding whether processes were deemed sporadic,chaotic, and ad hoc. Thus, the respondents perceived no evidence of the first maturity level among the queried worksettings. Future studies may examine different stratifications of marketing firms (e.g., for-profit versus non-profit;domestic versus international; and so on) to better explore the proposed advertising maturity model.

Summary

Keywords: capability maturity model, CMM, maturity model, process improvement, process maturity,quality management

Introduction

Bagad (2008) indicated that marketing was a process whereby goodstransited from being concepts to their eventual consumption amongmarkets as a means of satisfying human needs and wants. Bagad (2008, p.410) also indicated that marketing was defined as, "the process of planningand executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and distribution of ideas,goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual andorganizational objectives." Successfully implementing marketing processesand activities involves some aspects of advertising in order to presentmessages among audiences (Stewart & Gugel, 2016). Advertising is a subsetof marketing that involves processes whereby messages and concepts areconveyed to audiences (Moriarity, et al., 2012). Although processes existwhereby marketing and advertising activities occur, no guarantees existthat the implemented processes are mature, optimized, or efficient (Pickett,2016).

Management science includes resource optimization methods (Du,2012). By studying methods to improve the processes of an organization,executives and leaders can generate enhancements of effectiveness andefficiency (Kennett & Baker, 2010). Without process improvement,organizations will execute processes without knowing how well they areperforming or how they could improve their processes (Pickett, 2016). Toimplement processes improvement within an organizations, administratorsand leaders need to examine a plethora of models and controls to manage,compare, examine, improve, and regulate the performance of theircompany's individual operations (Pickett, 2016). Without performanceevaluation of processes, a company's progression moving forward will behighly unlikely (Pickett, 2016). In the advertising field, the ideas ofperformance evaluation and process are keys to achieving the goal ofadvertising: maximizing awareness of the information that is advertised toa group of individuals (Lavidge & Steiner, 1961). If advertising agencies arenot performing well, their clients have less chance of producing higherrevenues and improving their company's image (Pickett, 2016).

Organizations must implement effective management models andprocesses to successfully provide the best opportunity for success from theiremployees, who in return will effectively contribute to meeting the external

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expectations (Pickett, 2016). Management within these organizations mustconsider a wide variety of measurement instruments and methods forevaluating advertising processes and determining which decisions to maketo better pursue future endeavors (Pickett, 2016). Examples of suchparadigms have included the Defining Advertising Goals for MeasuredAdvertising Results model (Colley, 1984), the Foote, Cone, & Beldingstrategy matrix (Vaughn, 1980), the evaluation methods of benchmarkingfor process improvement in relation to goals and standards, (Broderick,Garry, & Beasley, 2010), an adaptive Total Quality Management model forfacilitation of services (Ghosh & Ling, 1994), the Six-sigma method offunction improvement (Drake, Sutterfield, & Ngassam, 2008), andrestructuring of advertising processes through business processreengineering (Teng, Grover, & Fiedler, 1994).

The reviewed literature showed that the process evaluation methodsprovided ample opportunities for advertising agencies to examine theirstrategies and process, but their approaches did not incorporate processmaturity as foundational premises. Despite numerous discussions oftraditional quality approaches, the reviewed marketing and advertisingliterature showed an absence of any progressive, maturity-based paradigmfor the improving of advertising processes. However, within the softwareand management science bodies of literature, the concept of processmaturity modeling existed as a method of sequentially improving processesthrough time (Carcary, 2013). Given these notions, this study examined thepotential of adapting process maturity modeling as an advertising processimprovement paradigm.

Framework

The framework for this research was derived from the integratedCapability Maturity Model (CMMi). During the 1980s, the SoftwareEngineering Institute (SEI) was established at Carnegie Mellon Universityto help further research and understand how administrative processeswithin organizations were matured and improved over time (Carcary,2013). Through research, the SEI studied a management perspective ofhow companies analyzed their respective administrative processes to

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determine their progress through time. The software Capability MaturityModel (CMM) resulted from the SEI's research initiatives, and waspublished in 1991 (Paulk, 2009).

Later, another framework, deemed the Capability Maturity Modelintegrated (CMMi), emerged as a successor to the initial CMM (Mutafelija& Stromberg, 2009). The CMMi addressed primary areas involving thedeveloping of services and products, establishing and managing services,and product and service acquisition (Mutafelija & Stromberg, 2009). TheCMMi emphasized five progressive, sequential levels of process maturitythat ranged from an immature state exhibiting ad hoc, random processes toa mature state that reflected high levels of efficiency and optimization(Chaudhary & Chopra, 2016). A brief description of each of the five levelsof the primary maturity model framework are listed below (Chaudhary &Chopra, 2016):

Level 1: processes are potentially sporadic, chaotic, and ad hocLevel 2: processes are reoccurring and reactiveLevel 3: processes are characterized and expressedLevel 4: processes are measured, contained, and investigated quantitativelyLevel 5: processes are optimized

Overall, the sequential levels of the CMMi provide administrators andleaders of an organization with a process maturity framework for theprogressive maturing and improving of processes. The processimprovement paradigm offers a method of improving administrativeprocesses from the original state of chaos to culminate in a final, optimizedstate (Pickett, 2016). The basic architecture and framework of thematurity model concept have shown the potential of adaptability acrossmultiple domains (Cukier & Kon, 2018). Process maturity modeling may beused as a form of process improvement among businesses andorganizations (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004).

Process improvement is important because it provides a mechanismthrough which organizations may generate betterment for existingprocesses as well as provide opportunities for generating new processesthat may be more direct, streamlined, or less wasteful. In other words,organizations may optimize processes or craft processes toward

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enhanced quality or for satisfying any new benchmarks or standards.Examples of process improvement benefits included greaterpredictability of schedules and budgets; enhanced cycle times; improvedproductivity and quality; better customer satisfaction; improved moraleof personnel; and improved financial returns (Demir, & Kocabas, 2010).Slaughter, Harter, and Krishnan (1998) also cited cost savings as anorganizational benefit.

Historical adaptation of maturity model derivatives contributed towardsimilar enhancements among a variety of organizations. Since itsestablishment, a variety of derivative maturity model constructs werederived from the basic maturity model framework. Examples of derivativeforms of the basic maturity model framework included projectmanagement (Crawford, 2014; Kwak & Ibbs, 2002), industrial settings(Doss, 2004), safety (Bahr, 2014), logistics (Battista, & Massimiliano,2013), information technology (Kyoo-Sung & Park, 2013), innovationprocesses (Corsi & Neau, 2015), software (Cukier & Kon, 2018), people(Wademan, Spuches, & Doughty, 2008), teams (Friedrich, 2017),industrial management (Doss, et al., 2017), cyber security (Vacca, 2013),human capital (Curtis, Hefley, & Miller, 2010), software quality(Daughtrey, 2002), criminal justice (Doss, 2014), information security(Shah & Yeoh, 2018), project risk (Hopkinson, 2017), environmentalmanagement (Doss, et al., 2017), innovation (Esterhuizen, et al., 2012),safety (Foster & Hoult, 2013), education (Duarte & Martins, 2013),finance (Doss, Chen, & Holland, 2008), business processes (Fisher, 2004),supply chains (Lockamy & McCormack, 2004); and marketing andadvertising (Pickett, 2016).

The reviewed literature showed an array of process maturity frameworkvariants among numerous disciplines, including the marketing andadvertising domain. Although Pickett (2016) proposed and investigated anadvertising process maturity model, its underlying CMMi construct was notshown to be completely portable to the realm of marketing and advertisingprocesses. Pickett (2016) explored the advertising maturity model usingstratifications of marketing and advertising organizations that enactedsome form of previous quality initiative versus those entities that lackedsuch an initiative; marketing organizations that had a currentimprovement initiative versus those that lacked a current improvement

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initiative; and urban versus rural marketing organizations. Despite a trioof views of the proposed advertising maturity model, Pickett (2016) lackedany consideration of the stratification involving the perceptions ofpersonnel among service marketing firms versus product marketing firms.Because of this shortcoming, this study examined the potential of CMMiportability within the context of advertising processes via the lens ofpersonnel perceptions gleaned from service marketing and productmarketing organizations.

Research Questions and Hypotheses

The primary research question for this study was as follows: Can thematurity framework of the Capability Maturity Model integrated beadapted to create a process improvement maturity model for advertisingprocesses? For this study, six hypotheses were developed to examine theCMMi construct and its individual maturity levels. The hypothesisstatements for this study were as follows:

H0,1: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the overall CMMi frameworkexists among administrative marketing processes.

H0,2: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the first maturity level existsamong administrative marketing processes.

H0,3: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the second maturity level existsamong administrative marketing processes.

H0,4: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the third maturity level existsamong administrative marketing processes.

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H0,5: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the fourth maturity level existsamong administrative marketing processes.

H0,6: No difference exists between the personnel perceptions of servicemarketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the fifth maturity level existsamong administrative marketing processes.

The potential of bias to affect the study was considered from theperspective of geographic distribution of surveys. The Chi-Square methodwas used to investigate the potential of bias. The corresponding nullhypothesis for investigating the distribution of disseminated surveys versusthe distribution of returned surveys was as follows:

H0,7: No difference exists between the distribution of disseminated surveysversus the distribution of returned surveys.

Design and Methodology

The design and methodology consisted of a national study thatexamined the potential of adapting the CMMi as a process improvementparadigm within the context of advertising processes. A Likert-scale surveywas developed for conducting a cross-sectional study via a survey approach.Within this study, Likert-sale values were as follows: 1 represented'strongly disagree,' 2 represented 'disagree,' 3 represented 'indifference,' 4represented 'agree,' and 5 represented 'strongly agree.' Question scales wereused to aggregate and investigate responses reflecting the overall maturityframework and each maturity level of the framework. Survey items 1through 5 examined the overall CMMi framework, items 6 through 8examined CMMi level one, questions 9 and 10 examined level two, items11through 13 examined level three, items 14 through 16 examined level four,and items 17 through 19 examined level five. Table 1 shows specific inquiryareas for each survey question.

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Table 1. Survey Inquiries

Question Notion Scale Item Queried

1 Advertising processes are ad hoc, chaotic, or random Overall Framework2 Advertising processes are managed Overall Framework3 Advertising processes are defined/specific Overall Framework4 Advertising processes are quantitatively managed Overall Framework5 Advertising processes are optimized Overall Framework6 Advertising processes are unpredictable Level 17 Advertising processes are reactive Level 18 Advertising processes are uncoordinated Level 19 Advertising processes are planned Level 2

10 Advertising processes are controlled Level 211 Advertising processes are well-defined Level 312 Advertising processes are consistent Level 313 Advertising processes are followed Level 314 Advertising processes involve quantitative objectives Level 415 Advertising processes are analyzed numerically Level 416 Advertising processes involve statistical analysis Level 417 Advertising processes are improved incrementally Level 518 Advertising processes are efficient Level 519 Advertising processes are effective Level 5

An analysis of the means occurred to determine whether responsesshowed overall agreement, neutrality, or disagreement with thepresented notions. Ranges used to judge response directionality were asfollows:

A mean less than 2.5 yielded an overall view of disagreementA mean between 2.5 and 3.5 yielded an overall view of neutrality A mean larger than 3.5 yielded an overall view of agreement

A population of 115 advertising organizations was obtained from anational data research firm. These firms represented entities whosemarketing activities encompassed a national scope. Geographically, therespondents were located within the United States. Data collection

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occurred through the use of an online survey accessible via the Internet.The respondent organizations were classified as ether dominantlyservices or product marketing entities. Respondents self-reported theirrespective categories.

Regarding a 95% confidence level and a 5% margin of error, thesample size calculation revealed that a mandatory quantity of 86responses was necessary for ensuring representativeness. Respondentswere identified as individuals who crafted or influenced process design orthose who had some involvement with process implementation.Essentially, respondents represented personnel who possessed someexperience or knowledge of organizational processes. The survey did notidentify specific individuals to collect data. Instead, surveys weredisseminated to respondents via position titles (e.g., marketing director,marketing analyst, and so on).

The analytical methods used for data analysis in this researchincluded the analysis of variance (ANOVA) method for examiningrespondent group differences, the Cronbach method for examiningreliability, the Omega-Square method for examining effect size, the Chi-Square method for examining response bias potential, and descriptivestatistics. The ANOVA method was used to examine the stratification ofproduct marketing versus service marketing organizations with respectto a 0.05 significance level and p-value testing. Thus, the independentvariable consisted of organizational type (service or product) whereas thedependent variable represented process maturity perception.

A myriad of processes exists among organizations, ranging from thehuman resources processes (e.g., hiring, training, retaining, and firing ofindividuals) to processes associated with acquisitions (e.g., leasing,purchasing, and so on). Given the plethora of processes that permeateorganizational settings, this study was constrained to examiningperceptions of administrative processes that affected advertisingoperations among the queried work settings.

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Findings

After three survey iterations, a total of 103 usable survey responses wasobtained from the queried organizations thereby surpassing the mandatorysample size of 86 responses. Thus, some amount of representativenessexisted within the study. Approximately 68.6% of the respondents indicatedexistence as a service advertising firm whereas 31.4% indicated a productadvertising entity.

Regarding bias potential, the Chi-Squared analysis outcome showedsignificance, χ2(1, N = 115) = 0,00, p < 0,05. Thus, the potential of biaswithin the study cannot be discounted. Bias potential was examined withrespect to geographic survey distribution. Overall, the Cronbach's alphavalue was 0.851 thereby signifying high reliability.

Table 2. Survey Response Percentages

Question TopicStrongly

Disagree Neutrality AgreeStrongly

Disagree Agree

1 CMMi Level 1 10.7% 25.2% 34.0% 24.3% 5.8%2 CMMi Level 2 3.9% 9.7% 35.9% 38.8% 11.7%3 CMMi Level 3 4.9% 15.5% 31.1% 36.9% 11.7%4 CMMi Level 4 4.9% 17.5% 35.0% 35.9% 6.8%5 CMMi Level 5 8.7% 20.4% 37.9% 28.2% 4.9%6 CMMi Level 1 10.7% 28.2% 28.2% 30.1% 2.9%7 CMMi Level 1 1.9% 15.5% 40.8% 35.0% 6.8%8 CMMi Level 1 13.6% 35.0% 33.0% 16.5% 1.9%9 CMMi Level 2 1.9% 9.7% 32.0% 41.7% 14.6%

10 CMMi Level 2 1.9% 9.7% 31.1% 42.7% 14.6%11 CMMi Level 3 3.9% 13.6% 44.7% 30.1% 7.8%12 CMMi Level 3 3.9% 28.2% 32.0% 28.2% 7.8%13 CMMi Level 3 1.9% 15.5% 43.7% 30.1% 8.7%14 CMMi Level 4 3.9% 13.6% 35.0% 36.9% 10.7%15 CMMi Level 4 7.8% 19.4% 40.8% 24.3% 7.8%16 CMMi Level 4 5.8% 15.5% 35.0% 35.9% 7.8%17 CMMi Level 5 2.9% 13.6% 51.5% 27.2% 4.9%18 CMMi Level 5 5.8% 17.5% 48.5% 25.2% 2.9%19 CMMi Level 5 1.9% 12.6% 49.5% 32.0% 3.9%

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Table 2 shows the distribution of individual question responses foreach respective CMMi process maturity levels, process managementcharacteristics, policy characteristics, process training characteristics,and organizational management characteristics.

Means Analyses

Regarding individual questions, respondents indicated neutralityregarding survey items 1 through 8 and neutrality regarding surveyitems 11 through 19. Agreement was shown regarding items 9 and 10.Question 9 queried whether respondents perceived that workplaceadvertising processes were planned. Question 10 queried whetherrespondents perceived that workplace advertising processes werecontrolled. Table 3 shows the corresponding descriptive statistics(measures of central tendency and dispersion) for responses to thesurvey questions.

Table 3. Survey Descriptive Statistics

Question Topic Mean Median Mode SD Variance

1 CMMi Level 1 2.89 3 3 1.07 1.162 CMMi Level 2 3.45 4 4 0.96 0.923 CMMi Level 3 3.35 3 4 1.04 1.074 CMMi Level 4 3.22 3 4 0.98 0.965 CMMi Level 5 3.00 3 3 1.02 1.046 CMMi Level 1 2.86 3 4 1.06 1.127 CMMi Level 1 3.29 3 3 0.88 0.788 CMMi Level 1 2.58 3 2 0.99 0.979 CMMi Level 2 3.57 4 4 0.92 0.85

10 CMMi Level 2 3.58 4 4 0.92 0.8511 CMMi Level 3 3.25 3 3 0.90 0.8212 CMMi Level 3 3.08 3 3 1.02 1.0313 CMMi Level 3 3.28 3 3 0.90 0.81

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Cont. table 3

Question Topic Mean Median Mode SD Variance

14 CMMi Level 4 3.36 3 4 0.98 0.9615 CMMi Level 4 3.05 3 3 1.03 1.0716 CMMi Level 4 3.24 3 4 1.00 1.0117 CMMi Level 5 3.17 3 3 0.83 0.6918 CMMi Level 5 3.02 3 3 0.89 0.7819 CMMi Level 5 3.23 3 3 0.79 0.63

Service Marketing Organizational Means

Regarding the examined scales, service marketing organizationsindicated neutrality of perceptions for scales 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. Agreementwas shown regarding only scale 3. In other words, service organizationrespondents showed neutrality regarding perceived evidence of the first,third, fourth, and fifth maturity levels. Service organization respondentsshowed agreement regarding perceived evidence of the second maturitylevel. Table 4 shows descriptive statistics for the question scalescorresponding to service marketing organizations.

Table 4. Service Marketing Organization Scale Statistics

Scale Entity Mean Median Mode Standard Deviation Variance

1 Service 3.17 3.00 3.00 0.99 0.982 Service 2.99 3.00 3.00 1.01 1.023 Service 3.53 4.00 4.00 0.93 0.874 Service 3.14 3.00 3.00 0.90 0.815 Service 3.14 3.00 3.00 0.93 0.876 Service 3.11 3.00 3.00 0.77 0.60

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Product Marketing Organizational Means

Regarding the examined scales, product marketing organizationsindicated neutrality of perceptions for scales 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6. Agreementwas shown regarding only scale 3. In other words, product organizationrespondents showed neutrality regarding perceived evidence of the first,third, fourth, and fifth maturity levels. Product organization respondentsshowed agreement regarding perceived evidence of the second maturitylevel. Table 5 shows descriptive statistics for the questions scalescorresponding to product marketing organizations.

Table 5. Product Marketing Organization Scale Statistics


1 Product 3.18 4.00 3.00 1.12 1.262 Product 2.74 3.00 2.00 1.02 1.043 Product 3.67 4.00 4.00 0.91 0.834 Product 3.34 3.00 3.00 1.02 1.055 Product 3.35 3.00 4.00 1.16 1.356 Product 3.22 3.00 3.00 0.98 0.95

Cumulative Organizational Means

Regarding the examined scales, both service and product marketingorganizations indicated neutrality of perceptions for scales 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6.Agreement was shown regarding only scale 3. In other words, both serviceand product organization respondents showed neutrality regardingperceived evidence of the first, third, fourth, and fifth maturity levels. Bothservice and product organization respondents showed agreement regardingperceived evidence of the second maturity level. Table 6 shows descriptivestatistics for the overall question scale incorporating both service andproduct marketing organizations cumulatively.

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Table 6. Cumulative Organization Scale Statistics


1 Cumulative 3.17 3.00 3.00 1.04 1.082 Cumulative 2.91 3.00 3.00 1.02 1.043 Cumulative 3.57 4.00 4.00 0.93 0.864 Cumulative 3.21 3.00 3.00 0.94 0.895 Cumulative 3.20 3.00 3.00 1.01 1.026 Cumulative 3.15 3.00 3.00 0.84 0.71

Hypothesis Testing Findings

Hypothesis testing occurred through the use of ANOVA and p-value methodsincorporating a 0.05 significance level. Only one of the six tested hypothesesshowed statistical significance. The statistically significant outcome representedthe second hypothesis. It stated that no difference existed between the personnelperceptions of service marketing organizations versus product marketingorganizations regarding the notion that evidence of the first maturity levelexisted among administrative marketing processes. Table 7 shows each of thehypothesis testing outcomes.

Table 7. Hypothesis Testing Outcomes

Hypothesis Item p-value

H0,1 Overall Framework 0.96

H0,2 Maturity Level 1 0.04*

H0,3 Maturity Level 2 0.30




Note: significance level = 0.05

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Findings of the First Hypothesis

The first hypothesis, H0,1, examined perceptions of the overall maturityframework. The hypothesis testing revealed no statistically significantdifference between the perceptions of personnel representing servicemarketing and product marketing organizations. Thus, the nullhypothesis was retained. Essentially, no difference was perceived to existbetween the personnel opinions of service marketing organizations versusproduct marketing organizations regarding the notion that evidence of theoverall CMMi framework existed among administrative marketingprocesses. With respect to this notion, analyses of the means showed thatservice marketing organizations tended toward neutrality (M = 3.17),product marketing organizations tended toward neutrality (M = 3.18),and that the cumulative directionality was neutrality (M = 3.17). Givenneutrality reported by both factions, the means analyses showed thatrespondents failed to perceive evidence of the overall maturity modelconstruct.

Findings of the Second Hypothesis

The second hypothesis, H0,2, examined perceptions of the first maturitylevel. Regarding H0,2, the hypothesis testing showed a significant effect oforganizational type (service or product entity) on process maturityperception at the p < 0.05 level for the two examined conditions of servicemarketing and product marketing organizations [F(1, 3.04) = 4.03, p =0.04, ω2 = 0.00].The statistically significant outcome corresponded to thefirst maturity level of the examined framework representing ad hoc,random processes. Analyzing the corresponding means showed that servicemarketing organizations tended toward neutrality (M = 2.99), and that thecumulative directionality was neutrality (M = 2.91). Given neutralityreported by both factions, the means analyses showed that respondentsfailed to perceive evidence of the first maturity level. In other words, therespondents perceived no evidence of processes being ad hoc or randomamong the queried work settings.

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Findings of the Third Hypothesis

The third hypothesis, H0,3, examined perceptions of the secondmaturity level. The hypothesis testing revealed no statistically significantdifference between the perceptions of personnel representing servicemarketing and product marketing organizations. Thus, the nullhypothesis was retained. Essentially, no difference existed between thepersonnel perceptions of service marketing organizations versus productmarketing organizations regarding the notion that evidence of the secondmaturity level existed among administrative marketing processes. Withrespect to this notion, analyses of the means showed that servicemarketing organizations tended toward agreement (M = 3.53), productmarketing organizations tended toward agreement (M = 3.67), and thatthe cumulative directionality was agreement (M = 3.57). Given agreementreported by both factions, the means analyses showed that respondentsperceived evidence of the second maturity level. In other words,respondents perceived that work setting processes were reoccurring andreactive.

Findings of the Fourth Hypothesis

The fourth hypothesis, H0,4, examined perceptions of the thirdmaturity level. The hypothesis testing revealed no statisticallysignificant difference between the perceptions of personnelrepresenting service marketing and product marketing organizations.Thus, the null hypothesis was retained. Essentially, no differenceexisted between the personnel perceptions of service marketingorganizations versus product marketing organizations regarding thenotion that evidence of the third maturity level existed amongadministrative marketing processes. With respect to this notion,analyses of the means showed that service marketing organizationstended toward neutrality (M = 3.14), product marketingorganizations tended toward neutrality (M = 3.34), and that the

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cumulative directionality was neutrality (M = 3.21). Given neutralityreported by both factions, the means analyses showed thatrespondents failed to perceive evidence of the third maturity level. Inother words, respondents perceived no evidence that advertisingprocesses were characterized and expressed among the queried worksettings.

Findings of the Fifth Hypothesis

The fifth hypothesis, H0,5, examined perceptions of the fourth maturitylevel. The hypothesis testing revealed no statistically significantdifference between the perceptions of personnel representing servicemarketing and product marketing organizations. Thus, the nullhypothesis was retained. Essentially, no difference existed between thepersonnel perceptions of service marketing organizations versus productmarketing organizations regarding the notion that evidence of the fourthmaturity level existed among administrative marketing processes. Withrespect to this notion, analyses of the means showed that servicemarketing organizations tended toward neutrality (M = 3.14), productmarketing organizations tended toward neutrality (M = 3.35), and thatthe cumulative directionality was neutrality (M = 3.20). Given neutralityreported by both factions, the means analyses showed that respondentsfailed to perceive evidence of the fourth maturity level. In other words,respondents perceived no evidence that advertising processes weremeasured, contained, and investigated quantitatively among the queriedwork settings.

Findings of the Sixth Hypothesis

The sixth hypothesis, H0,6, examined perceptions of the fifth maturitylevel. The hypothesis testing revealed no statistically significant differencebetween the perceptions of personnel representing service marketing and

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product marketing organizations. Thus, the null hypothesis was retained.Essentially, no difference existed between the personnel perceptions ofservice marketing organizations versus product marketing organizationsregarding the notion that evidence of the fifth maturity level existedamong administrative marketing processes. With respect to this notion,analyses of the means showed that service marketing organizations tendedtoward neutrality (M = 3.11), product marketing organizations tendedtoward neutrality (M = 3.22), and that the cumulative directionality wasneutrality (M = 3.15). Given neutrality reported by both factions, themeans analyses showed that respondents failed to perceive evidence of thefifth maturity level. In other words, respondents perceived no evidencethat advertising processes were optimized among the queried worksettings.

Conclusions and Recommendations

The concept of a maturity modeling framework originated in thesoftware industry as an organizational process improvement paradigmthrough which businesses could mature and optimize their processes.Since its inception in the late 1980s, numerous variants of the basicframework were crafted to address and facilitate process improvement ina variety of business domains that were unrelated to the softwareindustry, ranging from safety to education. Such variants showed thetransferability of the framework across unassociated domains. Given thehistory of successful transferability and portability of the maturitymodeling framework, this study examined the potential of adapting thematurity model framework within the context of advertising processes(i.e., advertising maturity model).

The statistically significant outcome corresponded to the firstmaturity level of the process maturity framework. Such an outcome maybe considered from aspects of organizational functions, activities, andperformances with respect to the characteristics of the first processmaturity level. The CMMi framework assumes that organizational

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processes are chaotic, random entities within the first process maturitylevel. Not all organizations are identical; all are unique with respect inwhich they perform processes involving advertising initiatives andendeavors. Some organizations may exhibit formal, standardizedprocesses whereas others exhibit less structured processes. Therefore,some respondents may have perceived their respective advertisingprocess setting as lacking randomness, and exhibiting structure andformal processes. In other cases, it may have been possible forrespondents to have perceived processes as lax or informal. Regardless,from a cumulative lens, respondents showed neutrality regarding theirperceptions of whether evidence existed reflective of the first maturitylevel among their work settings.

The cumulative means analyses showed neutrality with respect toperceptions of the first, third, fourth, and fifth maturity levels. Thesematurity levels corresponded to sporadic, chaotic, and ad hoc processes(level 1); characterized and expressed processes (level 3); measured,contained, and investigated quantitatively (level 4); and optimizedprocesses (level 5). Respondents showed perceptions of agreementregarding evidence of the second maturity level among workplaceadvertising processes. Level 2 corresponded to reoccurring and reactiveprocesses. Therefore, given the neutral responses coupled with a solitaryagreement response, with respect to examining the individual maturitymodel phases comprising the overall framework, the outcomes of thisstudy failed to show conclusively the adaptability potential of theexamined maturity model framework within the context of advertisingprocesses.

Implications for organizational policy and practice may be consideredwith respect to the outcomes of this study. Although this study failed toshow complete portability of the maturity model framework to craft anadvertising maturity model, the basic maturity framework providesseasoned tenets whereby marketing and advertising organizations mayenhance quality. For instance, the basic maturity model frameworkincorporates the tenets of process standardization, continuous processimprovement, quantitative analysis, and process resource optimization.Therefore, organizations may learn much from the basic concepts of

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process maturity modeling that may generate practical and operationalbenefits.

Although this study examined a stratification of service versus productmarketing organizations, no delineation occurred to specify whether thespecific products or services were virtual entities instead of those found inphysical reality. Opportunity exists to explore the process environments ofmarketing organizations whose functions are virtual. Thus, future studiesmay examine the potential of crafting a marketing and advertising processimprovement maturity model within the context of the virtual domain.

Additional consideration of maturity modeling may be given to theprimary components of marketing: product, promotion, price, andplacement. The advertising maturity model herein was constrained solelyto administrative processes among marketing organizations withoutconsideration of the primary areas of product, promotion, price, andplacement. Given this notion, future studies may examine derivatives ofmaturity model frameworks representing improvement paradigms forproduct processes, promotion processes, price processes, and placementprocesses.

This study lacked any organizational consideration of profit-basedversus non-profit marketing organizations. Future studies may investigatethe proposed advertising maturity model from the perspective oforganizational status. In doing so, additional studies may incorporate astratification of profit versus non-profit marketing and advertising houses.

The potential of geographic or regional biases may have affected thisstudy because it was constrained to the views of marketing firms onlywithin the United States. Future studies may explore personnelperceptions of the proposed advertising maturity model amonginternational marketing houses. Additionally, future studies may alsoexplore the perceptions of employees representing domestic versus foreignorganizations.

Additionally, budgetary constraints only allowed for the polling of atleast two marketing firms from each state. Future studies may incorporatesubstantially larger populations and samples to examine whetherportability of the model may occur between the software and marketingdomains. Although this study failed to show the potential of portability

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across all of the individual maturity levels, it represented a starting pointfor examining how process maturity modeling may be adapted from thesoftware domain to the marketing domain. Given this notion, futureresearch endeavors may examine different stratifications, such asmanagers and non-managers among marketing firms; urban versus ruralmarketing firms; and so forth. In any case, despite the necessity ofexamining this study with a grain of salt, it highlighted a framework thatmay be the subject of additional enquiry.

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DDrr.. DDaanniieell AAddrriiaann DDoossss —— is an associate professor at the University of West Alabama. He possesses aPh.D. from Jackson State University. His research interests are in the fields of computing, businessadministration, information systems, marketing, security, and technology.

DDrr.. RRuussss HHeennlleeyy —— is an associate professor at the University of West Alabama. He possesses a Ph.D.from the University of Alabama. His research interests are in the fields of business administration andmarketing.

MMrrss.. QQiiuuqqii HHoonngg —— is an instructor at Guangzhou College of Technology and Business. She possessesan MBA from the University of West Alabama. Her research interests are in the fields of businessadministration and marketing.

MMrr.. TTrreeyy PPiicckkeetttt —— is an alumnus of the University of West Alabama where he earned his MBA degree.His research interests are in the fields of accounting and marketing.

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OUTDOOR ADVERTISING AS AN ELEMENTSTRENGTHENING THE RECRUITMENT

CAMPAIGNS OF UNIVERSITIES

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OUTDOOR ADVERTISING AS AN ELEMENT STRENGTHENING THE RECRUITMENT CAMPAIGNS OF UNIVERSITIES

Helena Rachwał, PhD StudentAdam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Faculty of Political Sciences and Journalisme-mail: [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0029

The article puts forward the thesis that outdoor advertising is an important element that enriches college recruitmentcampaigns if it meets certain conditions. The basic factors determining the effectiveness of outdoor is the concisenessand simplicity of the message, the creation taking into account the proper character of the advertisement and referringto the emotions of the recipient, the composition based on the appropriate arrangement of elements, intriguingadvertising text forcing the recipient to think, integrate outdoor communication with the internet transmission and thecorrect location of the advertising medium. The subject of outdoor advertising and its impact on candidates for studiesis omitted in the literature on marketing activities of tertiare education institutions. Therefore, it was attempted to fill thecognitive gap by referring to foreign scientific research and examples of outdoor applications by universities in the UnitedStates of America and Great Britain. Also described are outdoor campaigns of the SWPS University, which cooperateswith the Cityboard Media Institute in the field of external advertising research. In order to analyze outdoor polishuniversities, the article uses part of the photographic material collected by the author, and reflects on the basis of theirown observations and in-depth interviews with employees of Marketing Departments of selected universities.

Summary

Keywords: outdoor advertising, outdoor university, recruitment campaign, creation, composition

Introduction

Competitiveness of educational services provided by universities forcesuniversities to take new measures aimed at attracting clients, that is,students. The reasons for the existing situation is the emergence of a largenumber of private universities, deepening demographic low, as well asgrowing aspirations of the society with regard to education (Wierenko,2015; Pawłowski, 2005; Krzyżak, 2009; Ryńca, Myśko, 2016). According toPabian (2002, p. 138) even the best university cannot assume uncriticallythat it is very well known in its region, in Poland and the world. Thishappens among others because it is subject to continuous changes. The roleof marketing at Polish universities keeps growing. Marketing activities arenot handled anymore only by students willing to add some more income totheir scholarship, but by professionals working in organized units, whichare gaining stronger and stronger position in the university structure(Maliszewski, 2008).

One of the forms of advertising of universities is outdoor advertisingused in communication with students and student candidates. Despite thefact that these issues are taken into consideration in literature on thesubject, what is missing is more precise definition and systematization ofissues associated with universities' outdoor advertising, as well as researchon the degree of efficiency of medium in recruitment campaigns. What isemphasized is low efficiency of outdoor advertising in the marketingactivities of universities (Wasiluk, Markowska 2015). However, it is hard tofind in publications an answer to the question about the reasons for thisstate of affairs. Does it come from the strength of messages found on theInternet and in social media? Is it an effect of incorrect design of outdoormessage?

The article relies on the experiences and scientific research of Americanand British universities confirming high efficiency of outdoor advertising inrecruitment campaigns. The forms of outdoor advertising used most oftenby Polish universities were analyzed and confronted with this. Also, theexample of SWPS is discussed. The University uses outdoor advertisingevery year as an important element of its advertising campaign in time ofstudent recruitment.

The methodology of research involved field research covering the

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territory of the city of Poznań, as well as qualitative research in form of in-depth interviews with the employees of Marketing Departments of chosenuniversities1. The purpose of this article is drawing attention to thepotential of outdoor advertising and the possibility of its application in abroader scope by universities. The content of the article doesn't exhaust thesubject of the research, but only serves as an expression of the author's willto initiate discussion and further research on the highlighted problem.

Outdoor advertising of universities abroad on the basis of the example of United States and Great Britain

In the United States and Great Britain, similarly as in Poland, a majorreduction of the number of student candidates has been observed in therecent years. This is an effect of not just a demographic low, but above allthe growth of fees for studying at American and British universities2. In thecurrent times when the educational market has become very competitive,foreign universities trying to reach hesitating student candidates havenoticed a potential in one of the most traditional forms of advertising,namely, outdoor advertising.

Studies show that students in Great Britain spend most of their timegoing out and spend about 874 pounds per year on entertainment. Thanksto this outdoor advertising is a very efficient medium for reaching thetarget group and above all makes it possible to take advantage of unusedspace in an unconventional way3.

It seems that in the age of smartphones and social media these kinds ofmedia constitute the most efficient method for attracting the attention offuture students. However, the contemporary young people, in comparisonto the generation of demographic high, understand modern technologiesand thus are more resistant to online messages4. Marketingcharts.com haspublished the results of studies which show that up to 57% of studentsnever click online ads and 30% never even look at them. Additionally, 56%of the surveyed try to avoid advertisements appearing online5. The resultsof studies have been confirmed also by a survey conducted online on asample of 1209 students aged 18-34 in the period from March 3 to March

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14, 2014 (College Explorer survey), which clearly suggests that socialmedia portals attract 6 out of 10 students, similarly as radio advertisingand press advertising6. It is also worth mentioning the results of researchby Anatomy Media, which shows that most Internet users have installedan ad-blocker on at least one device. The survey covered 2700 people aged18-24, out of this group 46% of respondents use anad-blocker on a desktopcomputer, 31% - on a smartphone, or tablet and 14% of the respondentshave installed ad-blocking software on both devices7. It is expected thatthis trend will be developing on a global scale. High level of saturation ofthe Internet with online advertising leads to hampering communicationand disturbing the identity of a brand8. Moreover, studies show thatmaking decisions is to a large extent an emotional process. According tostatistics, 95% of decisions result from emotions9. By using an emotionalmessage outdoor advertising has the power to evoke strong emotionsrooted in basic needs10. As opposed to Internet message, outdooradvertising may have a positive impact on student candidates undercondition of appropriate composition and creation. It is also necessary toremark that outdoor advertising influences the parents of future studentsin an exceptionally efficient way. This is because they better react totraditional advertising, expecting conciseness and simplicity of themessage11.

University of San Francisco, willing to compete with such universitiesas Stanford and Harvard carried out a billboard campaign in cooperationwith Hub Strategy & Communication, which was supposed to reach thecurrent generation of students (picture 1, picture 2). The campaign raisedthe awareness of recipients by 12% and raised the level of engagement insocial media12.

Concordia University in Saint Paul also recognized the advantages ofoutdoor advertising. In cooperation with marketing agency EMC Outdoorit carried out an intensive advertising campaign using various outdoorcarriers in many locations in the city (Picture 3). The campaign wasdesigned so that it would be possible to reach students at any time of theday. Individualized, but coherent messages had a direct impact on theminds of recipients, helping them make the right decision with regard tostarting studies at a university13.

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Picture 1. Design of a billboard of the University of San Francisco number 1

Source: https://hubsanfrancisco.com/client/university-of-san-francisco

Picture 2. Design of a billboard of the University of San Francisco number 2

Source: https://hubsanfrancisco.com/client/university-of-san-francisco

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Picture 3. An example of outdoor advertisement of Concordia University in Saint Paul

Source: https://www.emcoutdoor.com/case_concordia.htm#

Central Michigan University in order to give a boost to the recruitmentprocess, as well as the recognizability of the university's brand carried out in2014 a complex outdoor campaign using billboards, citylights andadvertisements on vehicles (Picture 4)14. It was observed that outdooradvertising contributed to 27% growth of the number of students in the firstyear of studies15.

A very interesting and successful campaign with the application ofoutdoor advertising was prepared by the University of Colorado Denver. Thegoal of the campaign was not just growth of recruitment for studies, but alsoimproving the recognizability of the brand in the society and above alldrawing the attention of the business community to university's students andgraduates. The campaign took place between November 3, 2014 and January4, 2015 on the premises of the international airport in Denver under theslogan "Learn with Purpose"16. The main outdoor advertising carriers werelarge-format wall posters and a 50-yard-long floor graphic design, whichlinked escalators on two sides of the airport (Picture 5, Picture 6).

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Picture 4. An example of a citylight of Central Michigan University

Source: https://www.cmich.edu/office_president/university_communications/about/Pages/portfolio.aspx

Picture 5. Large-format posters of the University of Colorado Denver at the airport in Denver

Source: http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/university-of-colorado-case-study.pdf

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Picture 6. Floor design of the University of Colorado Denver at the airport in Denver

Source: http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/university-of-colorado-case-study.pdf

Innovative application of outdoor advertising contributed to 10.5 milliondisplays in social media within 8 weeks17. Moreover, the campaign caused abig stir in the society, also among rival universities18.

There are many more similar cases of application of outdoor advertisingby foreign universities. Apart from universities, also colleges use outdooradvertising, deriving major benefits and achieving high level of efficiency ofthe medium19.

It is worth keeping in mind that outdoor advertising influences therecipients 24 hours per day, seven days a week and there is no way to switchit off like in case of television, or radio, or throwing it away as in case ofnewspapers and this leads to the appropriate level of reception (Russel,

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Lane, 2000). Outdoor advertising also has other advantages, one of them ismass character and scope of coverage. The advancing fragmentation of themedia leads to a situation in which outdoor advertising may become theonly medium reaching the mass recipient20. Moreover, outdoor advertisingfits very well in contemporary times when people live in constant hurry andthe solutions worked out in outdoor advertising may prove efficient in othermedia (Kubuj, 2006).

Outdoor advertising of universities in Poland. Case study.

In Poland, during the time of student recruitment, numerous formsof outdoor advertising of universities can be observed. However, in mostcases it is treated as a secondary medium and a rather insignificantelement of a recruitment campaign.

An appropriate solution applied by universities using outdooradvertising is locating advertisements in city centres and districts withthe highest streams of people. These are public transport stops andcrossings of main streets, that is, the places where potential studentcandidates, including people finishing high school aged 19-20 can befound (photograph 1). However, universities most often use large-formatoutdoor advertising in form of billboards, or banners placed on thefacades of buildings owned by them (except for historical buildings, dueto legal limitations) (Picture 7, Picture 8). This is a convenient methodwhich doesn't require additional costs associated with the rental of space,but at the same time greatly limits the reach of advertising. In such caseonly people who happen to get close to a university can notice theadvertisements. Usually, advertisements of this kind present the namesof offered areas of study without advertising slogans and images, whichdoesn't require much work on preparation of a message.

Wall paintings constitute an interesting form of outdoor advertising,because they make it possible to use buildings (often not very modernbuildings) and neighbouring architecture and at the same time toemphasize the atmosphere of the place (picture 10, picture 11).

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Picture 7. Citylight of WSB University at Most Teatralny stop in Poznań

Source: Own materials.

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Picture 8. A banner placed on the building of the Faculty of Environmental Engineering

and Spatial Planning of Poznań University of Life Sciences


Picture 9. A banner of the Faculty of Political Science and Journalism of Adam Mickiewicz University,

placed on the side wall of a building


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Picture 10. Wall painting of WSB University in Poznań on the wall of a building at the crossing of Ratajczaka

street and Powstańców Wielkopolskich street in Poznań

Source: http://www.wsb.pl/poznan/dla-prasy/materialy-dla-mediow

Picture 11. Wall painting of Collegium Civitas in Warsaw

Source: https://www.civitas.edu.pl/pl/uczelnia/aktualnosci/mural-collegium-civitas

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With regard to the creation and composition of advertising,universities' outdoor advertising is usually informative in character andinvolves only naming the offered areas of study and using the images ofanonymous people who supposedly are the students of a particularuniversity (picture 12, picture 13). What is definitely missing fromposters is an emotional message in form of intriguing advertisingslogans, or using the images of people associated with the academiccommunity (lecturers and students) and their short recommendationsstrengthening the credibility of the message. It is necessary to emphasizethat the more a recipient can identify with the hero of an advertisement,especially a typical client (student), the more, in a certain sense, the herobecomes an authority for him, or her (Sutherland and Sylvester, 2003).

Picture 12. Outdoor advertising of the Faculty of Theology of Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań


The main reasons for limited utilization of outdoor advertising namedby the employees of Marketing Departments of the surveyed universities,or of particular faculties are the following: limited budget, insufficient

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knowledge about the functioning of outdoor advertising among employeesresponsible for advertising and promotion of a university, barriersresulting from the defined rules of the System of Visual Identification of aparticular university and lack of examples and scientific researchconcerning the implementation of successful outdoor advertisingcampaigns by Polish universities.

One of rare cases of efficient application of outdoor advertising in arecruitment campaign is SWPS University. The university runs outdoorcampaigns in all cities where it has its branches, that is, in Warsaw,Wrocław, Katowice, Rzeszów, Sopot and Poznań. The university, since the

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Picture 13. Billboard placed on the side wall of the main building

of Poznań University of Life Sciences


beginning of its presence on the educational market has been using outdooradvertising. Since 2013 the university has had a more selective approach tooutdoor advertising. Every year the university makes it to the top three ofuniversities awarded in the Genius Universitatis contest for a creativerecruitment campaign in at least one category. The contest is organized byWydawnictwo Perspektywy.

What constitutes an important fact is the cooperation of SWPSUniversity with Instytut Cityboard Media on the area of expanded researchconcerning outdoor advertising and conducting post-graduate course titled"Psychology in marketing and advertising - efficiency in action"21.

The most often used outdoor advertising carriers are citylights placedon bus and tram stops, especially in the city centre. The advertisingmessage reaches a broad target group of people moving along the maintransport routes. The location of advertisements on bus stops makes itpossible to learn about the content of the message in detail and itscomposition is based on slightly different rules than in case of other large-format forms e.g. billboards.

In Warsaw SWPS University also promotes itself on metro stations bymeans of backlit LCD carriers forming a wall, which additionally raises thereach of outdoor advertising (Picture 14).

Picture 14. LCD carriers of SWPS University located on a metro station in Warsaw

Source: Photographic documentation of the Department of Marketing of SWPS University in Poznań

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Outdoor advertising projects are exclusively an initiative of theDepartment of Marketing of SWPS University, similarly as their execution.The creations are to some extent repeated in the subsequent years, but theteam keeps implementing new ideas. The outdoor campaign is conducted inthe months of May, June, July and September. Despite offering a few areas ofstudy and an even greater number of specializations, SWPS University stillfocuses on the promotion of law and psychology. In case of the Poznań branchthis is justified, as its educational offer covers only law, psychology and design.

With regard to the composition of outdoor advertisements of SWPSUniversity, it is built in such a way that it is easy to notice theadvertisements among a huge number of other advertisements in a city.Łukasz Skorupski, the head of the section Creation and Internet,emphasizes tha "the creations mainly present a different image ofscientists and students of SWPS, a half of the face is supposed tosymbolize the other, less obvious face of a person. What is alsosignificant is the very format of the carrier, which it is much easier tocompose on the basis of a half of the face - however, this is a secondaryfactor". The basic colour of the university, which is applied in outdooradvertising of the university is black, which symbolizes a premiumbrand, quality, prestige and success. According to the head of thesection Creation and Internet, "(…)it matches all colours very well,which in our case is important taking into consideration the coloursdistinguishing all five cities". The designs of SWPS Universityadvertisements correspond to the rules of lateralization of brainhemispheres, according to the psychology of advertisement. Lefthemisphere is responsible for the logical analysis of detailedcharacteristics of a product, or service, while the right hemisphere isresponsible for emotions. To achieve a proper reception of theadvertising message, the image and emotional elements are on the leftside of the poster and rational message in form of information is on theright (Picture 15, Picture 16).

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Picture 15.The design of a citylight of SWPS University using the image of Marcin Czarnecki

Source: materials of the Department of Marketing of SWPS University

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Picture 16. The design of a citylight of SWPS University using the image of dr Maria Grzymisławska-Cybulska

Source: : materials of the Department of Marketing of SWPS University

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It is worth pointing out that the employees of the Department ofMarketing of SWPS University conduct a poll among the recruited studentsevery year. The results of the polls show clearly that outdoor advertisinggets noticed by the candidates and additionally it substantially boostsbrand recognizability, which leads to growth of interest among thestakeholders of the university.

Summary

On the basis of the examples mentioned in this paper it is possible toconclude that outdoor advertising of Polish universities is far from outdooradvertising of foreign universities. This comes from the fact that in Polandthere is still a common conviction that one of the most efficient elements ofrecruitment campaigns are Internet advertising and social media. The basicmistake made by the employees of Marketing Departments of the surveyeduniversities is the lack of research on and monitoring of the changes associatedwith the reception of outdoor advertising among the enrolled people. Research,for example, in form of a properly built questionnaire would make it possible toverify the quality of outdoor advertising campaigns and to diagnose itsinefficient elements. As opposed to Polish universities, American and Britishuniversities treat outdoor advertising seriously, carrying out thought-outrecruitment campaigns with the application of outdoor advertising. In PolandSWPS University is an example of appropriate application of outdooradvertising on the basis of scientific practice. Research shows that outdooradvertising may not only influence the growth of the number of students, butcan also shape the image of a university in a positive way.

In light of the data presented in the article, it is necessary to think aboutreturning to the oldest form of advertising, namely, outdoor advertising.Outdoor advertising will certainly not squeeze out social media, or otherforms of Internet advertising and other means of conveying message, whichhave an influence on the choice of a university. Nevertheless, it maybecome an important element strengthening the process of studentrecruitment, which reaches a broad target group under condition ofappropriate creation, composition, integration of the message with theInternet message, location of the carriers and particular time of display ofadvertisements.

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References1 The research was conducted in 10 universities on the territory of Poznań, including 15 faculties of one of the

biggest universities in Poland in the period from January 2017 to September 2018. The article contains exclusivelyinformation for which the author has obtained permissions for publication. However, this doesn't have an impact onthe formulated conclusions.

2 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018) https://www.pennecooutdo-or.com/effectiveness-of-outdoor-advertising-for-colleges-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018).

3 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 4 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 5 https://www.marketingcharts.com/industries/media-and-entertainment-44096 (accessed 07.12.2018). 6 https://www.marketingcharts.com/industries/media-and-entertainment-44096 (accessed 07.12.2018). 7 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 8 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 9 http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/why-are-billboards-effective/ (accessed 07.12.2018).

10 http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/why-are-billboards-effective/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 11 https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 12 https://hubsanfrancisco.com/client/university-of-san-francisco (accessed 08.12.2018). 13 https://www.emcoutdoor.com/case_concordia.htm# (accessed 07.12.2018). 14 http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/central-michigan-university-case-study.pdf(accessed 08.12.2018). 15 https://www.cmich.edu/news/article/Pages/cmu-achieves-nearly-27-percent-growth-in-freshman-class.aspx(accessed 08.12.2018). 16 http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/university-of-colorado-case-study.pdf (accessed08.12.2018). 17 An advertising spot concerning the preparations of the University of Colorado Denver for an outdoor advertisingcampaign can be found under the link https://youtu.be/rWaVNoV148Q (accessed 02.02.2019). 18 http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/university-of-colorado-case-study.pdf (accessed08.12.2018). 19 https://www.pennecooutdoor.com/effectiveness-of-outdoor-advertising-for-colleges-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 20 https://www.clearchannel.com.pl/bank-wiedzy/swiat-outdooru/zalety-reklamy-zewnetrznej (accessed 10.10.201). 21 Instytut Cityboard Media has been carrying out research projects since 1998. The purpose of these projects isshowing the efficiency of outdoor advertising. Information concerning research can be found on the website of theorganization: http://www.icbm.info

Bibliography

1. Kubuj, D. (2006), Outdoor: reklama zewnętrzna w kontekście historii i współczesności,Warszawa, Stroer Media.

2. Krzyżak, M. (2009), Istota i potrzeba budowania wizerunku uczelni,[In:] http://yadda.icm.edu.pl/yadda/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-article-BATA-0006-0081/c/httpwww_wso_wroc_plwydzialywpikbnpid2009zn22009krzyzak.pdf(accessed 01.09.2018).

3. Maliszewski, T. (2008), Marketing jako element strategii niepublicznych szkół wyższych,[In:] https://mbace.eu/api/files/view/1332.pdf (accessed 02.04.2018).

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4. Pabian, A. (2002), Promocja szkoły wyższej, [In:] https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/nsw/article/view/4696 (accessed 16.08.2018).

5. Pawłowski, K. (2005), Wpływ rankingów i akredytacji na markę szkoły wyższej działającejna konkurencyjnym rynku — artykuł dyskusyjny, [In:] https://pressto.amu.edu.pl/index.php/nsw/article/view/4756 (16.08.2018).

6. Russel, J. T. , Lane, W. R. (2000), Reklama według Ottona Kleppera, Warszawa,Wydawnictwo FELBERG SJA.

7. Ryńca, R., Miśko, R. (2016), Ocena wizerunku uczelni z uwzględnieniem instrumentówpublic relations na przykładzie szkół wyższych, [In:] http://www.wneiz.pl/frfu/numery/rok2016/frfu-nr-4-2016-czesc-1/8838-ocena-wizerunku-uczelni-z-uwzglednieniem-instrumentow-public-relations-na-przykladzie-szkol-wyzszych (accessed 01.09.2018).

8. Sutherland M., Sylvester A. (2003). Reklama a umysł konsumenta: co działa, co niedziała i dlaczego. Warszawa, Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN.

9. Wasiluk A., Markowska E., (2015), Wpływ działań promocyjnych na wybór uczelni przezmaturzystów, Zeszyty Naukowe Polskiego Towarzystwa Ekonomicznego, tom 3, strony98–109.

10. Wierenko, T. (2015), Wybrane instrumenty zarządzania promocją szkoły wyższej, [In:]https://www.zpsb.pl/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/tomasz_wierenko_fir_1-2015.pdf(16.08.2018).

Online sources 1. https://airoutdoor.co.uk/blog/outdoor-advertising-universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018). 2. https://hubsanfrancisco.com/client/university-of-san-francisco (accessed 08.12.2018).3. http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/why-are-billboards-effective/ (accessed

07.12.2018).4. http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/central-michigan-

university-case-study.pdf (accessed 08.12.2018).5. http://pennecooutdoor.wpengine.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/university-of-

colorado-case-study.pdf (accessed 08.12.2018).6. https://www.civitas.edu.pl/pl/uczelnia/aktualnosci/mural-collegium-civitas (accessed

15.10.2018).7. https://www.clearchannel.com.pl/bank-wiedzy/swiat-outdooru/zalety-reklamy-

zewnetrznej (accessed 10.10.2018).8. https://www.cmich.edu/news/article/Pages/cmu-achieves-nearly-27-percent-growth-in-

freshman-class.aspx (accessed 08.12.2018).9. https://www.cmich.edu/office_president/university_communications/about/Pages/portfolio.apx

(accessed 08.12.2018).10. https://www.emcoutdoor.com/case_concordia.htm# (accessed 07.12.2018).11. https://www.marketingcharts.com/industries/media-and-entertainment-44096 (accessed

07.12.2018).12. https://www.pennecooutdoor.com/effectiveness-of-outdoor-advertising-for-colleges-

universities/ (accessed 07.12.2018).13. http://www.wsb.pl/poznan/dla-prasy/materialy-dla-mediow (accessed 01.12.2018).

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HHeelleennaa RRaacchhwwaałł,, MM..AA.. —— doctoral student at the Faculty of Political Sciences and Journalism of AdamMickiewicz University in Poznań, studied journalism and social communication, specialized inadvertising and promotion at the Faculty of Political Sciences and Journalism of Adam MickiewiczUniversity and in management at the Faculty of Law and Administration of Adam Mickiewicz Universityin Poznań. In her research work she displays interest in issues associated with the marketing of

universities, social economics and academic sports.

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HOW CAN WE ATTRACT AND KEEP YOUNGTALENTS IN THE SCIENCE SECTOR?

WORK SATISFACTION AND THE INCLINATION TOCHANGE YOUR WORKPLACE

Open Access

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HOW CAN WE ATTRACT AND KEEP YOUNG TALENTS IN THE SCIENCE SECTOR?

WORK SATISFACTION AND THE INCLINATION TO CHANGE YOUR WORKPLACE

Marzena Feldy, PhDNational Information Processing Institute (OPI PIB) Laboratory of Statistical Analysis and [email protected] DOI: 10.2478/minib-2019-0030

Gradually dropping number of working age people, dropping rate of unemployment and continuously growing numberof job vacancies, which remain open for a longer time, lead to a situation in which more and more often in the contextof Poland people say the market belongs to the employee. What doesn't alleviate the situation is the arrival of a newgeneration, the so-called millennials, on the market. Millennials differ from earlier generations both in terms of theircharacteristics and expectations with regard to their workplace.The fact that over a half of scientists below the age of 35 employed in national scientific institutions consider changingtheir work, makes it necessary to focus more on employees' needs. The goal of this article is highlighting the aspects ofwork which make it possible to young scientists to achieve satisfaction from professional sphere of life and thus couldprevent their outflow from the sector of science. In 2017 OPI PIB carried out a survey on a representative sample of scientific employees, which included 264 respondentsborn after 1981. The collected empirical materials allowed the author to analyze the expectations of young people fromthe sector of science with regard to their workplace. The assessments of scientists who consider changing their employerwith the assessments of people who don't have such plans have been compared.The conducted survey leads to the conclusion that young people should above all be given the opportunity to developand work towards achieving their own scientific aspirations. It is also necessary to guarantee the feeling of stability ofemployment and satisfactory remuneration. What also turns out to be significant is the organization of space, as well asproviding flexible work conditions and recognition from the superiors.Satisfying at least some of the highlighted proposals won't be possible without introducing systemic changes. Failure tointervene in such a way will lead to a situation in which the national sector of science will in the nearest years be graduallylosing valuable employees, which will be migrating to the company sector and foreign scientific institutions.

Summary

Keywords: generation Y, scientific institutions, labour market, work satisfaction

Introduction

At the end of the 20th century, along with the dynamic developmentof information technology and growing scope of utilization of newtechnologies, scientific policy was subordinated to the strategy ofeconomic development. Science became a basis for building society andeconomy based on knowledge and scientific units started playing afundamental role in the process. The personnel of scientific institutesstarted being regarded as an important factor of economicdevelopment. This factor in itself constitutes a complex entity, as itcomprises scientific employees from various generations characterizedby various needs and expectations. Satisfying their needs is becoming amajor challenge for contemporary institutions from the sphere ofscience.

What seems to be a particularly challenging group are employeesfrom the youngest generation, who are currently entering the labourmarket, or have been on the market for just a few years. These arepeople who less and less often commit themselves to work and theycare more about maintaining a balance between professional andprivate life (Deloitte, 2018). For this reason this article is devoted tothe group of young scientists below the age of 35. The goal of the workis highlighting the aspects of work which allow young scientists toachieve satisfaction from the professional sphere of life and thus couldprevent the outflow of young scientists from the sector of science.

The article presents the results of analyses carried out by theauthor on the basis of empirical material obtained from a survey on arepresentative sample of professionally active employees of nationalscientific institutions. The presentation of the results of the survey willbe preceded by an assessment of the situation on the labour market andthe resulting challenges that scientific units have to face. Next, themethod used to carry out the survey and the composition of the samplewill be discussed. In the last section of the article the results will besubject to discussion and on the basis of the discussion finalconclusions from the conducted survey will be formulated.

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Diagnosis of the labour market

In an economy based on knowledge human capital is becoming the mainresource. The knowledge that people have and the ability to transform itinto new products, services and technologies constitute the source ofeconomic development and social prosperity and on the micro scale theydetermine the market success of companies. In order to gain a competitiveadvantage, already since the 1990's organizations have been trying toattract employees who have reliable knowledge and high professional skills,have fluent command of foreign languages and new technologies andadditionally are mobile and motivated to work in an efficient and creativeway. What enjoys unremitting popularity, both in literature on the subjectand in business practice, is the concept of talent management.

A review of various ways of defining the term talent with regard toemployees (Borkowska, 2005; Cannon and McGee, 2015; Ingram, 2011;Mikuła, 2006; Pocztowski, 2016) made it possible to name their three basicfeatures: competences, high potential for development and above-averageresults. In order to raise their competitiveness companies should both focuson obtaining talents from the surroundings and on developing valuableemployees they already have. Nevertheless, the ability to attract talentedindividuals won't lead to the growth of value, if it is not accompanied by theability to release their engagement, motivation to work and appreciatingachievements. Without building employees' positive experience keepingtalents in an organization may turn out to be impossible and thus ruin theefforts aimed at attracting and developing them. That's why it is soimportant to create for the people that an employer is investing in theopportunities for using their potential within the organization in a longertime perspective. That's because these activities should lead to greaterloyalty of talents and counteract the migration of talents to competition.

Managing talented individuals and more broadly building employees'positive experience is becoming more and more important in light of thefact that now the labour market is to an ever greater extent ruled by theemployee. What points to the strengthening of this trend on the nationallabour market is dropping unemployment rate, which according to theestimates of the Central Statistical Office in September 2018 reached 5,7%,which was the lowest level in 28 years. According to the latest, tenth edition

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of Barometr rynku pracy (labour market barometer) prepared at the end ofthe third quarter of 2018, 49,7% of employers in Poland have problems withacquiring appropriate candidates for work (Work Service, 2018). About ahalf of companies admit they have problems with recruitment lasting morethan a year. We can look for the reasons for the deficit of human resourcesin dropping supply of employees associated with demographic changes andgreater mobility of human capital. The situation is further intensified bycompetition for personnel and raises pressure on salaries. The last report byWork Service suggests that up to 59,7% of employees expect higher salaries.

However, experts emphasize that we cannot say that right now theemployee dominates the market in all regions and branches, as well aspositions. Problems with finding work can still be observed in EasternPoland and in small towns and villages. A report prepared by Puls Biznesuand Boston Consulting Group (2017) suggests that it is the hardest toacquire: IT specialists (46% of the responses of managers from companiesin Poland), specialists with a profile depending on the branch (36% ofresponses), professionals specialized in data analysis (32%), high-rankingmanagers (25%) and skilled blue collar workers (21%). Nevertheless, weshould expect that unfavourable demographic trends in form of droppingnumber of births and at the same time growth of the population ofretirement-age employees over the next two decades will lead to gradualreduction of the supply of workforce, which as a result may bring aslowdown of economic growth.

What makes the situation even more complicated is the fact thatgeneration Y, also called millennials, is entering the market. In associationwith the fact that behaviours and attitudes of every generation are shapedby unique experiences resulting from historical, economic and socialconditions in which people grow up, the appearance of a new generationevery time causes tensions in the work environment caused by differencesbetween generations. What may show the existence of the phenomenon ofgeneration Y is not just the growing number of publications on the subjectin press and popular literature, reports of international concerns andconsulting companies (see: Deloitte, 2015; Johnson Controls, 2010; PewResearch Center, 2010; PwC, 2013), and even government agencies (see:CEA, 2015), but also of scientific articles containing the results of empiricalresearch (see: Kowske, Rasch and Wiley, 2010; McGinnis, 2011; Rentz,

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2015). Differences between generations at work are discussed by, amongothers, Aparna Joshi et al. (2010) and Jean M. Twenge et al. (2010).

Taking into consideration great diversity of age brackets applied byresearchers to distinguish generation Y1 , it is possible to assume that it isformed mainly by people born between the 1980's and 1990's. What iscrucial for the identification of this group is that they are called digitalnatives, that is, people born and raised in the age of digital technologies andthus getting used to computers and the Internet from early childhood. Thisdescription doesn't entirely match the people born in early 1980's in Poland,as these people were educated in schools with limited access to computersand the Internet. This fact may constitute the reason for incoherence foundin the characteristics of the representatives of generation Y in Poland andin western world.

Kathryn C. Rentz (2015) presents the following description ofgeneration Y:

they have less respect for hierarchy and authority than older employeesand are inclined to overestimate the value of their own opinions;they are too confident about their own skills and feel they are "destinedfor success", but they underestimate the effort that it will cost them;they desire quick solutions and effects, because they don't want to waste time;they prefer multi-tasking over focusing on one activity, or project over along time;they demand broad feedback and guidelines, they also need more praisethan previous generation and are sensitive to criticism;they don't tolerate ambiguity and want clear guidelines telling them howto achieve success and at the same time they are not interested in thewhole image;they have a very good command of new technologies, but are inclined toabuse them.

Many authors emphasize that high knowledge of technology amongmillennials is accompanied by deficits of soft skills such as the ability tocommunicate, the ability of critical thinking and problem solving, as well asbuilding and maintaining relations with others (Hershatter and Epstein,2010; Myers and Sadaghiani, 2010; Hartman and McCambridge, 2011).

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Lindsey Farrell and Andrew C. Hurt (2014) in their publicationreviewed and summed up the characteristics of the representatives ofgeneration Y contained in 14 scientific articles. An effect of theirsynthesis is a list of six features reoccurring in these descriptions,namely: multi-tasking, need for structuring, focus on achievements,understanding of technology, focus on the group and seeking attentionand feedback. These specific traits of the young generation mean that itsrepresentatives have to make an effort to adapt to the existing workconditions. However, looking from the other side, also organizationscannot remain indifferent to them and have to change to satisfy theneeds of their new employees and fully use their potential (Kilber,Barclay and Ohmer, 2014).

Challenges for the sector of science

The problems of the national labour market are reflected by the situationfound in the Polish sector of science. A symptom of this is, for example, thefact that scientific personnel in Poland is aging. According to data from thePOL-on system, in 2017 academic teachers below the age of 40 constitutedmerely 30% of the scientific personnel of Polish universities, while 49% ofacademic employees were aged 40–59 and 21% were people above 60 (OPIIB, 2018). The forming generation gap may lead to a situation in which inthe future there will be a shortage of academic teachers for educatingemployees for the economy. The lack of supply of new employees makes itharder to eliminate feudalism and feudal relationships present in theorganizational culture of Polish scientific institutions (Hryniewicz, 2012;Antonowicz, 2015; Kwiek, 2016). These terms refer to the practice ofdividing resources and making personal decisions on the basis of thehierarchy of positions and scientific titles. This phenomenon creates asituation of unfair game depending on the level of privilege in the hierarchyand leads to the growth of inequality among employees (Szwabowski, 2014).

Thus, while in the business sector we can see the symptoms of transitionto a new reality defined as understood by Ed Michaels et al. (2001),scientific institutions in Poland seem to be stuck in the old order (see Table1) and they rarely have the capacity to offer work conditions that could

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attract and keep talented employees. This, in turn, exacerbates problemswith the supply of valuable academic employees — graduates of doctoralstudies and doctoral students.

Table 1. "Old and new reality" in times of war for talents

"old reality" "new reality"

tangible assets, capital and location are the talented people are a source of competitive source of competitive advantage advantage having better talents is a distinctive feature having better talents is a huge distinctionpeople need organization organizations need peoplepositions are a rare good talents are a rare goodpeople accept the standard package offered people demand much moreby an organizationemployees are loyal and positions are safe people are mobile and their engagement is

short-lived

Source: E. Michaels, H. Handfield-Jones, B. Axelrod (2001). The War for Talent. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.

As a study carried out by Agnieszka I. Baruk (2018) shows, universitiesare not regarded by students as an attractive employer. The results of thelatest study titled Universum Talent Survey (Błaszczak, 2018) suggest thatPolish students are more interested in starting work for internationalcorporations. It is because such work creates an opportunity for them tosatisfy their most important needs. Among the needs named by them thereare: high earnings in the future (74% of responses), good credentials forfuture professional career (67%), professional development and trainings(60%), stability of employment (57%) and respect for employees (55%).High financial expectations (63% of responses) and demand for a lot offreedom and flexible work hours voiced by students and graduates havebeen highlighted also by the representatives of HR departmentsparticipating in the survey organized by BIGRAM (2017). This evokes thefear of emergence of the phenomenon of negative selection in the sector ofscience. This means a situation in which people who are too weak to workin the business sector engage in scientific-didactic work.

What is also a rather bad thing is the fact that many young scientistsfacing unfavourable conditions in the national sector of science consider

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leaving Poland and working on their professional career abroad. Among therespondents of the survey ordered by the National Contact Point of EuropeanUnion's Research Programmes at the Institute of Fundamental TechnologicalResearch of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Wycisk et al., 2018) the groupconstituted 65%. At the same time young researchers emphasized that theyare ready to start work both in terms of language skills and content-relatedskills. Often, these are people who had a chance to experience the reality ofwestern academic sector during the Erasmus student programme. Thus, theyhave the feeling that they are supposed to satisfy requirements on aninternational level, while they don't get terms of employment comparable withwhat can be found in developed countries. As a result, they perceiveemigration as the only chance for contact with well-known researchers fromcountries other than Poland, but also an opportunity to obtain more attractivefinancial terms and access to better research infrastructure.

The named circumstances and traits of the young generation ofscientists constitute a significant challenge for scientific institutions asemployers and make us think about the approach to human capitalmanagement, organizational culture and promoted values.

Research method

The following analyses concerning the national sector of science werecarried out by the author on the basis of the empirical material collectedin course of a nation-wide survey conducted from April to May 2017. Thesurveyed population was a collection of professionally active scientificemployees working in national research institutes, units of PolishAcademy of Sciences, as well as public and non-public universities. Atotal of 840 scientists chosen randomly participated in the survey. Thesample included 264 young scientists born in 1982–1992. Theircharacteristics are presented in table 2.

In order to answer the research question "How can we prevent theoutflow of young scientists from the sector of science?" the respondentswere divided into two groups on the basis of their declarations withregard to taking into consideration changing work over the past sixmonths. Here it was assumed that the differences in the level of

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expectations and satisfaction from various aspects of work observed inthese groups will make it possible to highlight the issues within whichthe perceived deprivation may lead to the decision to leave a workplace.

Table 2. Characteristics of the research sample

Number of scientists according to: N

sex 264woman 133man 131scientific degree/professional title 264master 161doctor 103type of scientific unit 264public university 231unit of Polish Academy of Sciences 15non-public university 13research institute 5area of science 264exact and technical sciences 101humanities and social sciences 95life sciences 68


An important stage of the survey was the selection of aspects of work,the assessments of which would make it possible to fully learn thepreferences of respondents with regard to employment and at the sametime wouldn't constitute for them an excessively big burden duringinterviews. In association with the fact that there is no single "goldenstandard" pinpointing a comprehensive collection of aspects, whichshould be taken into consideration in the process of measuring worksatisfaction (see: Roelen, Koopmans and Groothoff, 2008). For thepurpose of building author's set of such factors the classic model of thehierarchy of needs by Abraham Maslow (1990) was used. The hypothesisthat was adopted here says that young people who consider leaving theircurrent workplace in the sector of science are in a situation in whichtheir needs — both higher and lower level needs — are satisfied by theemployer to a lower degree than in case of other young scientists.

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According to Maslow's theory, human feels five levels of needs(physiological needs, need of security, belonging, respect and self-realization), which he satisfies one after another, starting from the lower-level needs. Translating this into conditions on the labour market, we canrecognize satisfying physiological needs as gaining as a result of work a poolof material means making it possible to satisfy the basic material needs ofthe employee and his, or her family. At the same time, the conditionscreated by the employer in the workplace and work organization mayreflect the need for security named by Maslow. The equivalent of the needof belonging and respect will be contacts with people established in theworkplace and the respect received from them. At the same time, theequivalent of self-realization may be the need for professional development.As a result in the research four groups of work aspects have been adopted:economic, existential, social and developmental. Each of the mentionedgroups contains two to three detailed aspects of work subject to assessment.The way particular aspects are assigned to the four groups defined above ispresented on picture 1.

Picture 1. Aspects of work assessed in the survey


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level of remuneration

availability of additional,

non-financial benefits

feeling of stability of

employment

interpersonal relationships

recognition for work expressed

by the supervisors

the possibility of implementing

your own scientific aspirations

the possibility of developing

knowledge, or improving skills

organization of work space

the possibility of choosing work

hours

the possibility of working from

home

economic aspects existential aspects

social aspects aspects of development

Eventually, the respondents expressed their opinions both on thegeneral level of satisfaction with the current workplace and on satisfactionwith ten detailed aspects of work: level of remuneration, availability ofadditional non-financial benefits (such as, for example: fitness club card,vouchers for language courses, holiday gifts, subsidized meals, medicalcare, insurance policy etc.), feeling of stability of employment, organizationof work space (which includes the amount of space per employee, thequality and availability of office equipment and research equipment etc.),the possibility of choosing work hours, the possibility of working from home(that is, outside a scientific unit), interpersonal relationships, recognitionfor work from the superiors, the possibility of implementing own scientificaspirations and the possibility of developing knowledge and improvingskills. The respondents gave answers on a five-degree scale, where 1 meant"I am definitely unsatisfied" and 5 meant "I am definitely satisfied".Additionally, the respondents were asked to define the significance ofdefined ten aspects of work from their perspective. In this case they alsoused a five-degree scale, where 1 meant "completely insignificant" and 5meant "very significant".

Results of the survey

Among three most important aspects of work for young scientists therewere two associated with development: the possibility of developingknowledge and improving skills placed first and the possibility ofimplementing own scientific aspirations placed third (see: picture 2). Twoout of three investigated economic aspects, namely the feeling of stability ofemployment, which placed second and the level of remuneration whichplaced fourth in terms of significance turned out to be only slightly lesssignificant. At the same time, the third economic aspect, the availability ofadditional non-financial benefits, placed at the lowest position on the list ofpriorities of young scientists. What is also regarded as comparably lessimportant are the issues which belong to existential aspects and inparticular the possibility of working from home, which placed on the listjust ahead of the availability of non-financial benefits. Meanwhile,interpersonal relationships placed in the top five of the ranking. The second

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of the investigated social aspects, namely, respect expressed by thesuperiors, plays a less significant role, according to the respondents and asa result, this aspect placed eighth out of ten investigated aspects of work.

Picture 2. Young scientists' expectations with regard to work

1 — completely insignificant 5 — very significant


Analysis of the significance of particular aspects of work among youngscientists hasn't shown the presence of any statistically importantdifferences depending on whether they considered changing their job or notin six months preceding the survey.

A different situation was found in terms of the assessment of generallevel of satisfaction from work in the sector of science (see picture 3). As wecould expect, young scientists who don't consider changing their job aresubstantially more satisfied with their workplace than people who havesuch plans (see Table 3).

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aspekty rozwojowe aspekty ekonomiczne

aspekty spo³eczne aspekty egzystencjalne

5

possibility of development

feeling of stability of employment

possibility of implementing scientific aspirations


interpersonal relations


possibility of choosing work hours

recognition from the superiors

the possibility of working from home

availability of non-financial benefits

social aspects

aspects of development

existential aspects

economic aspects

Picture 3. Level of satisfaction from work among young scientists who are either considering,

or not considering changing their job

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rozwa¿aj¹ cy zmianê pracy nierozwa¿aj¹ cy zmiany pracy

a) ogólny poziom zadowolenia

a) general level of satisfaction

b) aspects of development

c) economic aspects

1 — I am definitely unsatisfied 5 — I am definitely satisfied



consider changing their job

general level of satisfaction

feeling of stability of employment

opportunity to develop


availability of non-financial benefits

possibility of implementing scientific aspirations

don't consider changing their job

Cont. picture 3


Respondents from both of the surveyed groups appreciated the mostsatisfaction from development-related aspects, which they regard as mostimportant at work. They also declared high level of satisfaction from twoexistential aspects: possibility of choosing work hours and possibility ofworking from home, that is, issues perceived as less important. Among theaspects which are a source of satisfaction for the respondents we can alsoname interpersonal relations. All of the issues mentioned above are agreater source of satisfaction for scientists who don't consider changingtheir employer than the scientists who think about changing theiremployer. These differences were found to be statistically significant. Atthe same time no statistically significant differences in terms of satisfactionfrom interpersonal relationships in the workplace were observed in bothsurveyed groups.

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d) social aspects


e) existential aspects


interpersonal relations

recognition from the superiors


possibility of choosing work hours

possibility of working from home

Table 3. Differences in the level of work satisfaction among young scientists considering

and not considering a change of work — test

average ranksposition consider don't consider test

changing work changing work

a) general level of satisfaction 45,13 58,96 Z = –2,518*b) aspects of development

possibility of development 45,10 58,99 Z = –2,574**possibility of implementing scientific aspirations 45,20 57,66 Z = –2,290*

c) economic aspectsfeeling of stability of employment 36,25 65,85 Z = –5,293***level of remuneration 43,18 59,44 Z = –2,856**availability of non-financial benefits 44,50 54,20 Z = –1,743

d) social aspectsinterpersonal relations 47,55 56,13 Z = –1,573recognition from the superiors 44,05 55,41 Z = –2,066*

e) existential aspectsorganization of work space 44,33 57,74 Z = –2,398*possibility of choosing work hours 44,45 56,39 Z = –2,260*possibility of working from home 41,73 52,18 Z = –2,003*

*** Correlation is significant at the level of 0,001. ** Correlation is significant at the level of 0,01. * Correlation is significant at the level of 0,05.


The lowest grades according to the level of satisfaction were awarded totwo economic aspects: salaries, which placed fourth on the list ofsignificance, and the availability of non-financial benefits, which turnedout to be least important for the respondents. Even though people whointend to change their workplace are less satisfied from both aspects ofwork than young scientists who haven't revealed such plans, thedifferences turned out to be statistically significant only in case of the levelof remuneration.

The biggest (amounting to almost one point) and at the same timestatistically significant difference in the level of satisfaction between thesurveyed groups was observed with regard to the feeling of stability ofemployment. While in case of young scientists not considering a change of

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work this aspect placed sixth in the ranking of satisfaction, among peopleplanning a change of this kind it placed only eighth.

Young scientists who declare they are willing to remain in their currentwork, are to the same extent satisfied from the recognition they get fromtheir superiors and from organization of the work space. Peoplerepresenting the second of the surveyed groups appreciated the mentionedaspects less and these differences turned out to be statistically important.

Discussion

The results of the conducted analyses are to a large extent coherent withthe conclusions from other surveys. Young scientists, similarly as otherrepresentatives of generation Y in Poland desire work that will stimulatetheir development, enable them to learn new skills and implement theirprofessional aspirations. This aspect of work has been recognized as themost important also by young people who took part in the surveysconducted by Deloitte (2018) and KPMG (2017b).

The fact that young scientists expect stability of employment, which isthe second most important factor, matches the results of surveys amongstudents from Master's degree programmes conducted by SylwiaStachowska (2012). The latter analyses show that people below the age of30 appreciate stabilization and certainty of employment terms more thanflexible forms of employment and organization of work hours. Similarly,young employees from the sector of science recognized the possibility ofworking from home and choosing work hours as less important issues.

At the same time, certain differences can be observed in case ofexpectations with regard to remuneration. While in the survey conductedby Deloitte (2018) the level of remuneration placed second in the hierarchyof factors decisive for the choice of an employer, according to theassessment of young scientists it turned out to be less important and placedonly fourth. Also the participants of the survey conducted by KPMG(2017b) attached greater weight to this aspect of work, as they declaredthat in case this expectation is satisfied, they are able to accept other,possible inconveniences associated with their work. Nevertheless, the levelof remuneration is still regarded as a more important issue than the

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availability of non-financial benefits, or organization of work space. This iscoherent with the results of research concerning the ways of buildingemployee's experience conducted by KPMG (2017a) among managementmembers and HR department employees of companies operating in Polandand representing 13 branches. The participants of the mentioned surveyagree that employees find it easier to come to terms with the lack oftrainings and hard work conditions than with excessively lowremuneration.

Good atmosphere and relations with other employees are also issueswhich are appreciated by young people, regardless of the sector ofemployment. However, these issues placed lower in the hierarchy ofimportance than the aspects of development and the level of remuneration(see: Deloitte, 2018; KPMG, 2017b) and among young scientists they areappreciated less than stability of employment.

Another aspect, after interpersonal relations, important for youngscientists is organization of space, that is, issues like having your owndesk in the workplace, or the quality and availability of researchequipment.

The comparison of expectations with the level of satisfaction fromcurrent work in the group of young scientists considering a change ofwork made it possible to create a matrix of retention (see Picture 4). Thisinstrument pinpoints the areas in which the decision-makers should takeaction to retain young scientists in the sector of science.

Whereas work in the sector of science satisfies the most important needfor generation Y, the need for development, economic aspects constitute themain source of deprivation. In particular, this concerns low salaries andtemporary work contracts depriving employees of stabilization. The sameconclusions can be drawn from the research conducted for the NationalContact Point of Research Programmes of the European Union at theInstitute of Fundamental Technological Research of the Polish Academy ofSciences (Wycisk et al., 2018), in which the last two factors were defined asthe biggest barriers for the development of career in the national sector ofscience. Young scientists queried in both surveys display a comparably lowlevel of satisfaction from organization and conditions of work in scientificinstitutions. Whereas the representatives of generation Y working in thebusiness sector often get the comfort of working in space designed

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according to their preferences, have access to a relaxation zone, orentertainment room, their peers employed at universities and researchinstitutes can't always count on their employer to provide them with a quietplace for scientific work and access to necessary research equipment.

Picture 4. Matrix of retention of young scientists


Conclusions

The results of research on the level of satisfaction from particularaspects of work mostly allow positive verification of the hypothesis thatyoung people who consider leaving their current work in the sector ofscience, feel their needs — both lower and higher level needs — have beensatisfied by the employer to a lower degree than in case of other youngscientists. Only expectations concerning the availability of additionalnon-financial benefits and interpersonal relations constitute an exceptionand it turned out they didn't distinguish the two groups of scientists.

What's interesting is that the results of research suggest that in caseof young scientists their higher level needs such as the possibility of

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it is necessary to maintain standards

high level of satisfaction from very important aspects of work

maintaining standards is desireable

high level of satisfaction from less important aspects of work

improvement is needed urgently

comparably low level of satisfaction from very important aspects of work

improvement is desireable

comparably low level of satisfaction from less important aspects of work

remuneration

stability ofemployment

scientificdevelopment

implementationof aspiration

choosing workhours

working from home

recognition fromthe superiors

organization ofwork space

implementing their aspirations and scientific development are satisfied toa higher degree than lower level needs concerning the level ofremuneration and the feeling of stability of employment. This constitutescertain discrepancy in comparison with the hierarchical nature of needspresented in Maslow's theory, according to which needs are satisfiedgradually (that is, basic needs are satisfied before higher level needs).

The observed regularity was found in a group of young peoplecharacterized by high diversity. For the purpose of further investigationof the subject and verification of the obtained results in further researchprojects it is worth analyzing the level of satisfaction from particularaspects of work in subgroups distinguished according to the type ofscientific unit, represented area of science, or sex of the scientist. Whatmay be an interesting direction of research, expanding the scope ofanalyses conducted by now is also taking into consideration scientificemployees above the age of 35 and a diagnosis of their level of satisfactionfrom work in the sector of science and later comparing these results withthe results of young scientists.

Regardless of the results of further surveys the fact that the needs ofyoung scientists are not satisfied points to the necessity to work outsystemic solutions, which would respond to the diagnosed problems.Above all, it is necessary to raise spending on science. According to datafrom Eurostat, in 2016 in Northern and Western European countries therelation of gross national spending on R&D activity (GERD) to GDPamounted to between 2% and over 3% (e.g. Sweden 3,25%, Austria 3,09%,Germany 2,94%, Finland 2,75%), at the same time in Poland it was lessthan 1%. Without greater amount of financial resources in the system theefficiency of obtaining grants for research will remain at a low level andthis will lead to the feeling of lack of employment stability. What's more,the salary budgets of scientific units will remain at a low level.

In the conducted research over a half of scientists below the age of 35declared their income from their basic workplace didn't exceed PLN 3,000net per month. According to article 137 from the Act on higher educationand science from July 20, 2018 (Dz. U. poz. 1668 i 2024) calledConstitution for science, the salaries of academic personnel have to belinked to the minimum basic remuneration of a professor at a publicuniversity and can't be lower than 50% of the amount. According to the

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resolution of the minister of science and higher education fromSeptember 25, 2018 concerning the minimum basic salary of a professorof a public university (Dz. U. poz. 1838), from January 2019 theminimum salary of a professor will grow to PLN6,410 gross. Thus, anassistant professor will be earning no less than PLN4,679.30 (73% of theabove-mentioned basic amount) and an assistant no less than PLN3,205.Ministry of Science and Higher Education estimates that salary hikes willconcern about 40% of university employees. For assistants it will mean anaverage hike of PLN800, while for assistant professors it will be PLN860.Moreover, the ministry has declared there will be further raises foracademic employees in 2020 and 2021. Public universities will determinethe actual level of salaries individually, depending on the possessedfinancial resources.

Even though these are steps in the right direction, a part of thecommunity (e.g. the Conference of Rectors of Academic Schools inPoland, Committee of Scientific Policy, or representatives of the CrisisCommittee for Polish Humanities) has voiced doubts, whether theamounts mentioned above are adequate to the requirements formulatedfor scientific employees. The proposed rates still remain at a lower levelthan the salaries in the business sector and salaries of scientists abroad.On the other hand, institutes of the Polish Academy of Sciences aredemanding raises at least as high as those offered to universityemployees. Introduction of minimum salary thresholds for the scientificemployees of the institutes of Polish Academy of Sciences equal to ratesguaranteed to the scientific employees of universities has beenrecommended by the authors of the Report of the Academy of YoungScientists of the Polish Academy of Sciences (Dołowy-Rybiński et al.,2018). They regard the current level of remuneration as humiliating. Thiscorresponds with the opinions of young participants of the surveyconducted by KPMG (2017b), who concluded that appropriate level ofremuneration constitutes an expression of respect for an employee.

Assuming that salaries for young scientists will be growing, in the longterm we can expect the growth of their expectations with regard to otheraspects of work, which are placed higher in Maslow's hierarchy of needsand now are comparably satisfied. The higher the employees' earningsand the more confident they are about their employment, the more

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attention they pay to the atmosphere in their team, how their superiorstreat them and to the reputation of a company. For example, youngparticipants of the survey conducted by KPMG (2017b) along withadequate remuneration paid attention to atmosphere at work and voicedthe need for respect and consideration of their views, taking their opinioninto consideration, as well as expectations concerning investing in theirdevelopment, organization of trainings, as well as flexibility in carryingout their duties and work time management. Similar expectations can beexpected among young employees of the sector of science, who may voicegreater needs associated with development and demand greater flexibilityin terms of the time and place of work, or the need for greater recognitionfrom the superiors.

Ending

Learning and understanding young scientists' approach to professionalwork is particularly important in light of their high mobility and opennessto changing work. Knowledge on this subject will make it possible forinstitutions from the sector to create attractive job offers and implementsolutions facilitating the process of building their engagement. As theconducted survey shows what would make it possible to attract talents tothe sector of science is raising salaries and the stability of employment.Thus, on the one hand it is necessary to raise spending on the sector ofscience and on the other hand it is necessary to implement solutionssupporting employees' efficient transition between contracts, ormaintaining the continuity of their employment between projects. Withoutthe introduction of systemic changes, promoting the profession of ascientist as an interesting way of life and supporting its prestige won't beenough to keep talents in scientific institutions.

In a longer time perspective, along with the growth of salaries and theaccompanying, potential growth of expectations with regard to otheraspects of work, it may become necessary to implement solutions from thearea of building employee experience. This approach will require fromscientific institutions to put the employee in the centre of attention,following the example of companies.

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References1 For example, in a research project carried out by the British Library and Joint Information Systems Committeein 2007 people born in 1982–1994 (CIBER 2008) were recognized as millennials and the report by PwC (2013)recognized people born in 1980–1995 as millennials. At the same time, Lindsey A. Gibson and William A. Sodeman(2014) in their article used the term for people born in 1981–2000, while Don Tapscott (2010) assumed the periodof 1977–1997.

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edycja raportu „Pierwsze kroki na rynku pracy”. Deloitte. 12. Farrell, L., Hurt, A. C. (2014). Training the Millennial Generation: Implications for Or-

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39. Stachowska, S. (2012). Oczekiwania przedstawicieli pokolenia Y wobec pracy i pracodaw-cy. Zarządzanie zasobami ludzkimi, 2, 33–56.

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(2018). Potrzeby i oczekiwania młodych naukowców związane z rozwojem zawodowej ka-riery naukowej. Warszawa: Krajowy Punkt Kontaktowy Programów Badawczych UniiEuropejskiej w Instytucie Podstawowych Problemów Techniki Polskiej Akademii Nauk.

PPhhDD MMaarrzzeennaa FFeellddyy,, NNaattiioonnaall IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn PPrroocceessssiinngg IInnssttiittuuttee,, PPoollaanndd —— doctor of economics in thearea of management sciences, assistant professor at the National Information Processing Institute. Shemanages the work of the Laboratory of Statistical Analyses and Evaluation of the National InformationProcessing Institute, which deals with research concerning scientific and innovation policy. She is anauthor of publications and analyses concerning the sector of science and higher education, as well asconsumer behaviours and marketing communication. She graduated from Warsaw School ofEconomics and the Faculty of Psychology of the University of Warsaw. In her research work she applies

an interdisciplinary approach using knowledge from both the area of management and psychology.

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MARKETING FOR SCIENCE BASED ORGANIZATIONSPERSPECTIVES AND QUESTIONS

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MARKETING FOR SCIENCE BASED ORGANIZATIONS PERSPECTIVES AND QUESTIONS

prof. William Bradley Zehner IIIC2 Institute, University of Texas at Austin, USAwbzehner@gmail. com Jacquelyn Anne Zehner Facebook, Texas at Austin, [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0031

Marketing for research and science-based organizations is complex and not well understood; especially by the research,scientific, and technical communities. This paper presents a conceptual framework for scientists in research and science-based organizations to think about their organization's marketing and sales functions, and related processes. NASA, oneof the world's most successful research organizations, which put two American astronauts on the moon in approximately8 years, is briefly explored. The role of 21st Century research and science-based organizations in creating societal,organizational, and individual wealth is examined via a conceptual framework of the virtuous wealth creation process.Two forms of intrinsic organizational cultural conflict are examined; the external cultural conflicts between potentialcustomers and the technology organization, and the internal conflict between scientists and economic managers.Strategic marketing is addressed and consists of market need, market segmentation, choosing a target market, and theorganization's position relative to the target market and competition. Tactical marketing (AKA sales) and its elementsare delineated - product, price, promotion, physical distribution, and most importantly - personnel. The integration ofall elements of strategic and tactical marketing into a cohesive whole is underscored. Additionally, several marketing andsales questions are posed to facilitate self-assessment by research and technology-based organizations.

Summary

Keywords: commercialization, marketing, organizations, sales, science, research, technology, wealth

Introduction

This paper assists scientists and engineers in understanding the role ofmarketing in for science and research-based organizations. Marketing forresearch and science base organizations is both complex and frequentlymisunderstood by individuals in the technically-focused sectors of thoseorganizations since the organization's core competency is knowledge.

An illustrative case for a successful research and science-basedorganization is examined; the US National Aeronautics and Space Agency(NASA) which landed two astronauts on the moon in eight years after theinitial challenge to do so. Four additional topics are explored in this article.These topics include wealth creation from research and science in the 21stCentury; the virtuous cycle which illustrates the process by which wealthis created from science and technology; and the role of marketing at boththe strategic and tactical levels in wealth creation. Lastly, questions areposed for research and science-based organizations self-assessment.

Research and science-based organizations are similar in that bothtypes of organizations are built on a foundation of knowledge. Thefocus of research organizations such as universities and researchinstitutes are knowledge creation. The focus of science-basedorganizations is on knowledge dissemination and monetization viasocietal products and services. Obviously, there is a great deal ofoverlap between the two types of organizations. Research organizationsmay license their knowledge and science-based entities frequentlyengage in research to improve their products and services.

For brevity in this paper, both research and science-basedorganizations will be referred to as "technology or technology-basedorganizations" even though they are somewhat different, their rootsare grounded in science and technology. Additionally, we recognizethat technology-based services and products are different but share thecommon characteristic of being knowledge based. Services are normallyconsumed at the time they are produced. An example would be aphysician counseling a patient. In contrast, the creation of products isseparated from their consumption or use. Again, for brevity,appreciating the intrinsic differences, products and services will becollectively referred to as simply "products".

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The US National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA) A Brief Illustrative Case Study of a Successful Research and Science Based Organization

On the 25th of May 1961, US President John F. Kennedyproclaimed, "This nation (USA) should commit itself to achieving thegoal, before the decade is out, of landing a man on the moon andreturning him safely." The "moon mission" was named the Apolloprogram. On July 20th, 1969, eight years and one month afterPresident Kennedy's challenge, US astronauts Neil Young and BuzzAldrin stepped on the surface of the moon. There were 5 subsequentmoon landings after the first landing. The last US NASA moon landingwas on 7th December 1972.

The Apollo program was America's response to the strategic threatposed by the Soviet Union's recent successes in space exploration.These included the Russian launch of the first satellite, Sputnik, inOctober 1957; followed by the Russian cosmonaut, Yuri Gagarin,becoming the first man in space in April 1961. The Soviet Union'sstrategic threat to the USA was further underscored by the CubanMission Crisis in October, 1962.

The US Apollo Program (along with the Manhattan Project to buildthe atom bomb during World War II) embodied the focus on investmentin fundamental research and science that led to the many of the majortechnological achievements of the 20th Century. Both programsadvanced mankind's knowledge of fundamental science and thentranslated the science into technologies instrumental to achieving theprograms' objectives.

To implement the Apollo Program's "moon mission", the US'sNational Aeronautics and Space Agency's (NASA) funding wasdramatically increased to increase research and development (R & D)funding. Adjusted for inflation, NASA's cumulative "moon mission"funding was approximately $213 billion USD. The actual costs of theApollo program are notoriously difficult to quantify accurately sinceresearch and development was distributed among government anduniversity laboratories as well as in public and private companies. Atthe Apollo's program peak, the program's budget accounted for about

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ok.5% of the US's GDP, and approximately 4 to 5% of the US's FederalGovernment spending. "In 2018 dollars, the Apollo era budget wouldhave been equivalent to each American paying over $213 a year to thespace administration (Stirone 2018)."

How did NASA market the Apollo program to US citizens to secureprogram funding? By publicizing the number of jobs created. NASArecognized that the US congressional representatives were extremelyinterested in the economy and jobs in their districts, since securinglocal jobs was a well-known tactic to secure future votes forthemselves.

The US Congress is divided into the Senate (the upper house) with100 senators and House of Representatives (the lower house) whichcontains 435 representatives aka Congressman. In the Americanpolitical process, the lower house controls all government spending soNASA focused on the Congressional representatives to market theApollo program to secure funding support, NASA estimated thenumber of jobs which would be created for each senator andrepresentative by the Apollo program. Since most of the Apolloprogram challenges and tasks were scheduled to be subcontracted topublic and private US companies, NASA shared their economic and jobanalyses with the privately-owned companies. The companies in turnretained Washington D. C. lobbyists to convince the Congressionalsenators and representatives to support the Apollo program whileengaging in a massive public relations campaign to simultaneouslydevelop "grass roots" support at the voters' level. This marketingcampaign was centrally coordinated by NASA. It worked. At its peakin 1969, the Apollo program was responsible for approximately 409,000jobs — approximately one out of every two hundred workers in theUSA.

Why was the Apollo Program successful? Peter F. Drucker, thebusiness philosopher and "the man who invented management" offersinsights to the Apollo Program's performance in his book The Five MostImportant Questions You Will Ever Ask about Your Organization. Table1 presents Drucker's five questions as they relate the Apollo program.The Apollo Program was a research, scientific, and technologicalsuccess due its clear, specific, and time bound mission, phased action

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plan, and keenly defined primary and secondary customers. It was alsoimportant to have a crystalline understanding of the Apollo Program'sneed — security — and related value for Americans and specificmetrics to measure progress and success in a time phased plan.

Table 1. Peter F. Drucker's Five Important Questions Applied to the Apollo Program

Drucker Questions Apollo Program Observations

1 What is our mission? To/from moon by 1970 Specific & time bound mission2 Who is our customer? Primary: American PublicSecondary: American public = ultimate customer

US Congress via US Congress = funder & actual buyer & public relations campaign directed toward the voters

3 What does the customer National security Security & safetyvalue?

4 What are our metrics? Time phased milestones Specific and measurable time phased milestones from research toscience to technology

5 What is our plan? Management & funding controlled by NASA NASA manages Apollo program & awards contacts controlling funding

The Apollo Program illustrates classical marketing theory of findinga need ("national security and prestige"), designing a product toaddress the need ("national security and prestige"), and marketing it totarget customers (US Congress, private industry, and the voters) byshowing all parties, "what is in it for them". The Apollo program wassuccessful since the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA)created a clear vision and action plan in line with Dr. Drucker's fivequestions.

The senior management teams of science-based organizationsgenerally cannot agree on Drucker's five questions. How would yourorganization answer Dr. Drucker's five questions?

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Wealth Creation in the 2lst Century

Organizational research and development (R&D) and technologyare the drivers of knowledge-based wealth creation in the 2lst Century.This section and virtuous cycle figure explain the wealth creationprocess and key roles of the knowledge creators and the knowledgeapplicators.

Over time, a number of new products and industries emerged fromthe Apollo program such as aircraft collision avoidance systems,cordless power tools, computers, corrosion resistant coatings, digitalimaging, global positioning satellites, heart-lung machines,implantable pacemakers, infrared cameras, internet, kidney dialysismachines, Lasik eye surgery, virtual reality, and weather forecastingmodels (Folger, 2012). "It is estimated that the total economic benefitof each dollar spent on the space program has been between $ 9 and $ 11 (Fowler, 2014)."

In the 21st Century, science and technology are wealth creators atthe societal, company, and individual levels. "There are a number ofways to measure society's economic wealth. Wealth is commonlymeasured as Gross Domestic Product (GDP) at a country level whichmeasures a nation's economy, market valuation at a company level, andnet worth at the individual level" (Zehner, Williams, & Pletcher, 2016).In 1961, at the dawn of the Apollo program, world GDP per capita inconstant US dollars was $ 3,192/capita and today is approximately $ 10,714/capita — a 3.36 x increase (Data Market & World Bank data,2018).

Science and technology drove this increase in global wealth. In"Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function" RobertSolow, a MIT economist and 1987 Nobel Prize recipient in economics,concludes that "gross output per man hour doubled over the interval(studied), with a 87 1 per cent of the increase attributable to technicalchange and the remaining 12 1 per cent to increased use of capital"(1957). Innovation and technology are primarily responsible forapproximately 87.5% of the world's increase in wealth and standard ofliving.

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Building on Robert Solow's work, Paul Romer, a New YorkUniversity Stern School economics professor and former ChiefEconomist of the World Bank who was awarded 2018 Nobel Prize inEconomics "for integrating technological innovation into long termmacro-economic analysis" (Wang, 2018). Romer's ideas aresummarized in his article titled "Endogenous Technological Change" as"technological change… lies at the heart of economic growth… thattechnological change arises in large part because of intellectual actionstaken by people who respond to market incentives… instructions forworking with raw materials (intellectual knowledge) is inherentlydifferent for other economics goods. This property is the definingcharacteristic of technology (1990)."

The wealthiest global companies create societal wealth throughtheir roots in technology and innovation. This is illustrated by thefollowing table which shows that nine of the top 10 wealthiestcompanies (based on market capitalization) rest on a technologyfoundation (Wartzman & Crosby, 2018). The Drucker Instituteestimates how innovative companies are on a scale of 1 — leastinnovative to 5 — most innovative. Note that all ten of the top 10wealthiest companies received the Drucker Institute's highest rating offive for innovation.

Technology creates individual wealth. Table 3 presents ForbesMagazine 2018 list of the world's Top 10 billionaires. All thebillionaires' companies use technology to create customer value.Except for the Koch brothers who inherited a relatively small businessfrom their father and grew it into a large diversified industrial giant,the other eight billionaires were entrepreneurs who created theircompanies and built their fortunes. Every one of them capitalized ontechnology, and the underlying layer of scientific research required tocreate technology, to create, build, and manage wealth.

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Table 2. World's Ten Largest Companies by Market Capitalization and Innovation Rating

Market InnovationCapitalization (1) Rating (2)

Rank CompanyUS$ Billions Category 1 = Lowest

09/28/2018 5 = Highest

1 Apple $1,091 Computer — Technology 52 Amazon $977 Retailing — Technology 53 Microsoft $877 Software — Technology 54 Google/Alphabet $840 Search — Technology 55 Berkshire Hathaway $524 Retail — Finance 56 Facebook $474 Communications — Technology 57 Alibaba Group $424 Retailing — Technology China/NA8 Tencent $388 Internet — Technology China/NA9 JP Morgan $379 Finance — Technology 510 Johnson & Johnson $371 Medicine — Technology 5

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization

Table 3. World's Top 10 Billionaires in 2018

Rank Name Net WorthUS $ billions Company

1 Jeff Bezos $112 Amazon2 Bill Gates $90 Microsoft3 Warren Buffet $84 Berkshire Hathaway4 Bernard Arnault $72 LVMH5 Mark Zuckerberg $71 Facebook6 Amancio Ortega $70 Zara7 Carlos Slim Helu $67 Telecom8 Charles Koch $60 Koch Industries9 David Koch $60 Koch Industries10 Larry Ellison $59 Oracle

Source: Forbes Magazine — March 6, 2018.

Technology — research and science — in 20th and 21st Centuriesplays a significant pivotal role in wealth creation at the individual,company, and national levels. However, the actual mechanism ofthe wealth creation process is not yet well understood by

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economists. Figure 1 delineates a step by step process of wealthcreation as from research funding to new products to new companieswhich fund additional research directly or via taxes (Trzmielak &Zehner, 2011).

Figure 1. The Virtuous Wealth Creation Cycle

Source : Trzmielak, D. & Zehner, W. (2011). Metodyka i organizacja doradztwo w zakresie transferu i komercjalizacji technologii, s. 16

Steps 1 and 2 — Funding and Science

Globally most basic research is funded by governmentorganizations. In some countries like the US it is dually funded by thegovernment and private research institutes. In the 21st Century,

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Market

research amounts to approximately 2.1% to 2.2% the world's GDP andis increasing at a rate of 2.9% annually. Consequently, the number ofresearchers globally has increased by 1.3% annually; from 1,082researchers per million people in 2000 to 1,268 researchers per millionpeople in 2013.

The more researchers there are, the more knowledge created, whichis eventually translated into increased wealth. Additionally, researchproductivity as measured by scientific and technology articlespublished has increased 11.3% percent annually from 974,170 articlesin 2000 to 2,183,933 articles in 2013 (Zehner, Williams, & Pletcher2016). This increase in research productivity unlocks even greatergains within the virtuous cycle of wealth creation.

Step 3 — Technology and Patents

Patents may be conceptualized as science converted into technologyor potential new products/services. Patents monetize science bygranting the patent holder a market monopoly for a limited timeperiod. The number of patent applications worldwide almost doubledfrom 824,055 in 2000 to 1,624,969 in 2013 — a 7.5% increase annually(Zehner, Williams, & Pletcher 2016).

Not all patents have monetary value. "A 1997 study of 300 patentsby Stevens and Burley concluded only one patent out of 300 hadsignificant commercial value" (Zehner, Williams, & Pletcher 2016,Stevens and Burley 1997).

Whether "to patent or not to patent" is a simple business decisionbased on market potential, the rate of technological change vs. the costof the patent and anticipated financial returns. In the US, it frequentlytakes four years to obtain a patent and costs approximately $50,000USD and once obtained annual fees must be paid to keep the patentvalid and in force.

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Steps 4, 5, and 6 — Market Need — New Product/Service — High Technology Marketing

Marketing is the key to successful commercialization of thetechnology. A market need must be identified and then matched with aproduct to address that need. Finally, the product's utility must becommunicated to potential customers for purchase.

Peter Drucker (1973) defines a business by explaining that "to knowwhat a business is, we have to start with its purpose. Its purpose mustlie outside of the business itself…There is only valid definition ofbusiness purpose: to create a customer" by addressing a market need(99). Drucker continues, "It is the customer who determines what abusiness (organization) is. It is the customer alone whose willingnessto pay for a good or for a service that converts economic resources intowealth, things into goods. What the customer buys or considers valueis never a product. It is always utility, that is, what a product orservice does for him" (98).

Marketing technology products is a question of researching andidentifying customer needs. Drucker (1973) points out "the aim ofmarketing is to know and understand the customer so well thatproduct or service fits him and sells itself" (99). Leavitt, in his classic1960 article Marketing Myopia iterates, the "difference betweenmarketing and selling is more than semantic. Selling focuses on theneeds of the seller, marketing focuses on the needs of the buyer.Selling is preoccupied with the seller's need to convert his product intocash; marketing with the idea of satisfying the needs of the customerby means of the product and the cluster of things associated withcreating, delivering, and finally consuming it".

Step 7 — New Ventures

An entrepreneur recognizes the opportunity to commercializetechnology to translate technology into utility to satisfy customer andmarket needs, and then communicates to market the benefits of

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technology via high tech marketing. This process is frequently referredto as technology commercialization.

If the entrepreneur is successful in bring the technology's utility tothe market, a profitable new venture is created which pays taxes to thegovernment to continue the funding governmental research.Additionally, a successful venture may create significant personalwealth which the entrepreneur may use to create private foundationsto research specific topics. Thus, continuing the virtuous wealthcreation process. The crux of the wealth creation process is marketingof products grounded in science and technology to address societalneeds.

The Cultural Challenges

One of the cultural challenges is the gulf between scientists andbusiness managers. Each group has a different "world view." Forproduct development and marketing success, each group mustultimately understand and appreciate the roles of the other group.

Science vs. Business

One of the unacknowledged issues for research and scientificorganizations is simply the cultural differences between scientists andtechnologists vs. business and marketing. The gulf begins witheducation. A scientific and technological education is "narrow" inbreadth but very deep in a specific discipline. A business andmarketing education is "broad" in breadth but shallow in multipledisciplines.

Professionally, the scientist's and manager's goals are different.The primary goal of a scientist is to produce new scientific knowledge;a technologist's goal is to apply the new scientific knowledge to createa technological solution to address customers' needs. Both the scientistand the technologist tend to devalue an organization's economic goals.

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However, the primary goal of managers is to focus on the financialstewardship of an organization. The manager values economic goalsrecognizing that the long-term survival of the organization ispredicated on achieving economic goals via launching of new products.

Dubinskas (1988) captured the dichotomy between the scientist'sand the manager's world view as "the complete adult realist managers,in their struggles with immediate economic necessity, must contendwith immature scientists-dreamers; while…the far-sighted progressivescientists must protect their work …the basis of the firm's wealth…from myopic and developmentally retarded managers." Bothperspectives have their place; basic science needs time to progress, andtechnology needs a long-term technical vision to experiment andproduce a viable product, neither can be purely economically motivatedor they will fail. However, to support this research and development,technology organizations need managers to keep the labs and researchfacilities running.

For a new technological product or new technological venture tosucceed in the marketplace, both the scientists and managers mustrecognize that they are locked into a deep symbiotic relationship. Bothparties must arrive at a mutual understanding of the other's goals and theother's value to the organization for the organization to succeed. This isthe first cultural challenge within scientific and research organizations.

Science vs. Customers

The second cultural challenge is the external one between thetechnology organization and potential customers. The customers areconcerned with: "Can the technology organization solve the challengewith a workable solution within the contracted time frame andcontracted price?" Since the technology organization is frequentlypushing knowledge frontiers, its concern is: "Can we do this projectwithin the time frame and contracted price with our staff and otherresources?" It's essentially the same risk and professional challengesseen from two different perspectives.

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There is a methodology called "the Quicklook process" to determinethe commercial viability of a technology product or service (Zehner &Pletcher, 2017). The process is straightforward. Scientific experts arecontacted to assess the project's technology uncertainty, i.e., "Will thetechnology work?". Then, potential customers are contacted to addressmarket uncertainty and asked questions such as, "Is there a market needfor this product? Who are the competitors? Does the product offer theutility you need? What price would you pay? Under what conditionswill the market embrace the project?"

The most efficient and effective way to ensure that the product is ontarget relative to potential customers' needs is to work closely withpotential customers to "co-create" the product or service. A science-based organization might select a small group of technologicallysophisticated customers who are industry leaders and work closelywith them to define the initial product and then refine the projectduring subsequent iterations. This requires developing trust betweenthe scientific organization and the potential customers as well asamong the customers themselves.

To land the contract, a technology organization might use priorchallenges to demonstrate to the potential client that they havesuccessfully solved similar challenges within schedule and budget. Thisapproach is most effective when prior satisfied clients are willing to actas reference customers to future customers. A related caveat is that theresearch organization should not underestimate the time and expensesinvolved. Completing the project on schedule and under budget willdramatically increase the research organization's reputation in themarketplace.

Marketing for Technology-based Organizations

This section casts marketing for science-based organization into theclassical marketing paradigm. Albeit superficial, this description willgive the science researchers and managers a "sense" of the marketingprocess and the interrelationships among marketing elements. More

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importantly, each description is followed by a series of questions whichchallenges the scientists and managers in science-based institutions toassess the marketing of their organizations.

Marketing for Products and Services

Marketing is important for both product and service-basedbusinesses and its definition is broad enough to encompass both. TheAmerican Marketing Association (AMA) defines marketing as, "theactivity, set of institutions, and processes for creating, communicating,delivering, and exchanging offers that have value for customers,clients, partners, and society at large (AMA, 2013)."

The marketing process is very similar for both product and servicesmarketing. Services' marketing differs from product marketing inintangibility, inseparability, perishability, and variability. Servicesgenerally lack physical form which products have. It is difficult totransfer services due to the lack of physical form. Production andconsumption of services are intertwined and cannot be separated as inproducts. Services are perishable and cannot be stored as productsmay be. Services involve human variability which makes qualitydifficult to assess and measure.

An organization based on technology can offer tangible productssuch as computers or intangible services such as hospital care. Mostresearch organizations such as universities and research institutesfocus on offering services in terms of knowledge creation which isbasically intangible. Some research organizations attempt to measureknowledge creation by counting the number of papers published inscientific and technical journals. Businesses are more likely to offerproducts such as computers which disseminate technologiesthroughout society and may use patents granted as a surrogatemeasure for effectives. Both journal publications and patents awardedhave serious issues when used as measurement. However, it must bestrongly reiterated that the marketing process for similar for bothproducts and services.

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The Marketing Process

The marketing process is illustrated in Figure 2 can be segmentedinto two significant sections. Section 1 focuses on the four strategicelements of marketing such as customer needs, market segmentation,selection of a target market(s), and product / services positioningrelative to competition. Strategic marketing focuses on thephilosophical issues of what business is the organization in and whatmarket(s) do the organizations elect to serve.

Section 2 focuses on the five tactical elements of marketing such asthe actual product/service offered, price and value relative to the statusquo and competitors, promotional approaches, supply chainmanagement to move the product/service from the producer to thecustomer, and marketing and sales personnel.

Each of the strategic and tactical steps requires specializedknowledge and skills to implement. If the strategic marketing is ontarget it is more likely that the organization will be successful at thetactical level. Successful marketing requires total integration of thenine steps into a cohesive program with feedback loops among thesteps. This is a complex management task requiring knowledge, skills,and experience.

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Figure 2. The Strategic and Tactical Marketing Processes

Strategic Marketing

Customer Need

Strategic marketing really begins with understanding thecustomer's needs. Many potential customers are constantly searching

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S = Strategic Marketing Steps (S) & Tactical Marketing Steps (T)

for technologies to improve their lives and operations. "Better, faster,and cheaper" might be the customer's mantra.

Eric von Hippel, MIT professor, pointed out in his early careerresearch that for 111 scientific instrument companies 80% ofsignificant innovations were invented and prototyped by users(customers). Von Hippel (1976) noted that "approximately three out offour commercially successful industrial product innovations areinitiated in response to a perception of user need for an innovation,rather than on the basis of a technology opportunity to achieve them"and "accurate understanding of user need is the factor whichdiscriminates most strongly between commercially successfulindustrial good innovation projects and those which fail." The unmetneed is the customer's initiative to initiate a better technology solution.

Questions: How does your technology organization interact withactual and potential customers?How well does your organization understand yourcustomers' needs?How does your organization know about its customers'needs?What does your organization know about the needs of yournon-customers?

Market Segmentation

Virtually all markets may be sorted into submarkets — clusters ofcustomers sharing common characteristics. This process is calledmarket segmentation. For example, the automobile market may besorted into a large number of segments with common characteristicswhich are different from other segments — Rolls Royce and Mercedesoccupies the "status" segment, Volvo the "safety" segment, Jaguar andPorsche occupy the "sporty speed" segment, etc.

Sorting the total market into multiple submarkets which sharecommon characteristics to address within the resources of thetechnology organization is a critical next step after identification of

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market needs. There are a large number of market segmentationschemas ranging from technology to economics to geography topsychological profiles.

Very few technology organizations enjoy unlimited resources, sothe one of the initial major decisions is which the market segmentshould the organization target. Normally, the scientific or technologyorganization will attack the customer segment which will benefitmost the most economically from their organization's knowledge orproduct.

Questions: What are optimal market segment schemas for yourorganization's product(s)?What is the economic value of your organization's product orservice in each segment?Rank order the top three market segments based on yourorganization's success criteria?

Market Positioning

The key target market segment is potential customers who benefitthe most from the technology the organization offers. The crucialquestion here is "How will the technology organization position itself inthe customer's mind relative to competitive alternatives?" Forsoftware, a position might be "does everything but is very expensive" or"does most things needed but is reasonably priced". This means thetechnology-based organization must understand how the potentialcustomer addresses their need today — the status quo — and where inthe customer's mind the competitors are positioned within the targetmarket segment.

Positioning should be a well thought out marketing decision whichthe organization can influence and defend; otherwise theorganization's position will simply emerge in the marketplace. It isimportant to recognize that all organizations have a position in thecustomer's mind relative to competition and understand what theposition is.

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Questions: How are competitors positioned in the minds of potentialcompetitors relative to the status quo and each other?How do you know where potential competitors arepositioned?Are there any "open" positions in the target market thatyour organization can seize and defend?What actions must you take to create and defend yourorganization's position?

Tactical Marketing

Product/Service

Many research and scientific organizations are not clear about whatexactly is their product or service as perceived by potential customers.For example, is the service of a university education or research? Fromthe perspective of a student, it is education. From the perspective ofan organization funding research, it is new knowledge. What are theproportions of each?

Another issue frequently baffling research and scientificorganizations is a keen definition of exactly what is the product orservice offered. What is the core benefit of the actual product orservice per se and what is the 'augmented product' which might includeinstallation, if required, warranty, and post purchase service?

The core benefit will most likely improve the economics of thecustomer by making the customer more effective or efficient. It mustbe underscored that potential customers do not care about yourproduct/service per se! Customers only care about the benefits yourproduct provides to them — "what's in it for me" — your utility toaddress the customer's problems.

Technology organizations frequently do not understand orappreciate the potential customer's economics since they are focusedinward on their technology. With understanding of the economics of

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potential customers the technology organization may help thecustomer optimize resource allocation decisions while simultaneouslymaximizing revenues. For example, many technology products aretailored to the specific customer situation which makes them pricey. Ifyou know that the potential customer's board of director's approves allmajor expenditures with a two-year payback or less, then you mightprice your technology at 1.9 years to ensure you capture the order.

Questions: Can your organization define exactly what your core andaugmented product is?Does your organization understand the economic and non-economic benefits to customers of your product/service?How do you know that your organization's understandingof customer's product need is valid? What have youassumed? What have you verified?

Price

Price is the monetary exchange value of the product or service.Price is what the potential customer is willing to pay to acquire theproduct to make their operations "better, faster, or cheaper". Highprice generally signals potential customers that the product or serviceis high quality and high performance. An average price signals averagequality and average performance. Value is the economic worth of aproduct/service to the customer relative to the customer's competitivealternatives.

Value is normally determined by payback — how long it will take toreturn the original investment in time — or return on investment(ROI) — how much incremental money may be generated above thecost of the investment. Payback is frequently used for relatively shortterm projects — less than two years in length. ROI is frequently usedto identify the optimal opportunity among a portfolio of opportunities.

Cost is what it costs to produce and to deliver your organizationproduct/service to the customer. Price must be higher than the coststo generate a profit. Profit is simply the "cost of being in business in

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the future". Without a profit or surplus, an organization will simplycease to exist.

For many technology-based products and services, the cost toproduce and deliver the initial product offering is above the actualcosts. As the organization produces and delivers more products /services, it become significantly more efficient — especially in theearly stages of the product/service life cycle — that costs dropsignificant. Many technology based products/services reduce the costof production and delivery by 20% to 30% as the accumulatedproduction doubles. This phenomenon is frequently referred to as theexperience curve and is associated with the Boston Consulting Group(Henderson, 1973 & Ghemawat 1985). The experience curve partiallyexplains by new technology products become dramatically lessexpensive through time.

Questions: What the price of your organization's product/service?How was it determined?At your current price how many units will sell? How many units will you sell if your organizationincreases / decreases the price by 10%, 15%, or 20%?What are the costs of producing and delivering yourorganization's product / service at different salesvolumes?

Promotion

Promotion is critical for the marketing success of research andscientific organizations. A potential customer cannot purchase aproduct or service that they do not know about. To effectively allocatemarketing resources, the research and scientific organization shouldresearch the purchasing decision processes of the organizations'targeted customers. Without knowledge of the purchasing decisionprocess, how can the research and scientific organization provide the

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necessary information to shepherd the purchase process to a successfulconclusion?

Virtually all promotion communications via advertising, publicrelations, the internet, personal selling, trade shows, etc. should stressthe benefits and related value of the organization's product or serviceto the customer. University and research organizations promote theircompetencies and services in academic journals and by sending theresearchers to academic conferences and via personal contacts.Scientifically based products or services may be communicated theirbenefits to satisfy a customer via both traditional and social media.

Whatever media utilized, all marketing communications follow theAIDAS communication mnemonic — attention, interest, desire, action,and satisfaction — to guide the potential customer through thepurchase process.

Questions: What is your organization's promotional strategy? Does your organization have clearly defined andquantifiable communication objectives?Does your organization's promotional strategy support itsbusiness strategy and positioning? How is your organization measuring the effectiveness ofits promotional strategy on its customers and non-customers?Is a trained and skilled marketing professional leadingyour organization's tactical marketing efforts?

Physical Distribution

Once the customer elects to purchase your organization's services orproducts, how does the organization transfer the "product" from whereit is produced to where it is consumed? This is called physicaldistribution. In services, the physical distribution chain tends to beshort such as a patient's consultation with medical specialist. Theservice is consumed as it is produced. Scientific products tend to

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towards a longer physical chain which is frequently global in scope.The art of managing optimizing the physical distribution chain is oftenreferred to as supply chain management. Some organizations offerboth services and products simultaneously such as Amazon whichoffers facilitation of technology (such as their cloud computingservices, AWS) and physical products (such as items purchased throughtheir retail website).

Significant issues for research and scientific organizations are:

1. The service or product due to its technical and complex nature mayrequire significant training and educational resources during the startupphase and

2. The product may require frequent post sales service to optimize thecustomer's usage.

Questions: How will your organization deliver its service or productto the customer?Does your organization actively manage its distributionchannels?What does your organization do to ensure customersatisfaction doing the initial acquisition phase?How does your organization handle post purchase serviceand related issues?

Personnel

Nothing happens until there is a sale. The most critical decision formarketing of research and scientific organizations are the individualsassigned to marketing and sales. There are two common pitfalls inselecting these individuals. The first is that organizations often fail toappreciate the intrinsic importance of the marketing and sales role;they do not budget for it, they do not resource it, as a result they sit oninnovative technology, and fail to close sales. The second major pitfall

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is that the organization does appreciate the role of marketing, but itassigns their most knowledgeable technical person to the marketingtask rather than their most effective communicator. Theorganization's logic is often that the most knowledgeable technicalperson can answer the potential customer's questions.

The marketing reality is that most potential customers do not caredeeply about a "deep dive" into the service's or product's technicalities.They want some understanding of how it works but ultimately caremore about the question about "what is in this for me (WIFM)?" — theproduct's benefits.

Questions : Who is responsible for the strategic and tacticalmarketing of your product?What is their skill set?How will their success be defined and in what timeperiod?How will your product be sold and by whom?How will you compensate and reward your marketing andsales personnel to achieve optimum performance?

Summary and Discussion

The brief case study of NASA Apollo program underscores stronglythat successful marketing for research and technology organizationsbegins with extreme clarity of what the organizations' mission are andwho are its customers. The clarity of the mission acts as both theorganization's "North Star" and "raison d'etre" providing both focus anddirection.

Research and technology organizations are the wealth creators forsocieties, firms, and individuals in the 21st Century. The successful21st Century technology organization must understand its societal roleand the virtuous cycle of wealth creation so it aggressively pushes theresearch and scientific barriers while addressing customer needs.

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Additionally, the senior leaders of research and technologyorganizations must be cognizant and manage the external culturalconflicts between potential customers and the technology organizationas well as the internal cultural conflicts between the scientific andtechnology managers and the business and economic managers whoseperspectives tend toward intrinsic differences.

All organizations have marketing and sales functions which may beimplicit or explicit. Successful research and technology organizationhave an explicit marketing and sales functions staffed by marketingand sales professionals highly educated and experienced in their fields.A common mistake made by technology organizations is to elevate thebest technologists into marketing/sales roles. This generally results inunfocused marketing/sales function and the loss of the organization'sbest technologists.

Marketing is necessary for a technology organization's survival.Strategic marketing may be segmented into identification of marketneed, customer segmentation, customer targeting, and productpositioning. Tactical marketing (also known as Sales) may besegmented product, price, promotion, physical distribution, and mostimportantly personnel. It must emphasized that each of the saleselements must be perceived by the target customers as a tightlyintegrated whole. If one element is "out of line" such as asking a highprice relative to the product value, no economic transaction will takeplace. If the organization fails to allocate enough promotionalresources, then no economic transaction will take place since potentialcustomers cannot buy what they do not know is available to addresstheir needs.

This article barely scratches the surface of what a scientist ortechnology needs to know about marketing but will give them somecontext by outlining a conceptual framework for successful marketingand sales for science-based organizations. However, it barely touchesthe challenges of implementing actions based on understanding themarketing and sales processes.

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Bibliography1. American Marketing Association (2018). https://www.ama.org/AboutAMA/Pages/

Definition-of-Marketing.aspx 2. Data Market (December 5, 2018). DataMarket: https://datamarket.com/

data/set/1xdu/gdp-per-capita-constant-us-millions#!ds=1xdu!208h=1g&display=line 3. Drucker, P. (2008). The Five Most Important Questions You Will Ever Ask about Your

Organization. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass 4. Drucker, P. (1973 & 1985). Management: Revised Edition. New York: HarperCollins. 5. Dubinskas, F. (1988). Janus Organizations: Scientists & Managers. Making Time:

Ethno graphics of High Technology Organizations. 6. Folger, J. (August 29, 2012). The ROI of Space Exploration. Investopedia,

https://www.investopedia.com/financial-edge/0812/the-roi-of-space-exploration.aspx 7. Fowler, W. (July 21, 2014). Anniversary Shows US that NASA and Space Exploration

are Worth Their Costs. UT News, https://news.utexas.edu/2014/07/21/anniversary-shows-us-that-nasa-and-space-exploration-are-worth-their-costs

8. Ghemawat, P. (March 1985). Building Strategy on the Experience Curve. HarvardBusiness Review, https://hbr.org/1985/03/building-strategy-on-the-experience-curve

9. Henderson, B. (1973). The Experience Curve Reviewed. Perspectives. Boston: BostonConsulting Group, https://www.bcg.com/documents/file13904.pdf

10. Kroll, L.& Dolan, K. (March 6, 2018). Meet the Members of the Three-Comma Club -The 2018 List. Forbes Magazine.

11. Levitt, T. (July August 1960). Marketing Myopia. Harvard Business Review, 38, 45–56.12. Lovelock, C. & Wirtz, J. (2011). Services Marketing: People, Technology, Strategy, 7th

ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, Prentice Hall. 13. Romer, P. (October 1990). Endogenous Technological Change. Journal of Political

Economy 98, no. 5, S71-S102.14. Solow, R. (August 1957). Technical Change and the Aggregate Production Function.

The Review of Economics and Statistics, MIT Press, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 312-320.15. Stevens, G. & Burley, J. (1997). 3,000 raw ideas = 1 commercial success! Research-

Technology Management, 40:3, 16-27, DOI: 10.1080/08956308.1997.11671126 16. Stirone, S. (November 4, 2015). The Real Cost of NASA Missions. Popular Science,

https://www.popsci.com/real-cost-nasa-missions 17. Von Hippel, E. (July 1976). The Dominant Role of Users in the Scientific Instrument

Innovation Process. Research Policy 5, no. 3, 212–239, doi:10.1016/0048-7333(76)90028.7.

18. Wang, J. (October 8, 2018). Scholar becomes 91st person associated with UChicago toreceive Nobel Prize. UChicago News: https://news.uchicago.edu/story/economist-paul-romer-sb77-phd83-wins-share-nobel-prize

19. Wartzman, R. & Crosby, L. (December 3, 2018). Under the Hood of the ManagementTop 250. Wall Street Journal, p. R2 & R4-R6.

20. Zehner, W., Williams, C. & Pletcher, G. (August, 2016). Technology Creates 21stCentury Wealth - Processes, Problems, and Prognosis. Marketing of Scientific andResearch Organizations Journal, vol. 20, 2, 17–38, https://doi.org/10.14611/minib.20.03.2016.08

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21. Zehner, B. & Pletcher, G. (October 2017). Successful Technology Commercialization —Yes or No — Improving the Odds. The Quick Look Methodology and Process.Marketing of Scientific and Research Organization, vol. 25, 81—101, https:doi.org/10.14611/minib.25.09.2017.13

pprrooff.. WWiilllliiaamm BBrraaddlleeyy „„BBrraadd”” ZZeehhnneerr IIII,, IICC22 IInnssttiittuuttee,, UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff TTeexxaass,, AAuussttiinn,, TTeexxaass,, UUnniitteedd SSttaatteessooff AAmmeerriiccaa —— earned a PhD in executive management and leadership from the Peter F. DruckerSchool — Claremont Graduate University after 20+ years as a global business executive. Hewas formerly associate director of the IC2 Institute, a think and do tank focused on wealthcreation, at the University of Texas at Austin as well as executive director of the MS in Scienceand Technology Commercialization Program — see https://www.mccombs.utexas.edu/MSTC atthe University of Texas at Austin. Having recently retired after a 30+ year academic career, BradZehner is a Fellow at the IC2 Institute — The University of Texas at Austin.

JJaaccqquueellyynn AAnnnnee ZZeehhnneerr,, FFaacceebbooookk,, AAuussttiinn,, TTeexxaass,, UUnniitteedd SSttaatteess ooff AAmmeerriiccaa —— earned a BA ineconomics and computational neurosciences from the Claremont McKenna College. Jacquelyn Zehnerstudied at Tsinghua University in Beijing, China and did research at Harvard Medical School. JacquelynZehner currently works for Facebook and frequently assesses job candidates and trains new Facebookemployees throughout the world.

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BUILDING A STRATEGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A UNIVERSITY USING THE METHODOLOGY

OF STRATEGIC SESSIONS ON THE EXAMPLE OF THE ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN ŁÓDŹ

Open Access

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BUILDING A STRATEGY FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF A UNIVERSITYUSING THE METHODOLOGY OF STRATEGIC SESSIONS ON THE

EXAMPLE OF THE ACADEMY OF FINE ARTS IN ŁÓDŹ

Piotr Mikosik, PhD Warsaw Management [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0032

The aim of the article is to present the methodology of building an organization strategy which the author has beenworking on for 8 years. Although the article is based on the case study of the Academy of Fine Arts (ASP) in Łódź, inwhich the author conducted a series of strategic sessions, the methodology itself is universal and can be successfullyapplied both in enterprises, non-profit organizations and offices. The size of the organization or industry is also irrelevant.The author applied the described method in international corporations, no-profit organizations as well as kindergartenswhose teams worked on the concept of development of their organizations. The article presents a full process of creatinga strategy, however, due to the limit of pages imposed by the publishing house, only selected methods used duringstrategic sessions are described.

Summary

Keywords: methods, methodology, team, strategy, moderated session

Introduction

The author familiarized himself with the methods presented in thearticle 8 years ago. Since then, he has used them a few dozen timesduring training sessions and strategic sessions. These methodssupported management staff both in solving complex organizationalproblems as well as preparing strategies. Among the participants ofthese trainings were large enterprises (KGHM, BSS, ORIX, Sheraton,PKO BP), smaller companies, local government units (e.g. TomaszówMazowiecki city authorities), educational organisations (psychologicalcounselling centres, high schools, junior high schools) and the W.Strzemiński Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź (ASP). The methods usedhave also proved useful during classes conducted with students.

The aim of the article is to present the methodology of workingwith a team on building an organization's development strategy. Inorder to prepare the conclusions described below, two researchmethods were used: participatory observation conducted duringstrategic sessions and case study.

In his research work, the author first of all tried to assess the valuesand limitations of the methods. In particular, the subject of interestwas the evaluation of: a) the adjustment of each method to the problemfaced by the team, b) the mutual adjustment of methods to each other,so as to create a coherent and universal methodology and c) theselection of methods to the specificity of the group.

Over the years of conducting research, individual methods havechanged little. Some of them were abandoned because they proved to beof little use, as they included too much duplication of schemes existing inother methods or were too complicated for teamwork conditions. Othermethods were modified, especially when they contained methodologicalor logical gaps. The aim of this selection and modification was to try toachieve greater methodological consistency in order to reduce the gaps inthe process of situation analysis, design and solution assessment.Finally, from a group of about 70 methods more than 20 were selected,which are the canon of the methodology presented here.

However, the cognitive value of this research does not depend onexplaining the methods themselves. Most of them are generally available

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and described in the literature. A special research contribution to theproblems of solving organizational problems and creating strategies wasto be based on the development of the whole methodology — ordered ina logical and coherent process. The assumption that inspired the authorfrom the very beginning was to develop a universal methodology that canbe used in companies and non-profit organizations, in every branch andin work with every team. To a large extent, this assumption wasachieved. Of course, this methodology has its limitations. It will notreplace the lack of competence of the team. No methodology will work ina situation when the scale of the problem exceeds the level ofunderstanding of those who want to solve it. . The methodology will notbe favoured by people who do not accept criticism and do not allowthemselves to be aware that they may be wrong. It will also be rejectedby autocratic leaders, for whom an open exchange of views, especiallywith lower-ranking employees, is treated as a display of weakness.

During the strategic sessions at the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź,the author received permission from the team to describe the course andresults of the session. In this article, efforts have been made to presentthe results of the session in a reliable way, although descriptions of suchproblems and situations are omitted, the disclosure of which could beconsidered "inelegant", let alone unethical. In this article, the problemsdiscussed during sessions in ASP are slightly truncated and slightlygeneralised. Firstly, in order not to overload the reader with details thatare unnecessary for understanding the essence of things, secondly, tomake the message more transparent also for these readers who do notknow the specificity of a high school functioning. This procedure shouldnot have a negative impact on the quality of the interview. What ismore, a higher level of generalisation of problems makes the argumentmore universal and representative of the situation that exists in manyother universities in Poland.

Clarification of basic concepts

Strategy — is an action plan that reflects the management patternin the market sphere and shows how to fulfill the mission and achieve

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the objectives (Wright P., Pringle D., Kroll J.M., 1992 p. 3). In theauthor's understanding, a strategy is a concept of actions which issupposed to allow to achieve objectives which have been defined on thebasis of a thorough diagnosis of the strategic situation.

Moderated strategic/problem session — is a special kind ofmanagerial training whose aim is to prepare an organization'sdevelopment strategy or to solve a complex problem. More specifically,in the professional training nomenclature the term "session" is adifferent concept from "training". During training, the trainer providesinformation that allows participants to increase the scope of theirknowledge. Therefore, training is similar in its form to lectures orexercises conducted in universities. Meanwhile, a strategic or problemsession is based on the assumption that participants have the necessarysubstantive knowledge to go through the process of creating a strategyor solve the problem. However, they do not have knowledge about themethodology of creating strategies or solving problems. Without thehelp of a moderator, the team could get lost in the intricacies ofanalytical methods or creative thinking techniques. However, the role ofa moderator is not to teach methods. Using his knowledge of methods,the moderator is to lead the team through the process of creating astrategy — from the phase of analysing the situation through defininggoals to preparing the concept of the strategy and plans for itsimplementation. The article describes the methodology of strategicsessions, although the methodology of conducting sessions of solvingteam problems is similar and based on the same group of methods.

It is worth noting that the term close to the concept of moderationis facilitation. The PWN Dictionary defines facilitation as "the mutualinfluence of members of a group causing an increase in behavior of acertain kind". (PWN, 2018) In a professional nomenclature, afacilitator is considered to be a person who "clears and directs" thecommunication process in a team in which this communication fails.The goal of the facilitator, contrary to the goal of the moderator, is notto lead the team to achieve a certain result, e.g. to work out a solution.At present, however, the concepts of moderation and facilitation areused interchangeably and in the "Process Iceberg" methodology, forexample, the role of the facilitator is almost identical to the role of the

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moderator described here. On the other hand, e.g. journalistsconducting a debate on television are called moderators of thediscussion, although their aim is to "clarify and direct" the participants'statements on a given topic.

Method and methodology — these terms are often usedinterchangeably. According to Schuman, a method is a way ofproceeding, leading to the solution of a given problem and theachievement of a defined goal. It consists of defined and repeatablestages (H. Schuman, 2013, p. 25). This definition does not seem to beprecise enough, because the concept of methodology can be described ina similar way. For this reason, the following definitions of theseconcepts are proposed in the article.

A method is a structured scheme of action, e.g. a sequence of stepsaimed to achieve a partial goal that is a stage or part of a stage definedby the methodology. An example of a commonly known diagnosticmethod is a 'SWOT analysis'. which aims to identify the strengths andweaknesses of the organisation and the opportunities and threats on themarket. Completion of the SWOT analysis allows to move to the nextmethod, which is the next stage in the methodology of strategy design.

The notion of method is sometimes used interchangeably with thenotion of technique. In the literature, "technique" is defined in asimilar way to "method", although the difference between the twoconcepts results from the scale. A technique is usually considered to beof lesser importance and importance than a method. A method with ahigh degree of detail becomes a technique, a procedure, a prescription.(Z. Martyniak, 1999, p. 7). Due to the fact that it is difficult todetermine the boundary between a technique and a method, the articledoes not distinguish between these concepts and often uses theminterchangeably.

Methodology is a set of methods ordered in a logical process.

Specificity of university management

The article describes the methodology of strategy building usingmoderated strategic sessions. Although the article is based on the case

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study of the Academy of Fine Arts in Łódź, the methodology itself isuniversal and can be successfully used to prepare a strategy for acompany, office, theatre club or kindergarten.

Although the general structure of a strategy session is similar foreach type of organization, the course of the session itself or the internallogic of the methods used will be different. They must be adapted to theunique characteristics of each type of organisation. Therefore, it isworthwhile to introduce a few key aspects of university functioningwhich determine decisions of strategic nature.

In companies operating in a highly competitive environment, one of themost important departments is the marketing department, and theposition of marketing director is considered to be crucial in theorganizational structure of companies and having a strong impact on thestrategy.

Higher education institutions in Poland operate in the conditions ofdecreasing demand. The number of secondary school graduates was about700,000 in 2002, and by 2020 it is expected to decrease to about 350,000,i.e. by 50% (CSO 2017). Therefore, competitive conditions in the industryhave been increasingly difficult for years. The interviews conducted bythe author show that in Polish public universities it is difficult to meet aprofessional marketing department performing a role similar to thatexisting in business. In public universities there are only promotiondepartments, dealing with current information activity, whoseemployees, due to savings, are often recruited from among students.These departments, of course, have no influence on the strategy of theuniversity. In the case of non-public universities, the situation looksslightly better. (Mikosik, 2014).

Universities have a unique, as far as business conditions areconcerned, specificity of organizational culture. First of all, there is astrong separation between academic and administrative staff. Theseenvironments create different organisational cultures and there is noneed to prove that the position and prestige of the scientific community isdominant. This specificity is important for the selection of managementstaff. An employee performing important managerial functions in auniversity who would not hold a university degree will not be appreciatedby scientists, and their influence on this environment will be limited.

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Relationships within the organisational structure of a university arealso specific. The dean of a faculty formally supervises the faculties. Atthe same time, the dean is also a researcher and a member of thefaculty. Therefore, the dean is both the supervisor and subordinate tothe head of the department. This structural complexity is difficult forthe business community to understand. A similar situation in thecompany would lead to a decision making process and is treated asnormal at universities.

The rector, and in particular a public higher education institutionisis elected from among the staff of the institution. After the end of theterm of office, he or she usually becomes an "ordinary" academicemployee, and another employee is elected in his or her place.Therefore, if the rector is guided by common sense, he or she must takethis fact into account when making difficult, e.g. personal decisions. Itis therefore logical that in order to avoid conflicts they will behaveconservatively if they do not want to be exposed to possible futureconsequences. This situation is one of the reasons for the high inertiaof universities towards the implementation of changes.

The above mentioned phenomena do not present a full panoramaoutlining the specificity of functioning and management of a highereducation institution. They are presented as examples of the challengesfaced by university management and how different these challenges arefrom those faced by the management of a company. In order to prepareand implement university strategies, these phenomena are of keyimportance. Without taking into account the limitations that resultfrom them, in the area of making and implementing decisions, it isimpossible to prepare an effective strategy.

Strategy development process

The classic model of strategy building

Before explaining the strategy building process used duringmoderated strategic sessions, it is worthwhile to refer to the classicalmodel. The most popular model, described in most of the strategic

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management manuals, is based on the following stages (e.g. Kłeczek R.,Kowal W., Woźniczka J. 2001 p. 51): 1. Building a vision and mission2. Analysis of the strategic situation: analysis of the environment,

internal analysis, SWOT3. Setting the strategic objective and strategy4. Setting objectives and operational programmes5. Implementation and control.

It is difficult to accuse this model of lack of logical order. It startswith the most general area, i.e. outlining the image of the company'sconcept (vision) then moves on to strategic diagnosis in order to outlinethe direction and plan of further action in the next step.

However, this model should be accused of excessive simplification whichresults in its limited usefulness in the development of the strategy. In hisoutstanding book, R. Rumelt critically addressed such models accusingthem of limited usefulness. He calls this process "building a template-basedstrategy". It is difficult to promote a critical evaluation of Rumelt'stemplates since the aim of the article is to present a template forconducting a strategy session. However, one should agree with the authorof the book "Good strategy, bad strategy" that starting the process ofbuilding a strategy from creating a vision is deceptive because of the riskthat this vision will be missed out on the hard reality of the situation.

The author of the article had a chance to see for himself how weakit is to start building a strategy with a vision. In the years 2012–2014he participated in the programme of school development in the ŁódźProvince. The aim of the program was, among others, to help create astrategy for the development of these centers. Several of them were ina very difficult situation with poor educational results, falling intereston the part of candidates, an increase in the number of so-calleddifficult students and a depreciation of the school's prestige.

Initially, work on the strategy began with the creation of anambitious vision for the future, on the basis of which the ways of itsimplementation were developed. In several schools, this approach wasmet with a wave of criticism from participants and was rejected. Thecriticism stemmed from the realism of their situation, i.e. lack of budget,lack of specialised staff, professional burnout of teachers who did not

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show goodwill to engage in the development of their own workplace, andoften the deepening conflict between management and teachers. Allthese factors led to lack of confidence in any change among the team. Inother words, schools were often in the grip of unfavourable factors. Itwas difficult to find a school that was "healthy" and had developmentalpotential. In the light of these realities, the confrontation with anambitious vision of the school was a grotesque activity for the staff. Inthe strategy of these schools, it was first of all necessary to launch anydevelopment processes that would teach the staff how to set andimplement objectives, build a sense of responsibility, and strengthentheir belief that it is possible to achieve changes. This is an example ofgoals that should be set by an "ambitious" strategy for these centres andsuch goals should include an equally ambitious vision. For this reason,work on designing a strategy should begin with a diagnosis of thesituation and not with a vision or mission. This approach is indicated,among others, by the aforementioned Rumelt.

Strategy development process during moderated sessions

The preparation of the strategy should start with work on the diagnosisof the situation. The basic questions to be answered are: what are we herefor, what are we dealing with, what do they affect, what do we want?Rumelt calls this one statement — what is going on here?

In the methodology proposed here, however, there is a stage precedingthe diagnosis, i.e. the stage of determining the criteria to be taken intoaccount in the analysis of the situation. Starting the activities fromdefining the criteria allows to avoid the error of overlooking an importantarea of the organization's functioning during the diagnostic work.

Figure 1. The process of creating a strategy during a strategic session

Source: own elaboration.

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Developmentcriteria

Situationdiagnosis

Challenge//objective

VisionStrategyconcept

The diagnosis phase of the situation is firstly to allow to identifythe factors determining the development and creation of problems inthe organization, and secondly, to determine the causal and effectrelationships between them. The result of the situation diagnosis isthe preparation of a system of connections between the mostimportant factors and the definition of "leverage", i.e. such a factor orfactors that are particularly important for the development of theorganisation.

After completing the diagnosis phase, the team is supposed toinitially define what the goal which it wants to achieve is and thechallenge it will have to face. Determining the goal requires an answerto the question "what do you want to achieve?

The next step is to identify the key challenge that needs to be taken inorder to achieve the set goals. The challenge is the answer to the question"What is the main obstacle to achieving the goal?"The right challenge is thefactor in a strategy that creates a breakthrough that drives the wholeproject. The implementation of a challenge often has a significant impacton the implementation of other elements of the strategy.

The stages described above were analytical in nature. They divided thegeneral phenomena into the first factors. Creating a vision has a differentcharacter. It is an activity that synthesizes thinking. Vision is an idea of thefinal result of actions. Visualization of the desired effect which the teamstrives to achieve. Building a common vision of the future situation has aparticular benefit. The way the team thinks about the organizationbecomes common, which leads to the same direction of thinking. A teamthat has a common idea of what it wants to achieve understands oneanother better and cooperates more effectively.

The preparation of the strategy concept is a stage in which the teamworks on the issue of developing the way to achieve the vision andgoals. It identifies obstacles, tasks, factors that should be taken intoaccount when implementing the objectives. It then organizes them intoa coherent system and creates an action plan.

The discussed process (diagnosis–objectives/challenge–vision–concept)is a process of mutual feedback. These stages influence one another. Thepreparation of the strategy concept may give the team a new referenceframework and show the situation in a different light, which in turn may

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result in the need to verify the diagnosis by taking into account the factorsnot taken into account so far. This, of course, may influence the shape ofthe vision and change the concept of strategic actions. This process endswhen the team concludes that all its elements are considered to be coherentand complementary.

Methods used in the strategy session

In the next part of the article we will present selected methodsused at particular stages of the strategy development process.

The basic methods that are used during the session are about 20.The choice of them depends first of all on the stage, secondly on thespecificity of the problem that the team is working on, and thirdlyalso on the specificity of the group — for example, working withofficials uses fewer creative methods, and more analytical methodsthat more correspond to the specificity of work and thinking of thisprofessional group.

Kawakita Relation Diagram — Meta Method

Before the individual stages of the strategy design process and themethods used in the work on a given stage are discussed here, it is firstnecessary to present a superior method to all the others — theKawakita relatedness diagram (Corejowa, Borkowski, 2004, p. 32–35).It can be described as a meta-method, because it can be used at everystage of work on solving team problems, as a tool supporting othermethods. In particular, it is useful when working on diagnosing aproblem, when searching for solutions and when identifying the factorsconditioning (limiting and supporting) the implementation ofsolutions. The aim is to identify and order a large number of factors.Working with the Kawakita diagram consists of the following steps:

assigning cards to team memberswriting ideascategorising ideasselection of the best ideas

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The team working on solving the problem must equip themselves withsmall cards (fiches). These cards are used to write down ideas. Each teammember working on the problem has to write down as many ideas aspossible, but the basic rule is to write one idea per card. Writing down ideasin this way gives every team member the opportunity to express theiropinion, because there is no possibility for the leader to dominate the groupor for those team members who have a low level of assertiveness to breakthrough with their ideas. Writing down also guarantees that no ideas willbe lost during further stages of work. After the generation of ideas iscompleted, the next step is to organize the information. The team has toorganize the cards, making them into groups of the same thematiccategories. The work with the diagram ends when the team has put all theideas in order. The next step, i.e. the selection of specific ideas, will be theresult of the methods described later in the article.

Development criteria

The strategic session starts with the definition of the criteriadetermining the organization development. The team's task is toanswer the question: which areas should be taken into account duringthe session in order to prepare a strategy? The aim of this stage is toprepare the team for further work and to direct it to the right path ofthinking about development. One of the problems when working withteams is to direct the thinking of individual team members in such away that they look at their organisation from the perspective of thewhole and not only from the point of view of their own department.Already at this stage of the work, an outline of the structure of termsto be used later in the session is created.

The most frequently mentioned areas that determine developmentinclude: budget, staff competences, quality of cooperation andcommunication in the organisation, the quality of products/services,marketing, internal procedures, relations with the environment. Inthe case of ASP, these were: cooperation with the environment,cooperation of the staff, image of the university brand, quality ofeducation, scientific/artistic development.

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Although there are specific methods that can help the team toidentify important areas, due to the initial, preparatory nature of workand usually the need to save time, the method used here is a list offactors. In the course of the discussion, the team should select about 10areas and prioritise them. When creating this ranking, no particularaccuracy is required in the selection of the order. The most importantis to build awareness of the existence of these areas.

Diagnosis of the situation

The next stage of the strategy building process is the situation diagnosis.The team is confronted with the question — which existing factors hinderthe development of the organization, and which ones support it? As astarting point, the team is to refer to the criteria defined in the previousstage and, based on this, determine specific factors or phenomena in termsof their significance for development. Examples of such phenomena withinthe criterion of cooperation between team members may be: a) a generalgood climate of cooperation between departments in the company — as apositive aspect, and b) a conflict between two key experts, which the organiceffectiveness of implemented projects — as negative. There is no limit to thenumber of factors taken into account. Each member of the team is able toidentify any number of positive and negative factors in each criterion. If theteam determines that there are additional factors beyond the scope of theaforementioned criteria, it is fully entitled to take them into account.

The is a high probability that a team consisting of several dozenmembers will generate at this stage several dozen or even more than100 factors influencing the organization development. Further work onsuch a large number of components could not be effective or evenpossible without the support of organizing and selecting methods.Therefore, in the next step it is necessary to organize the factorsaccording to the Kawakita Affinity Diagram.

Regardless of how much in the initial phase of the work wasidentified by a set of factors, 20–40 of them ultimately remain in 6-8basic categories after being ordered and selected. This is the rightmoment for the team to make a visual presentation of the situation onthe Ishikawa diagram (Robinson, 2005, pp. 74–79).

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The Ishikawa Diagram is a popular tool in the area of quality work (TQM).Specialists often associate it with the area of improving the quality ofproduction and the quality of procedures. However, this diagram also workswell in the analysis of an organisation. An example of a completed Ishikawadiagram is shown in Fig. 1. The diagram is structured as follows: the mainproblem that the team is working on is marked on the main axis. The side axesindicate the factors within each category. The number of axes corresponds tothe number of categories prepared by the assembly. When working on adiagram, it is important that the team does not create too many categories.Experience shows that the maximum number of categories (i.e. side axes)should not exceed eight. Excessive information is created above and thediagram becomes illegible. In the example given below, the most importantfactors influencing the development of ASP are taken into account.

The use of the Ishikawa diagram allows to look at all the key factors froma perspective and in an orderly manner. While preparing the diagram in oneof large Polish corporations, the participants said that for the first time sincethe beginning of the company's existence, all the most important issuesdiscussed by the managers in the corridors were presented in the diagram.

In the analysed example, the ASP team consisting of the rector, vice-rectors,deans and vice-deans during the work on the strategy identified several dozenpotential factors determining the development of the University. In the courseof further selection, he identified more than 20 most significant of them. At thisstage of work, it is still difficult to deduce which factors may be crucial for thepurposes of further strategy preparation. It is significant, however, that asignificant number of factors identified by the team is arranged according toclear categories, which allows for a detailed assessment of the significance ofeach of them. Without listing these factors and using the ordering method, it isnot possible to continue effective teamwork. Each member of the team has adifferent understanding of the situation in which the organisation finds itselfand most often, when proposing solutions, takes into account the conditionsthat are closest to his or her heart.

The next step in the process of diagnosing the situation is to create linksbetween factors. The aim of this measure is to show causal and effect relationsbetween factors and to identify those of them which are of particular importanceand are crucial for the development of the entire organisational system.Examples of creating links between factors are shown in the Figure 3.

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Figure 2. Example of an Ishikawa diagram application for ASP.

Source: Own elaboration based on training materials.

During the work on building links between factors in the ASP team,the image of key factors influencing the development of the universitystarted to crystallize. Two main areas requiring development wereidentified. The factor related to the environment was the image of theUniversity's brand and the need to strengthen it. The implementationof this objective was to help encourage talented candidates to join theAcademy of Fine Arts, and at the same time build relations withbusiness and city authorities. The second key area was theimprovement of cooperation quality among the ASP staff. Thanks tothe implementation of this objective, the efficiency of tasks and theeffectiveness of scientific development were to be improved.

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Personneldevelopment

Contract work

Number and type of exhibitions

Master-student relationships

Acquisition of academic titles

The unwillingness of some employees to cooperate

General high level of cooperation and commitment

Problems in building agreement among staff

Small student groups

Talented lecturers

Talented students

Strong ASP brand image

Cooperation with business

Cooperation with exhibitors

The role of higher ideas in development

Training

Reluctance of some staff to development and training

Good relations with public administrationrepresentatives

Cooperation with themedia and promotion

Involvement of lecturers

Formation of interestgroups

Acceptance of the objectives set by the Rector

Relations withthe environmentCooperation

Development

Quality of education

ASP Objectives and Challenge

After the diagnosis of the situation, the next step is to define theobjectives. Targets should result directly from the diagnosis, but do nothave to be the same as those described in the Ishikawa diagram. Basedon the diagnosis, the team is to decide whether the goals it considers tobe the most important result from the factors on which the team hasworked so far, or whether it wants to set completely new goals. In thecase of the session at the Academy of Fine Arts, the team defined 4strategic goals:

Building a strong image of the Academy of Fine Arts in itssurroundings

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Figure 3. Links between factors

Source: Own elaboration based on training materials.

Personneldevelopment

Contract workNumber and type of exhibitions

Master-student relationships

Acquisition of academic titles

The unwillingness of some employees to cooperate

General high level ofcooperation and commitment

Problems in building agreement among staff

Small student groups

Talented lecturers

Talented students

Cooperation with business

Cooperation with exhibitors

The role of higher ideas in development

Training

Reluctance of some staff to development and training

Good relations with public administration representatives

Cooperation with themedia and promotion

Involvement of lecturers

Formation of interestgroups

Acceptance of the objectives set by the Rector

Relations withthe environment

Development

Quality of education

Strong ASP brand image

Cooperation

Improving the quality of education (university-wide approach tocurricula)Internationalisation of the higher education institutionDevelopment of external cooperation.

Building a strong image of the University in its environment wasconnected with reaching the awareness of the city's inhabitants, localauthorities and businesses. Thanks to this action, the mission of theUniversity was realized, but it was also to help build contacts beneficialfor the development of the University, staff and students. To achievethis goal, it is necessary to be present more intensively in events suchas events, exhibitions, vernissages, and also by intensifyingcooperation with the media.

The improvement of the quality of education was mainly related tothe improvement of curricula and cooperation between teachers. Aproblem at many universities is the improvement of curricula whensubjects are to be taught by lecturers from different faculties. Due tothe fact that lecturers belong to other organisational units ofuniversities and have less possibility of contact with each other, andoften also have a different understanding of the needs and specificity ofother faculties functioning, subjects taught in cooperation withfaculties can be inconsistent with each other. To achieve this goal, itwas necessary to put emphasis on communication and cooperation ofthe teaching staff.

Internationalisation of the University was associated with greateropenness to foreign students, cooperation with foreign universities,galleries and business. The development of external cooperationconcerned enterprises that would be interested not only incommercialization of projects created by students and employees of theAcademy of Fine Arts, but also in their employment.

Challenge is a different concept from purpose, however, in somesituations purpose and challenge may overlap. The challenge addressesa key problem, an obstacle that hinders or even prevents theachievement of the objectives set. In the case of ASP, the mainchallenge was to achieve stronger integration and closer cooperationbetween University staff. The existence of problems in communication,

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insufficient support in the implementation of projects by teammembers and the formation of subgroups made it difficult toimplement practically every goal set during the session because each ofthem required agreement and joint work. This problem was noticedand considered significant both for the Rector of the University and therest of the management staff. Improvement of communication andrelations was considered a priority action.

Vision of the University

A vision is the most general and desirable image of the situationthat management would like to bring its organisation to. Going beyondrationality and common sense — to some extent — can be an addedvalue in its formulation. The function of the vision is on the one handto define the superior direction of the organization's development andon the other hand to motivate the team to work hard. Based on theconclusions obtained in the diagnostic part, the ASP team formulatedthe following vision:

"ASP as the best university in Poland, significant in the world. Ourlecturers set the most important directions in art and design. We andour continuators are an opinion-forming force shaping the environmentand the world. We nurture the values of mutual respect, the need fordevelopment, student support and commitment in many dimensions.

Spectacular projects and undertakings are constantly andenthusiastically implemented which increase our huge output. Ourgraduates are in demand on the global labour market, increase theeconomic growth of the whole Europe, shape the sensitivity andattitudes of the recipients of their work all over the world".

Evaluating the content of the vision after a few weeks of cooling off , theteam started to question the two aspects mentioned here. The first oneconcerned the impact of the ASP on economic growth. The relationshipbetween project design and student education and economic indicators wasdiscussed. In the opinion of some of the staff, these unions were too distantfrom each other and therefore unreliable. Suggestions were made that thisaspect should be removed from the vision.

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The second, a much more controversial aspect, was setting directionsin art and design by the Academy's lecturers. The discussion concernedthe issue of whether the aim of the Academy of Fine Arts is to createtrends. The differences of opinion among the staff were significant andthe discussion divided them into two camps. The problem was notsolved, but this aspect was to remain part of the vision.

Eventually, the team decided that the realization of such a visionremains within the scope of the University's ability to achieve, all themore so because most of it is already being realized.

Building the concept of strategy is an activity whose aim is to givestructure to the tasks, the implementation of which is to allow toachieve the goals set at an earlier stage. This stage is to answer thequestion what should be taken into account when implementing theobjectives? The most important stages and tasks should be definedhere, as well as obstacles which condition the achievement of particularstrategic objectives. They then need to be organised into a singleconcept and prioritised. During the process of setting up the tasks, itmay turn out that the actions for the implementation of one objectiveare convergent and, in any case, support the actions for theimplementation of another objective. This creates a synergy effect,which is very desirable and supports the strategy implementation. Atthe same time, the opposite may also happen when it turns out that theimplementation of one of the objectives will hamper work on anotherobjective, e.g. by absorbing resources or contradictory logic. Anexample of such actions may be building openness of communicationamong the staff while expecting secrecy regarding the projectsimplemented by the departments. In such a situation, it may turn outthat the previously set goals require revision. This process should berepeated as long as the team does not achieve coherence in the systemof diagnosis–objectives–strategy.

Implementation. The objectives that were set by the ASPmanagement team did not have an internal contradiction and to a largeextent supported each other. Building the brand image even requiredthe development of cooperation with external organisations — theseobjectives were linked by strong synergistic dependencies. At the sametime, the improvement of the quality of education or

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internationalisation of activities was also conducive to brand building.There would be no justification for presenting specific measures to

achieve specific objectives. This is the operational level of theorganisation's activity, which was largely developed outside thestrategic session as part of the work of subassemblies.

A much more important issue was to face the challenge perceived bythe staff — the improvement of cooperation between employees, bothin the horizontal system and in hierarchical relations. Achieving thesuccess of this challenge was to be a breakthrough action that enabled,or at least significantly accelerated, the implementation of all the setobjectives. For this reason, a programme of development and staffintegration was launched at the university. It was addressed primarilyto the management staff. It was attended by rectors, deans andchairmen. It was conducted by an external company which conductedspecialist trainings and coaching for individual persons from the staff.Initially, it was treated with mistrust, as it was the first training forthe University's management staff in history. Finally, the programmewas accepted with great enthusiasm, and at the request of the staff, thenext edition of the programme was carried out. Most of themanagement staff took an active part in it.

Summary

The aim of the article was to present the methodology of building theorganization's strategy applying the methodology used duringmoderated strategic sessions. The case of the Academy of Fine Arts inŁódź, where the author of the article conducted strategic sessions in2017, was used to explain the different stages and the specificity of themethods. The basic process of building a strategy is based on thefollowing stages: diagnosis of the situation, defining the challenge andvision, preparing and then evaluating solutions and planningimplementation activities. The article describes selected methods usedat particular stages of the process, except for the stage of planningactivities. It results from the fact that during the session the teamsexpect the moderator to carry them out through the process from the

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diagnosis of the situation to the definition of new directions ofdevelopment (solutions), and leave the work on detailed, operationalplanning for working meetings. This part is time consuming and muchless creative, so the teams during the session prefer to work on areasthat they cannot deal with as effectively as they can with the help of amoderator.

The methodology presented in the article is universal, i.e. it does notdepend on the industry or the size of the organization. It is equallysuitable for building a company's strategy as well as a charity association.The methods described here are not innovative in themselves. They aremostly known and described in the literature. The value here, however, isthe way in which these methods are ordered — that is, the sessionmethodology, as well as the interpretation of the meaning and role ofindividual methods in the process of building a strategy.

References1 An example of another tool that is perfect for visualizing an organizational situation is Buzan's Mind Map.

Bibliography 1. Corejowa T., Borkowski S., (2004). Instrumenty rozwiązywania problemów w zarządza-

niu. Sosnowiec: ABAKO. 2. GUS (2017), Szkoły wyższe. 3. Kłeczek R., Kowal W, Woźniczka J. (2001). Strategiczne planowanie marketingowe. War-

szawa: PWE. 4. Martyniak Z. (1999). Metody organizacji i zarządzania. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Akade-

mii Ekonomicznej w Krakowie. 5. Mikosik P. (2014). Problemy zarządzania marketingowego niepubliczną szkołą wyższą.

MINiB 3 (13). 6. PWN, 2018. https://sjp.pwn.pl/sjp/facylitacja;2557384.html (dostęp 17.09.2018) 7. Robinson M, (2005). Grupowe rozwiązywanie problemów. Warszawa: PWE. 8. Rumelt R., (2013) Dobra strategia, zła strategia. Czym się różnią i jakie to ma znaczenie.

Warszawa: MT Biznes. 9. Schuman H. (2013). Metoda i znaczenie w badaniach sondażowych. Warszawa: Oficyna

Naukowa. 10. Wright P., Pringle D., Kroll J. M., (1992). Strategic management, Text and cases. Boston:

Allyn and Bacon.

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PPiioottrr MMiikkoossiikk,, PPhhDD,, WWaarrssaaww MMaannaaggeemmeenntt UUnniivveerrssiittyy,, PPoollaanndd —— academic teacher with 18 years ofexperience, he deals with strategic management and employee development. He gained businessexperience as, among others, a consultant in the international consulting company IMPAC SYSTEMSand as a member of the management of an IT company — Intercon. Moreover, he is a managementcoach and he holds the certificate of ICC (International Coaching Community). He has trained, amongothers, the management of KGHM, Bank Spółdzielczy in Skierniewice, Telewizja Polska,representatives of public administration in Warmia-Mazury voivodeship, of the management of theAcademy of Fine Arts in Łódź.

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EVALUATION OF THE MARKETINGCOMMUNICATION OF SCIENTIFIC UNITS

IN THE CONTEXT OF COOPERATION WITH THE SECTOR OF SMALL AND MEDIUM

ENTERPRISES IN LODZ REGION

Open Access

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EVALUATION OF THE MARKETING COMMUNICATION OF SCIENTIFICUNITS IN THE CONTEXT OF COOPERATION WITH THE SECTOR

OF SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN LODZ REGION

Sławomir Milczarek, PhDMarvec [email protected]

PhD. hab. Eng. Magdalena Grębosz-Krawczyk, Professor of Łódź University of TechnologyŁódź University of Technology, Faculty of Management and Production [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0034

An essential role in the constant overcoming of barriers as well as in the development of cooperation on the line "science-business" is played by proper marketing communication carried out by scientific units, being the party initiating thecommercialization processes. The aim of the article is to evaluate selected aspects of marketing communication carriedout by scientific units during cooperation with small and medium enterprises (SMEs) representing the smartspecializations of the Lodz region. The article discusses the results of research carried out in the second and third quarterof 2018, based on the method of indirect communication with respondents, using a questionnaire among therepresentatives of companies belonging to the smart specializations of the Lodz region. The research results prove thatscientific units do not use the available spectrum of marketing communication tools in cooperation with companies anddo not use the language of market benefits in the description of knowledge being the subject of commercialization. Themajority of respondents are convinced that the level of use of online communication tools by scientific units is low andmedium, which automatically transfers into lowering its perception as innovative partners. On the other hand, in theopinion of the surveyed companies, the use of the possibilities created by the Internet Web 2.0 era by scientific units inmarketing communication, can positively affect their image in the business environment.

Summary

Keywords: marketing communication, cooperation, scientific unit, on-line communication,marketing message, R&D

Introduction

Cooperation of scientific entities and business environment is a verydesirable and necessary phenomenon for the development ofknowledge-based economy. As Sojkin and Michalak (2016) emphasise,in the era of globalisation, professionalisation and internationalisationof the economy, there is a need to transform the role of universitiesinto an entity dynamically influencing market and manufacturingprocesses. Apart from natural preparation of personnel for theeconomy, the role of the university is to conduct R+D works togetherwith enterprises or on their behalf. Practically every research anddevelopment activity (with the exception of basic research) is orientedtowards the application of its results in practice, which means that itshould take into account the market and business context. The level ofknowledge of external conditions is directly proportional to the level ofadvancement of R+D works (Koszałka, 2016). In practice, this meansthat conducting work at an increasingly higher TRL1 level requiresmore and more market and business knowledge, which isunambiguously related to the way and degree of integration ofmarketing communication. Therefore, from the marketing point ofview, the offer of scientific entities for enterprises is a product which issubject to similar laws as other products on the B2B market. Due to theregulations concerning the functioning of scientific institutions(parameterization system, evaluation criteria or financing system) andthe purpose of their activity, scientific entities cannot be treated, in adirect way, as commercial enterprises. Therefore, the aspect ofmarketing communication refers only to activities related to theprocess of knowledge commercialisation, i.e. science-business relations(Milczarek, 2017). Here, similarly as in market enterprises, themarketing message is the main determinant of success in the sales area(in this case, the commercialisation of knowledge). The scale ofknowledge commercialisation in scientific entities, in turn, directlyinfluences the level of innovativeness of the region and the country.This level is the higher the more the results of development works andindustrial research correspond to the real needs of entrepreneurs(Borscht, 2016). According to the theory of the triple helix proposed by

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Leydesdorff and Etzkowitz (2001), scientists in their relations withindustry are expected to be active in the area of developing innovativesolutions whose practical application will give them competitiveadvantages.

Unfortunately, in practice, according to research carried out(Warsaw Enterprise Institute, 2016; European Commission, 2007), themain barriers to cooperation between entrepreneurs andrepresentatives of the world of science are of a communicative nature.They belong to them:

negative image of science and scientists who, in the opinion ofentrepreneurs, do not understand the questions posed to them in thecontext of business objectives, i.e. the market success of theimplemented solution,perceiving activities resulting from cooperation with scientists as notsignificant for running a business (generating revenues and profit),convincing entrepreneurs of the asymmetry in the transfer of benefits,negative experiences of business in contact with science.

The authors of the report summarize the research with a thesis thatthe reluctance of Polish entrepreneurs to undertake joint actions withscientists results mainly from a negative perception of Polish scienceand a belief in its low level of applicability and detachment frombusiness reality. What is interesting, negative opinions on science weregiven to a greater extent by entrepreneurs who did not have anyexperience in cooperation with scientific entities. This fact reveals evenmore clearly the errors of marketing communication conducted byscientific entities, which as a supply side are obliged to positivelyactivate the market through, among others, the use of communicationinstruments and tools characteristic for the B2B segment. Only in thisway can they achieve an increase in the degree of commercialisation ofknowledge, while at the same time breaking the current mentalbarriers on the part of enterprises (Kulczycki, 2017). This positiveactivation of the external environment is a factor that leads to a two-way flow of constructive information (features of immanent marketingcommunication), i.e. a comparison of the needs of enterprises with the

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capabilities of scientific entities. Feedback, which, as we know, is therecipient's reaction to the message sent by the sender after itsdecoding, will then begin to serve as a source of valuable informationfrom the external environment, and not just as an opinion generator asis the case today. The process of filling in the information gap, whichaccording to Matusiak and Guliński (2010) has a long-term andcomplicated origin, will take place. Its causes should be soughtprimarily in the traditions and values represented by universities, thegoals set, the career model and evaluation of a researcher, as well as inmarket priorities, business culture, constant uncertainty and the timehorizon for decision making in economic entities.

Literature on the national and international level quite well definesboth the motives for cooperation between the parties (e.g. Bjerregaard,2009; Breen&Hing, 2002; Santarek and others, 2008) and the mainobstacles in establishing cooperation (e.g. Feldy, 2014; Hakansson,2014; Kuna-Marshalek and others, 2013; Mikosik, 2017; Urmański,2016). Therefore, it seems interesting to evaluate the marketingcommunication conducted by scientific entities in the context ofcooperation with enterprises focused on development throughbelonging to regional smart specialisations.

The aim of the article is to evaluate selected aspects of marketingcommunication conducted by research units in cooperation with SMEsrepresenting intelligent specializations of the Łódź Province.

Key factors of marketing communication of scientific entities in the context of cooperation with enterprises

One of the key factors of effective communication between scienceand business entities is the way in which they encode the messageaddressed to the environment. Due to cultural differences betweenthe two environments (science and business), the coding of themessage must take into account the elements characteristic for theperception of enterprises, such as competitiveness, profit or the

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highest quality (Kleiber, 2004; Marszałek, 2010; Różański, 2013).Therefore, the basic idea of the message should be presented in theconstruction of the communication, i.e. the benefits to be received bythe recipient. In this case, the promotional constance must flexiblycombine the substantive experience of the research unit with theinnovative perception of business reality. Unfortunately, thetendency of scientists to frequently use metalanguage, i.e. conceptswith a high degree of synthesis, is not conducive to decoding themessage in an intended way (Mikosik, 2017). The structure of themarketing message and the way it is encoded are therefore offundamental importance in relations between the world of scienceand business, and the growing specialisation of R&D work willfurther increase this significance (Hakansson, 2014).

Due to the nature of cooperation between research institutionsand enterprises, the most frequently used channels ofcommunication are personal channels, i.e. direct communicationbetween research workers and entrepreneurs. This type ofcommunication, due to its individualized character and real-timefeedback, determines the process of knowledge commercialization.After a direct meeting with a scientist, an entrepreneur makesdecisions on further cooperation, which is connected with a financialinvestment on his part. This is why it is so important to stress themarket benefits that the enterprise will gain when deciding topurchase technology or knowledge in a research unit. Felda'sresearch (2014) shows that direct contact between a scientist and anentrepreneur on average increases the possibility of cooperationbetween both institutions by more than nine times.

Marketing communication both in enterprises that want toincrease their market value and in scientific entities whose task is toconduct R+D works, serves as a link with the external (internal)environment. Due to the two-way flow of information, marketingcommunication is a system thanks to which organisations can alsoobtain information, which distinguishes it from promotion. As asystem, i.e. a set of interconnected elements, marketingcommunication is effective only when there is absolute consistency of

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the message with the coding system, the type of recipient and thecontext in which the message is transmitted. Feedback, as therecipient's reaction to the sender's intentions, is a kind of verificationof the correctness of information encoding, as well as thepermeability of the applied transmission channels. In the case ofenterprises, a measurable indicator of a properly constructedcommunication architecture is the purchasing reaction of customers,an increase in the level of brand recognition or the number of positiveratings in social media. In relation to scientific entities, however, itwill increase the interest of the business environment in theconducted R&D works, as well as increase the scope of its orientationregarding the research capabilities of a given entity. Due to thenature of the offer of scientific entities and the specific nature of itsaddressee (usually a private entity from the SME segment), the bestresults are achieved by communication in personal channels, which isadditionally most expected by the business environment (Urmański,2016). Personal channels of marketing communication arecharacteristic of the B2B market, where the message is highlyspecialised and the details need to be specified in detail.

Testing methodology

Basic empirical research, preceded by pilot studies, was carried outat the turn of May and August 2018. The method of indirectcommunication with the respondents using a questionnaire was usedduring the research. The research was conducted amongrepresentatives of micro, small and medium enterprises belonging tointelligent specialisations of the Łódź Province.

The survey was conducted in accordance with the scope described inTable 1.

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Table 1. Scope of research

Material scope Marketing communication process

Entity scope Companies belonging to regional specialisations in Łódź

Spatial scope Łódź Province

Source of information Original: materials from our own empirical research

Research method Method of indirect communication with respondents using a questionnaire

Time range 05.2018-08.2018.

Source: Own elaboration.

The questionnaire was drawn up in Word as well as using aninterface at https://www.interankiety.pl/ and a link activating itscompletion was sent together with a cover letter to the respondents.Due to the high risk of antispam rejection, mailing by means of aquestionnaire portal was abandoned. If the respondent asked for asurvey in a noninternet form, the questionnaire was sent in a Worddocument format.

In the study, a targeted, layered selection of the sample was used.The questionnaire was sent to 10% of the population (Tab.2). Theselection of enterprises in particular layers was random. The basis onwhich the division into layers was made was the CDIG and CRN (KRS)registers.

Table 2. Smart specialisation enterprises in Łódz Province

Number of Specialisation Micro Small Medium Total questionnaires

sent

Modern Textile and Fashion Industry (including Design) 8 793 923 155 9 871 981Innovative Agriculture and Agricultural and Food Processing 5 548 624 134 6 306 631Energy (including OZE) 584 42 31 657 67Medicine, Pharmacy, Cosmetics 13 039 345 104 13 488 1 350Advanced Building Materials 3 591 307 77 3 975 398IT and Telecommunications 4 614 101 10 4 725 473Total 36 169 2 342 511 39 022 3 900

Source: Own calculations based on the CDIG and CRN (KRS) registers.

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135 completed questionnaires were received, representing 3.46% ofall sent questionnaires. This result, with a population of 39.022subjects and a confidence level of 95%, gives a maximum statisticalerror rate of 8%.

The survey involved 135 companies among which there were:

32 entities representing modern textile and fashion industry (includingdesign), 10 entities from the area of innovative agriculture and agri-foodprocessing,13 entities representing the energy sector (including EE,OZE), 16 entities from the medical, pharmaceutical and cosmetics sectors23 entities representing the advanced building materials sector,41 entities from the area of IT and telecommunications.

84 surveyed entities declared that they represent micro, 41 smalland 10 medium-sized enterprises. Among the surveyed group therewere dominating entities operating on the market for more than 10years. The size and age structure of enterprises reflects the SMEsegment (not only the smart enterprise sector) in the Łódź region,which is dominated by entities employing up to 9 employees, present onthe market for over a decade.

Enterprises were divided into 5 groups (A–E). Cooperation with theresearch unit currently being implemented (group A) was declared by11 enterprises, which constitutes 8.1% of the surveyed population. Thesame values are represented by group B, i.e. enterprises which in thelast 3 years have cooperated with scientific institutions in the Łódźregion. Group C includes economic entities that have madeunsuccessful attempts at cooperation. This group consists of 13enterprises and constitutes 9.6% of the total number of respondents. 33of the surveyed entities (group D) have never established partnershiprelations with a scientific institution, but they declare such anintention in the next 3 years. Therefore, these are potential and, moreimportantly, cooperation-oriented entrepreneurs whose share in thesurveyed group amounted to 24.4%. On the other hand, group Eincluded 67 enterprises, i.e. 49.6% of respondents who did not

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cooperate with scientific institutions and do not intend to do so in thefuture.

To sum up, it can be stated that the surveyed enterprisesrepresented different stages of cooperation with scientific entities(group A, B and C), as well as different attitudes towards cooperationin the future (group D and E). The surveyed group included a cross-section of companies belonging to Łódź, intelligent specialisations interms of size and years of functioning on the market. Differentiationwas also observed in the type of business activity and the type ofcustomer served.

Selected research results are presented below.

Results of empirical studies

The evaluation of cooperation among enterprises with whichscientific institutions have conducted or are currently conducting jointprojects has been positive. In the case of each group of scientificentities, the majority of the evaluations were good and very good. Thehighest percentage of positive marks in relation to all the opinionsissued was recorded by scientific institutes and artistic entities (75% ofpositive marks). The highest ratings for cooperation with scientificinstitutions in the region were given by entrepreneurs fromconstruction specialisation, in which 100% of respondents issued modeland very good notes. On the other hand, the group most dissatisfiedwith the marriage with science turned out to be entities operating inthe area of the traditional Łódź industrial sector, i.e. textiles (Fig. 1).

Statistical analysis, that was made, allowed to identify thecorrelation between the type of research unit and the assessment madeby enterprises belonging to the group of intelligent regionalspecialisations. In the case of assessments obtained by scientificentities, it turned out that the relationship with the type of entity isnot statistically significant (chi2 = 8.029; p > 0.05). On the other hand,a statistically significant correlation between the scores awarded andthe enterprises' belonging to a given regional specialization (chi2 == 28.398; p < 0.05).

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Figure 1. Evaluation of cooperation with scientific entities

by enterprises from Łódź regional specialisations

Source: Own calculations.

Among the respondents belonging to groups A and B there were 7entrepreneurs who cooperated with more than one employee of theresearch unit and were unable to determine which contacts were themost frequent. In the remaining 15 cases, respondents indicated onlyone person who dominated in cooperation with the researchinstitution. The highest number of indications, as a person with whomentrepreneurs most often had contact in a scientific institution, wasgiven to a scientist (prof., PhD habilitatus.,PhD), and the lowestnumber to the Centre for Technology Transfer (CTT) of a scientificinstitution. None of the assessments of the work of persons employedin scientific institutions was negative, and definitely good and verygood marks prevailed.

Summarizing the assessment of cooperation with researchinstitutions made by respondents from groups A and B, one can noticethat enterprises belonging to Łódź regional specialisations cooperatewith more than one research institution, which means that they are

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Modern Textileand Fashion

Industry(includingDesign)

AdvancedBuildingMaterials

Medicine,Pharmacy,Cosmetics

Energy (including OZE)

InnovativeAgriculture andAgricultural andFood Processing

IT andTelecommunications

exemplary and very goodcooperation

bad and very badcooperation

proper cooperation

looking for interdisciplinary solutions that can help them run theirbusinesses in various areas. The most popular among business entitiesare the scientific entities being a part of the Technical University ofŁódź, which may prove the need for product and process innovation inthe industrial area. The highest level of science-business contacts isassessed by construction companies and at the same time the vastmajority of them declare their future cooperation. The mostdisappointed by the cooperation with science are entities belonging tothe textile specialisation, which may be related to the decliningcharacter of this sector in its present shape in the region.2

Scientific entities as entities are rated much worse than scientistsand administrative staff working in them. The results in this respectconfirm the level of trust in scientists and scientific entities presentedin Urmański's research (2016).

The research also gave an answer to the question which of thesources of information about the offer of scientific entities (the subjectof later cooperation) was the main one from which entrepreneurs drew.The analysis of the respondents' answers clearly shows that it was theconversation at a scientific conference, symposium or trade fair thatgave an impulse for later cooperation. This type of communication wasindicated by 16 out of 22 respondents. The second place was taken bybusiness contractors (22.7%), and the third place, with a share of 4.5%,was taken by the website of the research unit. The remaining variants(advertising materials, social media, newsletter, "open door",advertisement in the mass media) did not receive any indication.

In terms of understanding the information provided by researchunits, the opinions of respondents were divided (Fig. 2).

Despite the necessity of asking auxiliary questions byentrepreneurs, the vast majority of the message was consideredunderstandable. Only one of the respondents considered the languageof the scientists communicating with it as requiring repeated analysis,i.e. additional time needed for proper decoding of the message. In thiscase, there was a lack of statistical significance between regionalspecialisations and the evaluation of information coding by scientificentities (chi2 = 6.223; p > 0.05).

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Figure 2. Assessment of information coding by scientific entities in the opinion of respondents


Interpersonal communication is therefore the key to increasing thenumber of successful commercialisations of knowledge. Its mainelement, i.e. feedback, undoubtedly makes it easier for both parties tounderstand the message and thus their mutual intentions. The resultsof the survey clearly showed that the largest group of respondentsunderstood the message after asking additional questions, which wouldnot be possible (in real time) in another model of marketingcommunication.

The results of the research showed unequivocally that the degree towhich scientific entities use the whole spectrum of marketingcommunication tools is unsatisfactory (Fig. 3).

Among the respondents from groups A–D, i.e. entities which hadcontact or intend to establish cooperation in the future, only 3entrepreneurs defined this level as high and very high. 18entrepreneurs stated that this level is medium, which means thatscientific institutions still have a lot to do in this respect. The largestgroup of entities, which constitutes 69.1% of respondents, describedthe level of using marketing communication tools by scientific entitiesas low and very low. It is noteworthy that there was an exceptionalconsensus among the respondents, regardless of their belonging to agiven regional specialisation.

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Clear and understandablelike in contacts with market

counterparties

Nu

mb

er

of

en

terp

rise

s

understandable but requirea lot of supportivequestions to clarify

incomprehensible whatcauses a waste of time for

repeated analysis

incomprehensible anddiscouraging to cooperate

Figure 3. Degree of use of marketing communication tools by scientific entities

in the opinion of respondents


In the case of evaluation of the language used by scientific entitiesin relation to the description of the offer addressed to enterprises, therespondents were divided (Fig. 4). 37 out of 68 entities answering thisquestion found the description of the offer to be scientific, which doesnot include practical market benefits for enterprises. The oppositeopinion was expressed by 31 entrepreneurs who perceived the benefitsof cooperation in the communications of scientific institutions. Thespecialisations that dominated in this group were the IT and energysectors. Perhaps it is related to the specificity of both specialisations,in which innovative market solutions (expressed in values commonlyknown in the industry) are noticed without additional explanations.Statistical analysis showed a lack of statistical significance betweenregional specialisation and the assessment of the language used (chi2 == 5.641; p > 0.05).

The results of the study unequivocally revealed the weaknesses ofscientific institutions in operating in a hypermedia computerenvironment, in the context of marketing communication withbusiness entities. The perception by commercial entities of the degreeof using the possibilities offered by the Internet in scientificinstitutions places it at a low and very low level. Only 16.7% of allratings indicate this degree as high and very high, 38.2% of

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Nu

mb

er

of

en

terp

rise

s

very high high average low very low

respondents assessed the degree of using elements of on-linecommunication by scientific entities as medium, and as much as 45.1%as low or very low. This is definitely not enough in the era of Web.2.0.Even if in reality this level is much higher, it does not change the factthat the reception of activities of scientific entities in this area isnegative. In this case, there was no statistical correlation betweenregional specialization and the evaluation of the degree of usingelements of marketing communication by scientific entities (chi2 == 12.503; p > 0.05).

Figure 4. Assessment of the language used by scientific units to present the offer

for enterprises in the opinion of respondents


Of all the assessable elements of online communication, advertisingon the Internet, social media profile and science blog received thelowest level of use (Fig. 5). The comparison shows that respondentssurfing on websites or social media rarely encounter information fromresearch institutions (in various forms), as it is the case withcommercial entities. In turn, the newsletter, e-mail and websitereceived slightly higher ratings, but still below the average, aselements of online communication used by research institutions. The

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Modern Textileand Fashion

Industry(includingDesign)

AdvancedBuildingMaterials

Medicine,pharmaceuticals,

cosmetics

Energy (including OZE)

Innovativeagriculture and

agri-foodprocessing

IT andTelecommuni-

cations

scientificlanguage

language of benefits

% b

usi

ness

es

degree to which all Internet communication instruments are used,without exception, in the assessment of business entities is insufficientin relation to the possibilities offered by scientific institutions. It istherefore a clear signal sent to scientific entities that are interested incooperation with business, as well as an element shaping their imageamong entrepreneurs.

Figure 5. Degree of use of individual elements of on-line communication

by scientific units in the opinion of respondents


76% of the respondents believe that the use of a range of modernInternet communication tools by scientific entities has a positiveimpact on their image in the business environment. Only 6% ofrespondents believe that using marketing communication tools in theInternet environment is now a standard and does not create premisesfor innovation.

The results of the research confirmed that scientific entities do notuse the available spectrum of marketing communication tools incooperation with enterprises. Similarly, scientific entities do not usethe language of market benefits in the description of knowledge that is

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advertising onthe Internet

a profile in social media

science blog newsletter e-mail website

high & very high low & very low average degree

% b

usi

ness

es

subject to commercialisation. It was also stated that the use of theopportunities created by the Internet era Web 2.0 in marketingcommunication by scientific entities has a positive impact on theirimage in the business environment. The results of the research haveshown that the use of forms of communication available in thehypermedia computer environment by scientific entities contributes tothe creation of the image of an innovative business partner.

Summary

In Poland, alliances between science and business are inevitable, asis the case in countries with the highest level of IDP3. The economicreality forces both groups to overcome their mutual prejudices andbring about a lasting agreement based on trust, but also on marketprinciples.

Summarizing the evaluation of cooperation with researchinstitutions, which was made by respondents from groups A–D, i.e.entrepreneurs who are at different stages of cooperation with researchinstitutions, it can be stated that:

Almost 70% of the respondents believe that scientific entities do notsufficiently use the range of marketing communication tools in thecontext of cooperation with business.Almost 85% of respondents are convinced that the level of use ofonline communication tools by scientific entities is low and medium,which automatically translates into lower perception of them asinnovative business partners according to 76% of respondents.Only for 45% of enterprises the language used by research units todescribe their commercialization offer is understandable and showspotential market benefits from its implementation. This resultmeans that more than half of the respondents have problems withperceiving the profits flowing for them in the presentation of theoffer. In the case of entrepreneurs, investing capital (time, money,human and material resources) in an undertaking in which they do

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not see measurable benefits (profit, increasing market share,increasing brand recognition, etc.) is very rare. The mere fact of notrecognising market potential in knowledge intended forcommercialisation does not mean that it does not exist. Oftenscientists, focused on broadening knowledge, simply do not expose itor are not able to do it in a market way, characteristic for B2Bmarket.

The correct (in accordance with the rules of the institutionalmarket) use of marketing communication tools determines thesuccessful cooperation of scientific entities and enterprises. As it hasbeen repeatedly pointed out, the creator of the message betweenscience and business should be a scientific institution that hasintellectual potential, as well as tools for market interaction. It is thescientific entities that should bear the burden of selecting appropriatecommunication tools, communication channels and forms ofcommunication, and they must have the ability to read informationflowing through feedback in order to modify future communicationsaddressed to the business sphere. Consequently, it is necessary tochange the attitude of both environments and break down barriers inmutual relations, resulting in an increase in the number of jointimplementation projects.

References1 TRL (Technology Readiness Level) determines the technological readiness, i.e. the stage of development of a givensolution. The methodology assumes 9 levels of technological readiness. Stages II–VI are considered industrialresearch and Stages VII–IX are considered development works. Stage I of TRL is the level of basic research. 2 The region is dominated by clothing sewing plants, clothing knitwear manufacturers and trading companies, andthere is no strong representation in the segment of innovative technical fabrics, which are the future of theindustry in the EU. Enterprises with the dominant PKD (Polish Classification of Activities) from Division 13(textiles production) and 14 (clothing production) according to Eurostat technology classification belong to the low-technology group. 3 The Summary Innovation Index (SII) determines the level of innovativeness of EU countries (25 other partialindicators are used to calculate it).

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feru technologii i komercjalizacji wiedzy. Warszawa: PARP. 14. Mikosik, P. (2017). Czynniki warunkujące efektywną współpracę przedsiębiorstw z jednost-

kami naukowo-badawczymi. Marketing Instytucji Naukowych i Badawczych, 2 (24), 59–80. 15. Milczarek, S. (2017). Specyfika komunikacji marketingowej w procesie komercjalizacji

wiedzy w jednostkach naukowych. Zeszyty Naukowe Organizacja i Zarządzanie PŁ, 68,10–25.

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17. Santarek, K., Bagiński, J., Buczacki, A., Sobczak, D. i Szerenos, A. (2008). Tworzenie me-chanizmów transferu technologii, Warszawa: PARP.

18. Sojkin, B. i Michalak, S. (2016). Współpraca uczelni wyższej z praktyką gospodarczą.Marketing Instytucji Naukowych i Badawczych, 4 (22), 67–90.

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19. Urmański, J. (2016). Komercjalizacja badań naukowych, Spojrzenie inwestorów i na-ukowców. Warszawa: MIT Enterprise Forum Poland.

20. Warsaw Enterprise Institute (2016). Przyszłość polskiej nauki, Potencjał i bariery współ-pracy biznesu z nauką, https://wei.org.pl/raport-wei-przyszlosc-polskiej-nauki-potencjal-i-bariery-wspolpracy-biznesu-z-nauka/ (09.06.2017).

SSłłaawwoommiirr MMiillcczzaarreekk,, PPhhDD —— manager with 25 years of experience in the field of trade and marketing.Accredited advisor to the Polish Agency for Enterprise Development (PARP) and the National ServiceNetwork and National Innovation Network (KSIKSU). He actively initiates cooperation betweenscientific entities and enterprises in the context of the implementation and acquisition of EU funds forthe SME segment. He has implemented 25 innovative products and over 15 million EU funds.

HHaabbiilliittaattuuss ddooccttoorr MMaaggddaalleennaa GGrręębboosszz--KKrraawwcczzyykk,, EEnngg..,, PPrrooffeessssoorr ooff ŁŁóóddźź UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff TTeecchhnnoollooggyy,,FFaaccuullttyy ooff MMaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd PPrroodduuccttiioonn EEnnggiinneeeerriinngg,, PPoollaanndd —— scientific and didactic employee ofŁódź University of Technology, visiting professor at ESIEE Paris. Author of over 100 scientific publicationson brand management, marketing communication and international marketing. She managesinternational research projects financed from domestic and foreign funds (e.g. National Science Centre(NCN), The Polish National Agency for Academic Exchange (NAWA)https://nawa.gov.pl/en/, Ministry ofScience and Higher Education (MNiSW), https://nawa.gov.pl/en/, Government of the French Republic).

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UNDERSTANDING FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSUMERSONLINE PURCHASE INTENTION VIA MOBILE APP:

PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, PERCEIVED USEFULNESS,SYSTEM QUALITY, INFORMATION QUALITY,

AND SERVICE QUALITY

Open Access

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UNDERSTANDING FACTORS INFLUENCING CONSUMERS ONLINE PURCHASE INTENTION VIA MOBILE APP:

PERCEIVED EASE OF USE, PERCEIVED USEFULNESS, SYSTEM QUALITY,INFORMATION QUALITY, AND SERVICE QUALITY

Markun Hanjaya, S.T.Business Management Program, Management Department, BINUS Business School Master Program,Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Kenny, S.Kom.Business Management Program, Management Department, BINUS Business School Master Program,Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected]

Freddy Gunawan, S.S., S.E.Business Management Program, Management Department, BINUS Business School Master Program,Bina Nusantara University, Jakarta, Indonesia [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0035

The development of technology has been significantly given the implication towards consumer's behaviour in having theonline purchase intention via mobile app that has been developed by the e-commerce company to serve better anddeliver a better service to the consumers; especially when internet has connected people through their smartphones. Theinsignificant growth in doing the online purchase via mobile app which does not go along with the growth of internetmobile users in Indonesia and Singapore will deliver this study in order to evaluate and validate the implication of easeof use, usefulness, system quality, information quality, and service quality towards consumer's behaviour in having theonline purchase intention via mobile app. Data was gathered with survey by spreading 100 questionnaires randomly tothe respondents who had the experience in doing the online purchase via mobile app in the last 6 months in Indonesiaand Singapore. The methodology in doing this study is the quantitative approach by considering the connection amongstthe independent variables and the dependent variables. This research found that usefulness and information qualitysignificantly affect the online purchase intention through mobile app in Indonesia while in Singapore ease of use,usefulness, and service quality significantly affect the online purchase intention through mobile app.

Summary

Keywords: Ease of Use, Usefulness, System Quality, Information Quality, Service Quality, Consumer'sBehaviour, Online Purchase Intention, Mobile App

Introduction

Nowadays, the purchasing behaviour from the consumers in the retailingindustry has changed and it has been considered as a noteworthy directionalchange from physical stores buying behaviour to web based acquiringbehaviour. This situation goes along with the changing trend of consumerbehaviour from using the desktops into smartphones. Southeast Asia isbelieved as the fastest growing e-commerce in terms of sales revenue andpredicted will be exceeding $25B in 2020 and 88.1B in 2025 (Frost & Sullivan,2016 & Google, 2017) and the contribution came from the six largest market inSoutheast Asia: Indonesia, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Vietnam, andPhilippines (eMarketer, 2016 & Statista, 2016). In the latest finding from Frost& Sullivan (2018), quarter-on-quarter growth in Southeast Asia was 28.5%which surpassed $6B revenue in Q4 2017 with Indonesia still the largestmarket contributed one third of the Southeast Asia market with 25% quarter-on-quarter growth in Q4 2017.

In addition, Southeast Asia is a mobile-first economy with more than 90%internet users are on smartphone and spending an average 3.6 hours per dayon mobile internet, more than any other region in the world (Google, 2017).Again, Indonesia is the leading market with 87% of mobile traffic followed byThailand, Philippines, Singapore, Malaysia and Vietnam respectively (iPrice,2017 & WeAreSocial, 2018). However, with more than 90% users are on thesmartphone and stated as mobile-first economy, it is not followed by thesignificant growth of online purchase via mobile app. Majority of thecustomers still use website to search and make their purchase, where there isan increasing trend to use mobile apps (Frost & Sullivan, 2018). Google (2015)also found similar result earlier where this situation happened because mostusers still use mobile as the first step in order to find and compare theproducts that they will buy, which then they will purchase the desired productin-store or via desktop or laptop if they want to buy the desired product online.This trend can be seen in the six largest market in Southeast Asia where theconversion rate on desktop in average 2.5–3x higher than mobile (iPrice,2017). WeAreSocial (2018) have gathered the data to show the comparisonbetween Indonesia market and Singapore market in regards the purchaseintention. Based on the data, total population in Indonesia is biggerpopulation 265.4M than Singapore 5.75M. This number is resulting Indonesia

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to have around 132.7M with 50% penetration of internet users and 4.83Mwith 83% penetration of internet users. Total of unique mobile users ofIndonesia has lesser penetration compared to Singapore (67% to 82%) whichis in line with the active mobile internet users in Indonesia and Singapore.Even though the web traffic by using the laptop and desktop is lower than theweb traffic by using the mobile phones in both countries, it does not show anysignificant growth in doing the online purchase via mobile. With thepercentage of 31%, Indonesia has lower online purchase made via mobile appthat being developed by the company compared to Singapore which is 39%.Based on the data from iPrice (2017), it has shown that the conversion rate inboth countries are having bigger online purchase made via desktop ratherthan mobile app with a significant average order value as well in bothcountries. Data shows that Indonesia has the overall country index score for52.71 out of 100 while Singapore has 83.42 out of 100. The mobile networkinfrastructure does seem to be higher in Singapore (81.14) compared toIndonesia (41.39). Data delivers as well the conclusion data for the readinessof consumers which is Singapore (82.47) is higher than Indonesia (69.09).

Indonesia and Singapore are different each other in regards about thefacilities and infrastructures that cause the different readiness from theconsumers in utilizing the internet to do the online purchase. By becomingthe emerging country, Singapore has the competitive advantage in theaspects of consumers readiness. The readiness from the consumers in bothcountries is showing pretty significant difference in percentage 69.09% and82.47% because of the understanding how to use mobile internet orappreciate how the mobile internet can benefit them is different. Therefore,it is very important and necessary to consider the level of skills andeducation background of a country, as well as the degree of education,finance and in the labour market.

However, the facts say contrastly on the conversion rate thathappens in Singapore which is lower than Indonesia. The conversionrate from Indonesia is higher than Singapore might become the signthat Indonesia is the potential market to grow the e-commercebusiness in Southeast Asia. By seeing the slow growth of onlinepurchases through mobile app in Indonesia and Singapore, this is a bigchallenge and can affect the development of the company especially ifthe company focuses on mobile technology.

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Table 1. Digital and Mobile in Indonesia and Singapore

Indicators Indonesia Singapore

Total Population 265,4M 5,75M

Internet Users 132, M — Penetration 50% 4.83M — Penetration 83%

Unique Mobile Users 177.9M — Penetration 67% 4.71M — Penetration 82%

Active Mobile Internet Users 124.8M — Penetration 47% 4.58M — Penetration 80%

Web Traffic Laptop & Desktop 26% — YoY –8% 20% — YoY –60%

Web Traffic Mobile Phones 72% — YoY +5% 78% — YoY +75%

Do Online Purchase via Laptop or Desktop 31% 39%

Do Online Purchase via Mobile Device 31% 39%

Conversion Rate* (Desktop) 3.3x 3x

Conversion Rate* (Mobile) 1.3x 0.9x

Total Annual Sales Revenue $ 7,056 Billion $ 3.326 Billion

Average Order Value (Desktop) $ 42 $ 96

Average Order Value (Mobile) $35 $82

Mobile Connectivity Index

Overall Country Index Score 52.71 out of 100 83.42 out of 100Mobile Network Infrastructure 41.39 out of 100 81.14 out of 100Consumer Readiness 69.09 out of 100 82.47 out of 100

Source: iPrice, 2017 i WeAreSocial, 2018. * Using the average mobile conversion rate in SEA as reference (1x).* Conversion rate is the % of visits that turn into a product purchase.

It is suspected that mobile app does not meet the requirementsfrom the consumers in doing the online purchase. Therefore, thisstudy will find out and compare what are the factors that mightinfluence the consumer's behaviour in having online purchaseintention via mobile app in Indonesia as developing market andSingapore as emerging market. In general, someone's intention indoing online purchase is influenced by several factors such as trust

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and risk, perceived convenience, and the benefits that being provided(Dachyar dan Banjarnahor, 2017; Ling, Daud, Piew, Keoy, danHassan, 2011; Heijden, Verhagen, dan Creemers, 2003). However, indoing the online purchase through mobile, there are several differentfactors such as product features, brand reputation, social influence,system quality, information and services that being offered (Rahim,Safin, Kheng, Abas, Ali, 2015; Chen, 2013).

Research Problem (Problem Statement)

Southeast Asia eCommerce is a mobile-first economy, upsurging allthe western economies when it comes to the importance aspect orindicator of Mobile commerce in the traffic which generated by eacheCommerce operator. In Southeast Asia's eCommerce, the rise ofmobile appears so aggressive and unstoppable. The population ofmobile has grown on average 19%, and growing for 72% of the overalleCommerce web traffic in the past 12 months. Indonesia is leading thepack, which now has an astonishing 87% share of mobile traffic.

In none of Southeast Asia's country desktop traffic accounts formore than 30% of web traffic. Based on the background of the problemsthat have been compiled, there is a significant growth of mobile usagethrough mobile and laptop or desktop in accessing internet inIndonesia which has reached to 87%.

Conversely, the significant growth in mobile usage throughsmartphone gives different story to the growth of online purchaseintention via mobile app. By having this gap, it will become theproblem` to be examined through this study which will accordingly tofind out the factors that affecting the consumer's behaviour whichultimately will decide to buy the desired products online throughmobile app

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Research Objectives

The main objective of this research is to distinguish the significantinfluence of ease of use, usefulness, system quality, informationquality, and service quality towards consumer's behaviour in havingonline purchase intention via mobile app in Indonesia and Singapore.

Research Questions

The questions that need to be analyzed and revealed in this studyare:

1. Why the growth of online purchase via mobile app is not reflectingthe same growth just like the growth of internet mobile usage inIndonesia and Singapore?

2. What is the significant factors that could influence the onlinepurchase intention via mobile app in Indonesia and Singapore?

3. What are the aspects that being influenced by those factors and whatare the implication towards the online purchase intention via mobileapp?

Literature review

Intention is a motivation that can affect a person in forming certaindesired behaviour and can be used to see how much desires and effortsof someone in order to achieve the behaviour (Ajzen, 1991). Accordingto Pavlou (2003), online purchase intention aim can be characterized asa circumstance where a buyer is eager and expecting to make onlineexchanges which are comprised of three stages: information retrieval,information transfer and product purchase. According to Shah et al.(2012) purchase intention is a decision based on a person's reason tobuy a brand of their choice. This research was conducted to study the

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effect of ease of use, usefulness, system quality, information quality,and service quality towards consumer's behaviour in having onlinepurchase intention via mobile app. The same study says that theconsumers will encounter the determining stage before doing theonline purchase transactions on the products which will automaticallydrive the consumers to find out about the information of the desiredproducts.

To evaluate the products that they want to buy, to make thepurchase transactions, and to provide the feedbacks after the purchaseprocess is completed from the desired products. Thus, consumers willmake purchases of products after checking the products to get the rightproducts and in accordance with the wishes of the buyers themselves.

Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

TAM is a theory that being developed to find out how ease of useand usefulness of a system can affect someone's intention andbehaviour to use the system (Davis et al., 1989). Ease of use describeshow a system does not require excessive effort when being used andusefulness describes how a system can improve the performance of thesystem (Davis et al., 1989; Davis, 1989; McKechnie, Winklhofer andEnnew, 2006; Lee, Fiore and Kim, 2006; Chen & Ching, 2013). In theprevious study also mentioned that ease of use and usefulness have aninfluence on someone's intention in using a system. In the context of e-commerce, websites which are easy to use and can provide usefulinformation will be able to increase the purchase intention (Chen &Ching, 2013).

This is also supported by several studies which suggest that ease ofuse and usefulness have an effect on purchase intention in doing onlineshopping (Ling, Daud, Piew, Keoy, and Hassan, 2011; Heijden,Verhagen and Creemers, 2003; Gefen et al., 2003). However, onlineshopping on desktops and mobile provides a different experience as ithas different systems, display and features which can accordingly affectthe online purchases (Chen, 2013). Therefore, mobile commerce should

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be as useful and easy to use as it may affect user activity and loyalty(Ahmad & Ibrahim, 2017). Therefore, this study will be focused on howthe ease of use and usefulness can affect the purchase intention viamobile app.

IS Success Model

The IS Success Model is a theory concept used in various researchesas a basic criterion in terms of evaluating and assessing the quality ofinformation systems (Rai et al 2002). IS Success model is used to seehow successful the quality of information systems created (Eom, 2013).The dimensions of information quality, system quality, and the qualityof services provided will be the key factor in analyzing and estimatingthe quality of the information system itself. (DeLone & McLean, 2003).D&M IS Success model was first created by DeLone and McLean in1992 with a model like Figure 1.

Initially DeLeon and McLean were concerned only with the qualityand system quality variables. While in the development of InformationSystem itself with the emergence of e-commerce and Online app basedon mobile, the quality of service variables they need to add. Therefore,in 2003, DeLone and McLean updated their IS models by adding qualityservice variables rather than an information system like Figure 2.

Figure 1. Original D&M IS Success Model (1992)

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Figure 2. IS D&M Success Model (updated) (2003)

Since this model was created and carried by DeLone and McLean, thismodel is a central study of all research to examine the success of aninformation system (Pitt et al., 1995; Rai et al., 2002). This informationsystem model can also be used and updated in the realm of theeffectiveness of a website (Molla and Licker, 2001). Despite the fact thatthe utility and the application of the Information System success modelhas been successfully supported by the considerable body from pastresearches across wide range of information system settings, it hasinfrequently been used to examine the continuity of customer behaviourin the context of mobile purchase system. Research in generalize the ISsuccess model in the context of mobile purchases is extremely needed. Amobile purchase cannot be separated from the concept of informationsystems, therefore the theoretical foundation that suitable is IS successmodel itself.

Hypothesis Statements

Mobile shopping system is technically comprises the systemintegration of the hardware and software along with customer-drivenservice. Therefore, the three dimensions of quality (system,information, and service) appear to have the potential in order to

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directly affect the purchase intention of mobile shopping system.These dimensions also reflect the unique and different aspects of ISquality and also have the unique effects on customer satisfaction (Ho,et al., 2012; Lin et al., 2011; Kim et al., 2011; Safeena andKammani,2013).

Even though the fact of consumers are not increasingly using theirsmartphones to do the online shopping, by investing in mobiletechnology to embrace the mobile market eventually could increase theretention of existing consumers and at the same time bring newconsumers. It was found that investing to develop new technology willgive the company huge benefit to explore and exploit the market in anew way (Renko et al, 2009).

The acceptance of new technology will be reflected on consumerspurchase intention for new products and can be easily seen amongcounteractive action which is customers centered (Herzenstein et al.,2007). Therefore, ease of use and usefulness of the devices are expectedto deliver a solid connection to a consumer's repurchase intention.Hence, the hypotheses can be developed such as follows:

H1: Ease of Use has a significant influence towards purchase intention viamobile app.

H2: Usefulness has a significant influence towards purchase intention viamobile app.

H3: Information Quality has a significant influence towards purchaseintention via mobile app.

H4: System Quality has a significant influence towards purchase intentionvia mobile app.

H5: Service Quality has a significant influence towards purchase intentionvia mobile app.

Theoretical Framework

According to Sekaran & Bougie (2009), theoretical framework is thebasic foundation on which it is coherently created, depicted and

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explained the system of relationship among the variables consider in aspecified way that relevant to the problem situation and indicatedthrough the processes of interviews, observations and literaturereview. The focus of this study is to investigate and examine therelationships between ease of use, usefulness, system quality,information quality, and service quality in the mobile apps towards theconsumers purchase intention in Indonesia and Singapore based on theTAM and IS success model. The theoretical framework is shown inFigure 3.

Figure 3. Theoretical Framework

Research methodology

The methodology section could not be ignored, as it is considered asimportant section in order to apply a suitable method for achieving theresearch objective. Furthermore, the significance of using the correctmethod also generates a more accurate result (Silverman, 1993).

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System Quality

Information

Purchase Intention via

Mobile App

Service Quality

Ease of Use

Usefulness

Therefore, this research has been taken towards selecting anappropriate approach in regard to the research questions that will beused.

Elements of Research Design

The research design methods/strategies that utilized in thisresearch is the quantitative research. The focus of this method is onthe fresh data collection that related to the problem which came fromthe large population and analysis of the data by neglecting theindividual's emotions and feelings or environmental context. Thequantitative strategy worked on the objective and measures itthrough the actions and opinions which helped the researchers todescribe the data rather to interpret the data. Besides, this researchincluded for the most part organized inquiries which has foreordainedand required an expansive number of respondents to be included.

Statistical Analysis

The purpose of this research is to find the characteristics of the dataand test the hypotheses development for the research. StatisticalPackage for Social Science (SPSS) is used to conduct the statisticalanalysis in this research. The statistical analysis tools that will be usedare Descriptive Statistic Analysis, Cronbach's Alpha analysis,Coefficients Correlation by Pearson's,, and Multiple RegressionAnalysis.

Descriptive Statistics Analysis is used to describe the basic featuresof the data by providing the simple summaries about the sample andthe measures to form the basis of virtually every quantitative analysisof data. Pearson Correlation Coefficients, will be used to verify thecorrelation among variables, and also to measure the significantrelationship between it. The Cronbach's Alpha analysis that being usedto make sure the consistency of each data which is the reliabilityanalysis. Furthermore, Multiple Linear Regression Analysis is used to

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determine the hypotheses and linear relationship betweenpredetermined variables.

Data collection technique

This study uses a survey of buyers who use cellphones in order tocollect the data that will be used for testing hypotheses andimplementing the objectives of this study. Before the survey isconducted, it is important to determine and consider the sample size tobe examined. Stevens (2002) argues that in social science research, thenumber of samples used must be greater than 15 times the number ofpredictors. Therefore, this study is using 100 sample sizes thatcollected over the online questionnaire.

Sampling Method and Process

The target population for doing this research is the consumers of e-commerce in Indonesia and Singapore who had been purchased onlinevia mobile app in the past 6 months. This research accordingly used thesimple random sampling to cover the entire population and reduce biasof the data processing.

Administered Survey Design

Pinsonneault and Kraemer have expressed there are three principledestinations for conducting research with survey questionnaire when:1) Data of the exploration depends on quantitative strategies/methods,2) Instruments are utilized in research must be predefined, 3) Researchwork that requires to dissect finding of an example to entirepopulation. This research used self-administered survey to gather theinformation/data. Questionnaires are spreaded arbitrarily throughonline web survey to reach the extensive audience.

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Development of Questionnaire

The questionnaire consisted of three parts. The first part asks therespondents about their demography. The second part asks about theirmobile shopping experiences in the past 6 months. If the respondentsdon't have mobile shopping activity then they excluded and redirectedto different page and the last part asks more details about thedependent and independent variables that will be tested in thisresearch. 5 point Likert scale will be used for the measurement (1 = = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree).

All questions are adopted from the existing literature and adjustedfor this research.

Table 2. Indicators and points to be evaluated

Indicators Points to be Evaluated Adapted from

Perceived Ease of Use Mobile app is easy to be useTo learn how to operate mobile app is very easy

The interaction with the mobile app is very simple and easy to be understood

It is very easy to get the mobile app to do what you want

Perceived Usefulness It is very easy to purchase online by using the mobile appIt is very fast to purchase online using mobile app

The mobile app helps you to improve performance,effectiveness, productivity in terms of searching as well as buying the products that you wanted to purchase

The information provided on mobile app is very useful for you

System Quality The mobile app loads all the texts and graphics that you needThe mobile app system is reliable and having a fast response

systemThe mobile app is well-designed and visually interactive

for youThe mobile app is responsive to your requests and able

to conduct purchase at anytime, from anywhere

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(Gefen, 2000; Gefen etal., 2003; Pavlou, 2003)(Gefen, 2000; Gefen etal., 2003)(Gefen, 2000; Gefen etal., 2003; Pavlou, 2003)

(Heijden et al., 2003;Venkatesh, 2000)

(Gefen, 2000; Gefen et al.,

2003; Heijden et al., 2003)

(Gefen, 2000; Gefen et al.,2003; Venkatesh., 2003)(Gefen, 2000; Gefen et al.,2003; Venkatesh., 2003)

(Pavlou, 2003; Heijden etal., 2003; Venkatesh, 2000)

(McKinney et al., 2002;

Kim et al., 2004; Kim et

al., 2010)

Cont. table 2


Information Quality The mobile app provides relevant information about the products that you want to buy

The mobile app provides helpful and credible informationThe mobile app provides high-quality informationThe mobile app provides up-to-date information

Service Quality The mobile app provides you the on time servicesThe mobile app provides you the prompt response

to your inquiriesThe mobile app provides you the professional servicesThe mobile app provides you the personalized services


Purchase Intention I am probably going to purchase products on e-commerce via mobile app

I am probably going to keep purchasing products on e-commerce via mobile app

I would use my credit card to purchase products on e-commerce via mobile app

I would not hesitate to provide my personal information to e-commerce using mobile app as needed to better fulfill my needs

Reasearch results

Indonesia Market

A total of 100 responses were collected which 55% were male and45% were female. Majority of the respondents were between 25 to 35(65%). Most of the respondents (72%) were using mobile applicationwhen it is needed only. Top 3 the latest mobile apps downloaded wereTokopedia 1(15%), Grab (15%), and Shopee (12%). More details aboutthe demographics are presented in Table 3.

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(McKinney et al., 2002;Kim et al., 2004)

(McKinney et al., 2002;Kim et al., 2004)

(Heijden et al., 2003; Chenand Barn., 2007; Kim etal., 2008; Ko et al., 2009)

(Heijden et al., 2003; Chenand Barn., 2007; Kim et al.,2008; Dehua, Lu & Zhou,2008; Ko et al., 2009)

(Gefen, 2000; Gefen etal., 2003)

Table 3. Demographic characteristics of Indonesian respondents

Samples Characteristics Item Frequency Percent

GenderMale 55 55%Female 45 45%

Age< 25 25 25%25–35 65 65%35–45 10 10%> 45 0 0%

Frequent Using Mobile Apps If needed only 72 72%Once a week 7 7%Once a month 19 19%Once in 3 months 1 1%Once in 6 months 1 1%

Mobile AppsAgoda 1 1%Booking 1 1%Gojek 7 6%Lazada 11 9%Tokopedia 17 15%Shopee 14 12%Aliexpress 2 2%Bukalapak 8 7%Lazada 8 7%Traveloka 3 3%Bhinneka 1 1%Blibli 9 8%Ebay 1 1%Zalora 10 9%JD. ID 3 3%Amazon 1 1%Eleven Street 1 1%Grab 17 15%Happy Fresh 1 1%Sayurbox 1 1%

Pearson correlation coefficient analysis is utilized to decide theconnection between variables/factors. As appeared in the table 4, thecorrelation coefficient extend from 0.832 to 0.870. In the meantime, the

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coefficient of Cronbach's Alpha is utilized to evaluate the dependability andconsistency of the questionnaire. The dependability scores as appeared inthe table 5 ranging from 0.847 to 0.920 which is all variables/factorssurpass the dependability scores 0.7 and can be expressed solid (Sekaranand Bougie, 2016). In light of the consequences of multiple regressionanalysis as appeared in the Table 6, Perceived Usefulness (P = 0.041, B =0.277, t = 2.071) significantly affects Mobile Purchase Intention inIndonesia (hypothesis 2 supported). Furthermore, the outcomesdemonstrated that Information Quality (P = 0.028, B = 0.307, t = 2.239)significantly affects Mobile Purchase Intention (hypothesis 4 supported).

Table 4. Correlation of Pearson of all variables (Indonesia)

PEOU PUF SYQ IQ SVQ MPI

PEOU Pearson Correlation 1 .887** .898** .855** .877** .832**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

PUF Pearson Correlation .887** 1 .920** .898** .909** .870**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

SYQ Pearson Correlation .898** .920** 1 .868** .898** .847**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

IQ Pearson Correlation .855** .898** .868** 1 .920** .860**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

SVQ Pearson Correlation .877** .909** .898** .920** 1 .855**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

MPI Pearson Correlation .832** .870** .847** .860** .855** 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

Indications: PEOU — Perceived Ease of Use

PUF — Perceived Usefulness SYQ — System Quality

IQ — Information Quality SVQ — Service Quality

MPI — Mobile Purchase Intention **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

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Table 5. Results of Reliability Coefficient Cronbach's Alpha of all variables (Indonesia)

Variable Number of Item Cronbach's Alpha Results

Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) 4 .922 ReliablePerceived Usefulness (PF) 4 .907 ReliableSystem Quality (SYQ) 4 .920 ReliableInformation Quality (IQ) 4 .874 ReliableService Quality (SVQ) 4 .910 ReliableMobile Purchase Intention (MPI) 4 .847 Reliable

Table 6. Results of multiple regression analysis for all variables (Indonesia)

Unstandardized StandardizedModel coefficients coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Beta

1 (Constant) 1.068 .777 1 .373 .173PEOU .113 .105 .124 1.067 .288PUF .277 .134 .297 2.071 .041SYQ .112 .131 .118 .859 .393IQ .307 .137 .287 2.239 .028SVQ .103 .136 .108 .757 .451




MPI — Mobile Purchase Intention

a. Dependent Variable: MPINotes: R-Square = 0.800, Adj R-Square = 0.789, F = 75.029, P = 0.000

Singapore Market

In Singapore, the data were collected from 100 respondents in total. From100 respondents, 49% of them were men and 51% of them were women. Alsothe majority of respondents were between 25 to 35 years. Pretty similar to

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Indonesia where they were using mobile application if it is needed only. The top3 latest downloaded app were Lazada (8%), Deliveroo (7%), and Redmart (6%).

Table 7. Demographic characteristics of Singaporean respondents


Gender Male 49 49%Female 51 51%

Age

< 25 15 15%25–35 56 56%36– 45 21 21%> 45 8 8%

Frequent Using Mobile AppsIf needed only 74 74%Once a week 13 13%Once a month 11 11%Once in 3 months 2 2%Once in 6 months 0 0%

Mobile AppsAgoda 2 2%Aliexpress 1 1%Amazon 3 2%Asos 4 3%Booking.com 2 2%Carousell 5 4%Deliveroo 10 8%Eatigo 3 2%Expedia 3 2%EZBuy 4 3%Expedia 3 2%FairPrice 2 2%Fave 3 2%Foodpanda 3 2%Grab 2 2%GrabFood 1 1%Guardian 1 1%Honestbee 5 4%Hotels.com 1 1%

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Cont. table 7


HotelsCombined 4 3%iHerb 6 5%Klook 5 4%Lazada 10 8%Peatix 1 1%Plus 1 1%Qoo10 5 4%Redmart 8 6%Reebonz 1 1%Sephora 4 3%Shopback 2 2%Shopee 4 3%Starbucks 1 1%Taobao 4 3%Traveloka 2 2%Trip. com 1 1%Trivago 1 1%Uniqlo 2 2%Watson 1 1%Zalora 7 5%Agoda 2 2%Aliexpress 1 1%Amazon 3 2%

Based on Table 8, Pearson Correlation for all variables ranging from0.344 to 0.784. While reliability scores based on Cronbach Alpha'sexceed 0.7 which is between 0.724 to 0.861. The results in Table 9 showthat Perceived Ease of Use (P = 0.028, B = 0.234, t = 2.232) hassignificant effect on Mobile Purchase Intention. Usefulness (P = 0.013,B= 0.293, t = 2.519) has huge impact on Mobile Purchase Intentionand Service Quality (P = 0.028, B = 0.234, t = 2.232) has significanteffect on Mobile Purchase Intention which supporting hypothesis 1,hypothesis 2, and hypothesis 5 respectively.

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Table 8. Correlation of Pearson of all variables (Singapore)

PEOU PUF SYQ IQ SVQ MPI

PEOU Pearson Correlation 1 .751** .173 .354** .640** .669**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .086 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

PUF Pearson Correlation .751** 1 .277** .614** .787** .782**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .005 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

SYQ Pearson Correlation .173 .277** 1 .271** .384** .344**Sig. (2-tailed) .086 .005 .006 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

IQ Pearson Correlation .354** .614** .271** 1 .687** .626**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .006 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

SVQ Pearson Correlation .640** .787** .384** .687** 1 .784**Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100

MPI Pearson Correlation .669** .782** .344** .626** .784** 1Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .000 .000 .000 .000N 100 100 100 100 100 100




MPI — Mobile Purchase Intention**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Table 9. Results of Reliability Coefficient of Cronbach's Alpha of all variables (Singapore)

Variable Number of Item Cronbach's Alpha Results

Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) 4 .805 ReliablePerceived Usefulness (PF) 4 .861 ReliableSystem Quality (SYQ) 4 .844 ReliableInformation Quality (IQ) 4 .792 ReliableService Quality (SVQ) 4 .724 ReliableMobile Purchase Intention (MPI) 4 .777 Reliable

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Table 10. Results of multiple regression analysis for variables (Singapore)

Unstandardized StandardizedModel coefficients coefficients t Sig.

B Std. Error Std. Error

1 (Constant) –2.997 1.378 –2.175 .032PEOU .234 .105 .198 2.232 .028PUF .293 .116 .277 2.519 .013SYQ .066 .054 .074 1.223 .224IQ .176 .090 .158 1.953 .054SVQ .414 .144 .303 2.867 .005




MPI — Mobile Purchase Intentiona. Dependent Variable: MPI

Notes: R-Square = 0.711, Adj R-Square = 0.695, F = 46.174, P = 0.000

Conclusion & implication

Conclusion

Southeast Asia as mobile-first economy indicates a hugeopportunity but challenging at the same time. Many companies haveshifted their strategy on leveraging mobile technology to gaincompetitive advantage in the market. However, it is not an easy jobalthough mobile penetration as high as 80% in some countries butpeople still prefer desktop as their first choice to do an online purchase.Thus, the purpose of this study is to find the most important factorsthat influencing people to use their mobile app to purchase online inIndonesia and Singapore. It shows that mobile has become a crucialstrategy to gain competitive advantage not only to increase sales butalso to expand markets and build high quality interaction between

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consumers and mobile devices by utilizing mobile as their shoppers-engagement strategy. The IS success model has been extended tomeasure the relationship among ease of use, usefulness, systemquality, information quality, and service quality towards consumer'sbehaviour in having online purchase intention via mobile app. Resultsindicate that, overall, the independent variables have a significantpositive influence on online purchase intention via mobile app. Thestudy recommended that the ease of use, usefulness, system quality,information quality, and service quality are imperative precursors forestimating online purchase intention via mobile app.

In Indonesia — the results indicate that information quality andusefulness have a significant impact towards the consumers behaviourin having the online purchase intention. Comprehensive informationcontains all the relevant product attributes for each unique such as:price, description, images etc. If the attributes are missing from aproduct data that will be fed to consumers, it will not show thecomplete product information to the consumers. Eventually, if thishappens, the retailers lose credibility with the consumers as well asvalue, because their products is not well described on the screen of thesmartphone. By having high-quality of information, the consumers willaccordingly easy to understand or stay in contact with the retailersthrough their unique mobile app. In addition, by having goodinformation quality is the customers will be having the privilege fromease of use to explore everything about the desired products.Consumers are now learning to expect personalization andcustomization as part of their experience with their retailers. If theretailers can not deliver that type of elevated experience, they arelikely to turn to other retailers. Utilizing a good information can alsoimprove the customer experience in using the mobile app that beingoffered by the retailers in order to have higher purchase intention fromthe consumers. The improvement of the performance, effectiveness,productivity in terms of searching as well as buying the desiredproducts and the usefulness from the provided information on themobile app will be targeting the satisfaction of the consumers in orderto do the purchase of the desired products through the mobile app.Furthermore, if the mobile app could offer the easy access to be used

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and deliver nice and easy experiences in doing the online purchasethrough the mobile app, it indicates that perceived usefulness of themobile app has a significant influence towards purchase intention viamobile app.

In Singapore — the results indicate that ease of use, usefulness, andservice quality have a significant impact towards the consumersbehaviour in having the online purchase intention. Perceived ease ofuse: mobile app is easy to be use; to learn how to operate mobile app isvery easy; the interaction with the mobile app is very simple and easyto be understood; it is very easy to get the mobile app to do what youwant; have delivered the value of 0.028 which indicating thatSingaporeans are more concerned on the ease of use from a mobile app.The easier usage of a mobile app will give significant influence towardspurchase intention via mobile app.

Perceived ease of use is supported as well by the perceivedusefulness that give the best online shopping experiences to thecustomers which accordingly giving a significant influence towardspurchase intention via mobile app. Customer service isn't just aboutbeing courteous to consumers. It's a lethal element of businessoperations that can give the implication to the bottom line andaccordingly will affect on how a company is valued and judged from thepublic point of view. Several outstanding companies have been in thenews of late to find themselves in the spotlight because of the badcustomer service policies. However, there is good news which isrelatively simple to deploy a customer service improvement plan thatwill keep the business on top. Therefore, the perceived service qualityin providing on time services, prompt response to consumers' requires,personalized services, and professional service are also giving thesignificant impact to online purchase intention from the consumers.

Implication

It can't be denied the acceptance of online shopping is growingfaster over time and play an important role in changing users buying

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behaviour. A lot of companies have tried different strategy to capturethe market acceptance especially on mobile strategy because of highpenetration in Asia. However, they are also facing many challengeswhich accordingly cause the purchase intention way lower than ondesktop. The study has identified the most important variables thatcan affect users purchase intention on mobile. The study shows thatthe eagerness to purchase from desktop is still higher compared to themobile app because most users still use mobile as the first step in orderto find and compare the products that they will buy, which then theywill purchase the desired product in-store or via desktop or laptop ifthey want to buy the desired products online which impacting thegrowth of online purchase via mobile app is not reflecting the samegrowth just like the growth of internet mobile usage in Indonesia andSingapore.

Both countries, Indonesia and Singapore, give the different signalsof the independent variables that cause the influence the onlinepurchase intention via mobile app. In Indonesia, the factors ofinformation quality and usefulness are dominating the online purchaseintention via mobile app. On the other hand, in Singapore, the factor ofease of use, usefulness, and service quality are dominating the onlinepurchase intention via mobile app.

The factor of ease of use, usefulness, service quality, andinformation quality are accordingly influencing the online purchaseintention via mobile app of the consumers. These phenomena willdirectly give the implication towards the consumer's behaviour indoing the online purchase. There are a lot of factors influencingonline purchase intention in researches. Even the factors indifferent researches can be consistent, the model of factorsinfluencing online shoppers' buying intention can be upgraded andenriched to be much more useful for helping and guiding themanagement of applications.

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MMaarrkkuunn HHaannjjaayyaa,, SS..TT.. —— He graduated from the Faculty of Science and Technology with an IndustrialEngineering Study Program at Pelita Harapan University. At this time, He serves as a ProductionManager at plastic packaging manufacturing company in Indonesia. The work he does, focuses onplanning and developing the effectiveness and efficiency of the system.

KKeennnnyy,, SS..KKoomm.. —— He graduated from the Faculty of Computer Science at Bina Nusantara University.Currently, he is working as SEM Manager / Digital Media Specialist at Rakuten Asia in Singapore. Hismain expertise is digital marketing from paid, organic, mobile, social, and display.

FFrreeddddyy GGuunnaawwaann,, SS..SS..,, SS..EE.. —— He graduated from the Faculty of Letters of Universitas Sumatera Utaraand the Faculty of Economics of Universitas Methodist Indonesia. Currently, he is the CommercialManager at East Timor Trading, LDA in East Timor. His professional life is linked to sales andmarketing and his main professional interest is designing business development strategies.

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THE REASONS OF LACK OF POLISH YOUNGPOTENTIAL EMPLOYEES' INTEREST IN UNIVERSITIES

AS EMPLOYERS IN THE CONTEXT OF PERCEPTIONOF PEOPLE WORKING IN THESE ORGANIZATIONS

Open Access

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THE REASONS OF LACK OF POLISH YOUNG POTENTIAL EMPLOYEES'INTEREST IN UNIVERSITIES AS EMPLOYERS IN THE CONTEXT

OF PERCEPTION OF PEOPLE WORKING IN THESE ORGANIZATIONS

Professor Agnieszka Izabela BarukLodz University of Technology, Faculty of Management and Production EngineeringDepartment of Management Systems and Innovations, Institute of Innovation and [email protected] ORCID 0000-0003-2864-509X

Anna Goliszek, Ph.D.University of Life Sciences in Lublin, Department of Management and [email protected]: 10.2478/minib-2019-0036

The article has a theoretical and empirical character. Identifying the internal structure of reasons of lack ofPolish young potential employees' interest in universities as employers was the main goal of this paper. Toprepare its theoretical part the method of cognitive-critical analysis of world literature on marketing andmanagement was applied. The results of this analysis show that the aspects connected with the mentionedreasons have not been studied yet. The more the opinions about the way of perception of universities'employees in the comparison of other organizations' employees have not been taken into account in theanalysis. So one can talk about the existence of a cognitive gap and an empirical gap in this scope. Strivingto reduce these gaps the empirical studies were conducted. The research covered representatives of Polishyoung potential employees. Gathered primary data were statistically analysed applying the followingresearch methods and tests: exploratory factor analysis and Kruskal-Wallis test. The results of theseanalyses show that the opinions on relative perception of universities' employees decide about differencesin the structure of reasons of lack of interest in universities as employers. But the mentioned opinions arethe element differentiating in a statistically significant way only one reason.

JJEELL kkoodd:: M31; M54

Summary

Keywords: employee, potential employee, employer, university, perceiving, image

Introduction

The basis of any modern marketing concept is assigning a key marketrole to a buyer (J. Gamble, A. Gilmore, D. McCartan-Quinn, P. Durkan,2011) who, like any other entity, must be treated ethically (cf. E.Rudawska, 2017). As a recipient of the values addressed to it by the bidderand as a verifier of the compliance of these values with its ownexpectations, the buyer is the entity determining the possibilities of thebidder's functioning, and even more so the chances for its development. Nobidder can function without buyers whose attitudes (favourable orunfavourable to the bidder) and market behaviours (favourable orunfavourable to the bidder) co-create a marketing environment conduciveto the development of the organisation or hindering or even preventing itsdevelopment.

Therefore, an extremely important element of marketing activitiesundertaken by contemporary bidders operating on the consumer market isthe skilful shaping of the attitudes and behaviours of final buyers throughbuilding partnership relations with them (cf. M.C. Ratković, N.D. Krasulja,|N. Garaèa, 2013). The starting point in this process should be the adoptionof the assumption of the purchaser's equality, which results in treating thepurchaser as a valuable business partner. In accordance with modernmarketing concepts, the scope of the role played by the final buyer is muchlarger, which results, among other things, from changes in the scope ofmarketing itself (cf. M. Ratković, G. Grubić, S. Tasić, 2012). Apart frompurchasing behaviours which characterise the so-called passive buyerwhose market role is limited only to the role of the customer, thecontemporary buyer is more strongly involved in various forms of marketactivity (C.M. Sashi, 2012). First of all, they more and more oftenundertake various out-of-purchase behaviours including communicationand creative behaviours. Their manifestation makes the buyer an activeparticipant of marketing activities at practically every stage of themarketing process (cf. S. Seran, M. Izvercian, 2014; E. Ziemba, M.Eisenbardt, 2015) by conveying their opinions, including spontaneously, aswell as by sharing their creativity, the effect of which is a collection ofintangible and/or tangible assets that definitely better meet the growingrequirements of the buyers.

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This, of course, also applies to the values that make up the personaloffer (cf. A. Baruk, 2017) whose perceived quality determines whether agiven organisation is considered an attractive employer or not. It should bestressed that the quality assessment of this offer by the purchasers is ofparamount importance, not the way it is assessed by the bidder alone. Thepurchaser's perspective is therefore more important than the bidder'sperspective, as it is in the subjective assessment of the purchaser that aspecific offer must be sufficiently valuable for the purchaser to beconsidered as better within a certain period of time than other offers.

This applies to both material and non-material features of the personneloffer, since their combined perception determines the specific image of agiven organisation as an employer. The image is formed not only on thebasis of one's own experience (general nature and experience related to aparticular organization), but also the experience of other people whoseopinions are often no less important for a specific buyer than their ownjudgment. This is particularly visible in the case of people who enjoyauthority (the so-called authority effect — cf. K. White, B. Simpson, J. J.Argo, 2014), admired people who want to imitate (the so-called echo effect— cf. K. White, B. Simpson, J. J. Argo, 2014), or people close to whom theytrust the most. The collection of opinions of other entities leads to theformation of a specific general perception of a given brand, institution,industry or people working in a specific type of organization. Therefore, itis of key importance to skillfully shape formal marketing communicationactivities (cf. M. Išoraite, 2016) and to constantly ensure that the contentof the marketing message fully corresponds to the activities undertaken bythe employer in practice.

In the case of employer-employee relations, this is an extremelyimportant element for any employer, but it is particularly important inrelation to universities. They must compete for employees not only withother universities (J. Chluska, W. Szczepaniak, 2016), but also with entitiesrepresenting other industries. Taking into account the nature of theuniversity, effective competition for the best employees is extremelyimportant, even crucial, for the development of these institutions.However, it is significantly hindered for two basic reasons: legal and formalconditions under which Polish universities, especially state ones, operate;historical and mental conditions.

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The conditions in the latter group are particularly important for thesubject matter of this article. In the past, universities in Poland did notassign much importance to undertaking comprehensive activities in thefield of personnel policy, focusing primarily on activities leading to theattraction of candidates for students. Unfortunately, this approach is stillvisible, although each university plays different market roles, which meansthat it should strive to achieve different goals (cf. N. Hsieh, 2015)corresponding to the specificity of particular roles. The university is notonly a provider of educational, scientific or research values, but also anemployer. Therefore, it should have a well thought-out long-term policy ofattracting the best candidates for employees, as well as keeping them.

In other words, like any business process, personal activity should beappropriately shaped by using the assumptions of modern managementconcepts (cf. P. K. Singh, 2012) in accordance with the marketing approach.This requires undertaking actions expected by potential and currentemployees, which would be flexibly adjusted to changes occurring in theirrequirements, e.g. by co-creating these actions together with employees.Only then can the effect of perceiving scientists as an attractive employerbe achieved. Its presentation is necessary in order to effectively encourageyoung participants of the labour market to choose universities as places ofemployment. Admittedly, more and more universities in Poland obtain the'HR Excellence in Research' certificate (cf. S. Jarosławska-Sobór, 2017), butin practice such actions do not influence the perception of young potentialuniversity employees as employers. They do not belong to the values thatthey expect from future employers.

Unfortunately, still within the framework of both theoreticalconsiderations and empirical research, not to mention practical actionstaken by Polish universities, there is a clear lack of recognition of the factthat they are also employers. There is still no research on issues related toshaping employer-employee relations in the case of universities, includingresearch on building their image as employers. These issues are stillanalysed primarily in relation to manufacturing or service enterprises (e.g.banks), mainly in the context of building their brand as employers. Forexample, values that attract employees and/or are conducive to theirmaintenance were analysed by S.D.S. Tikson, N. Hamid and R. Mardiana

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(2018); G. Davies (2008); H. Gilani and L. Gilani. Cunningham (2017); E.Alniacik and U. Alniacik (2012); B. J. Arachchige and A. Robertson (2011);I. Alniacik and U. Arachchige (2011). Bakanauskiene, R. Bendaravièieneand L. Barkauske (2017); G. Van Hoye, T. Bas, S. Cromheecke and F.Lievens (2013); M. K. Biswas and D. Suar (2016); L. Eger, M. Micik, M.Gangur and P. Øehoø (2019); or N. K. Biswas and D. Gangur (2013).Kashive and V. T. Khanna (2017). However, all these surveys wereconducted only for employers who are companies. In the literature devotedto the role of employer one can only indicate single items in which theuniversity is analyzed in this role (K. Wojtaszczyk, 2008). However, theresearch presented in them does not concern the reasons of lack of interestin working at a university and its perception as an employer. The lack ofinterest in Poland in issues related to the perception of employer at theuniversity is also evidenced by the scope of research conducted amongstudents by various institutions related to the labour market. Forexample, in the report "Starting on the labour market 2016" (Report"Starting on the Labour Market 2016"), in the case of a question aboutstudent career plans among the multiple-choice answers there was noopportunity to work at a university or other research and / or scientificorganization.

On the basis of the results of the cognitive-critical analysis of the worldliterature on this subject, we can thus talk about the existence of acognitive and research gap in this area. Reducing the identified gaps bydetermining the internal structure of the reasons for the lack of interest inuniversities as jobs among young potential employees was the mainobjective of this paper. In addition, the article also aims to achieve thefollowing research objectives:

C1 — to identify opinions of young people on the perception of universityemployees in Poland in comparison with the perception of employeesemployed in other institutions;

C2 — to determine the internal structure of reasons for young people's lackof interest in taking up employment at a university, depending ontheir opinion on the perception of university staff in comparison withthe perception of persons employed in other institutions;

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C3 — to compare the internal structure of reasons for the lack of interestof young people in taking up employment at universities, who believethat university employees are better perceived in Poland than thoseworking in other institutions, with the internal structure of reasonsfor the lack of interest of young people in taking up employment atuniversities, who believe that university employees are perceived inPoland in the same way;

C4 — to identify the occurrence of statistically significant differences in thereasons for young people's lack of interest in taking up employmentat universities depending on their opinion on the perception ofuniversity staff in comparison with the perception of personsemployed in other institutions.

Two following research hypotheses have been verified in the process ofachieving the above mentioned objectives:

H1 — the internal structure of reasons for the lack of interest of youngpeople in taking up employment at universities, who believe thatuniversity employees are better perceived in Poland than thoseworking in other institutions, is different than the internal structureof reasons for the lack of interest of young people in taking upemployment at universities, who believe that university employeesare perceived in the same way in Poland;

H2 — opinions on the perception of university staff as compared to theperception of persons employed in other institutions constitute afeature differentiating the reasons for young people's lack of interestin taking up employment in universities.

General characteristics of empirical studies

In order to achieve the objectives of this article and to verify theformulated research hypotheses, empirical research1, was conducted usingthe survey method to collect primary data. So far, 3 editions of thesesurveys have been carried out. During the first edition of the research, 150

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students completing their studies at the 1st or 2nd degree of full-timestudies as potential employees were covered, while in the 2nd and 3rdedition of the research sample size was 250 people each, representing theaforementioned segment of the labour market2.

The research was of a direct nature, requiring personal contact betweenthe researcher and the examined subjects. The first edition of the researchwas conducted in the first half of 2016, the second edition in the firstquarter of 2018 and the third one in the first quarter of 2019. Allquestionnaires of the survey were qualified for quantitative analysis, whichwas possible thanks to the use of face-to-face contact with respondents. Thecollected primary data were subjected to quantitative analysis, using themethod of comparative analysis, exploratory factor analysis and Kruskal-Wallis independence test.

During each edition of the survey respondents were presented with a setof the same 12 statements reflecting the reasons for the lack of interest inthe university as a workplace. They were distinguished on the basis of theresults of cognitive-critical analysis of the literature on the subject and theresults of unstructured interviews preceding the first edition of theresearch. Each of these statements was to be assessed by the respondents ina five-stage Likert scale, in which the assessment of 5 meant definitely yes,4 — yes, 3 — neither yes nor no, 2 — rather no, while 1 — definitely not.The use of such a scale is a necessary condition for the use of the factorialanalysis method. In order to expand and deepen the analysis, in the thirdedition of the survey respondents were asked about their opinions on theperception of persons working at universities in Poland in comparison withthe perception of persons working in other institutions. Answers given tothis question during the statistical analysis were used to check the varietyof reasons for the lack of interest in the university as an employer.

Factor analysis allowed for an in-depth analysis of the collected primarydata. It is used to reduce the number of variables constituting primary dataobtained from surveys and to detect structures in the relationships betweenthese variables, in other words, to classify them (H. Abdi, L. J. Williams,2010; M. Sztemberg-Lewandowska, 2008). This analysis was therefore usedto reduce the number of variables affecting the category under study, i.e. thereasons for the lack of interest in the university as an employer and to detectinternal interdependencies in the relationships between these variables.

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The main components method was used to isolate the factors, but it wasimportant to determine their number. In order to determine the number ofcommon factors (the so-called main components), the Kaiser's criteriontechnique was applied, which consists in leaving only those factors thathave their own values greater than 1. Each such factor explains a certainlevel of general variability of the considered system, determined by thepercentage of variance, which can be interpreted as a measure of theexplanation of the phenomenon. The factors were rotated using thestandardized varimax method. Within the framework of particular factors,variables with the highest factor loads in relation to a given factor weredistinguished (the value ≥ 0.7 was assumed).

Factor analysis identifies hidden factors, which include featuresresponsible for perception through their prism of the problem described inthe question. Factor analysis, however, does not allow to find an answerwhether the differentiation in terms of separating particular groups (e.g.perception of people working at a university) is statistically significantenough to be able to say that the opinion of respondents determined by theanalysed answer is significantly different. This question is answered by theKruskal-Wallis test (KW), which is an unparametric equivalent of ANOVA.

In order to find an answer to the question whether the differentiation interms of separating particular groups (e.g. separated by opinions on theperception of people working at a university) is statistically significant enoughto be able to say that the respondents' opinions determined by the analysedanswer are significantly different, the Kruskal-Wallis test (KW) was applied.

From the point of view of statistical criteria, in the case of the KW test,the data do not have to meet many requirements. The only requirementsare (http://www.statystyka.az.pl/test-anova-kruskala-wallisa.php;http://www.statystycy.pl/t4997_1_test_rangowy_kruskala-wallisa.php):

the dependent variable should be measured on at least an ordinal scale(it can also be measured on a quantitative scale), observations in the analysed groups should be independent of eachother, which means that a person in one group should not be in anothercompared group at the same time (this requirement is met bydichotomous questions allowing to divide respondents into two separategroups and single -choice questions).

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The Kruskal-Wallis test as a non-parametric equivalent of one-wayvariance analysis is therefore used when the data does not meet therequirements for similar parametric tests and can be ordered according tospecific criteria. It consists of verifying whether the number of independentresults from the group comes from the same population or from apopulation with the same median. Individual samples do not have to be ofthe same size. Input data is a n-elementary statistical sample divided into'k' separate survey groups of n1 to nk.

An interpretation of the test may consist only in comparing the 'p' valuewith the assumed materiality level (usually 0.05) or in analysing the valuesof test statistics in case it is necessary to assess the 'power/ escalation' ofdifferences between groups. The high values of the test statistics indicatethat there are differences in individual groups (i.e. against the hypothesisof equality in individual groups), and the higher the values, the greater thedifference.

Statistical analysis of the collected primary data was performed with theuse of IBM SPSS Statistics Ver. 22.

Results of empirical studies

In the first stage of the analysis of the collected primary data, the aimwas to determine the specificity of the internal structure of the reasons forthe lack of interest in the university as an employer taking into account thecriterion of respondents' opinions on the perception of people working atthe university in Poland. For this purpose, the exploratory factor analysismethod was applied to the identified causes using it separately for each ofthe following 3 groups of persons: the total number of respondents; personswho believe that university employees are perceived in Poland in the sameway as employees of other organisations; persons who believe thatuniversity employees are perceived in Poland better than employees ofother organisations. Admittedly, the majority of respondents were of theopinion that persons working at universities are better perceived in Polandthan employees of other institutions, but this percentage only slightlyexceeded half, amounting to 53.2%. Slightly less than half of the

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respondents (46.1%) believed that people working in universities areperceived in the same way as employees of other institutions, and only 0.7%of the respondents expressed the opinion that the perception of universityemployees is worse than that of employees of other employers. Due to thefact that the percentage of respondents expressing opinions about theworse perception was very small, for the needs of the analysis theseanswers were merged with the answers about the same way of perceivinguniversity employees as employees of other institutions.

For each of the 3 analysed groups of respondents, this factor includes 3variables whose factor loads are at least 0.7, while for all respondents(Table 2) and for those who believe that university employees are betterperceived than employees of other organisations (Table 4), it is formed byidentical variables, reflecting an unfavourable image of the universitybased on their own experiences. However, in the case of persons whobelieve that university employees are perceived in the same way asemployees of other organisations (Table 6), the first factor includes 3completely different variables, reflecting insecurity in the non-material andmaterial dimension. The variables constituting the first factor for allrespondents and for those who believe that university staff are betterperceived are part of the second factor distinguished for those who expressan opinion on the identical perception of university staff. In the case of bothother groups of respondents, the second factor consists of, respectively, 2 or1 variable related to insecurity, although it concerns only the non-materialaspect of security.

Table 1. Hierarchy of factors due to their own values determined on the basis of Kaiser's criterion

(for all respondents)

Factor Own Accumulated % of total Accumulated %value own value own value (variant) of own value

1 2.380 2.380 19.835 19.8352 2.200 4.580 18.335 38.1703 1.930 6.510 16.087 54.2574 1.196 7.706 9.965 64.222

Source: Own calculations based on research results.

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The third factor for all respondents and for those who believe thatuniversity staff are perceived better includes 1 variable reflecting lessleisure time, and for those who believe that university staff areperceived in the same way it includes 2 variables reflecting a failure tomeet social and psychological needs that leads to an unfavourableperception of a person taking up a job in the university. It is worthnoting that for all the respondents in the fourth factor structure therewas no variable with a factor load of at least 0.7. However, one of thevariables within this factor had a factor load with a high negative value.On the other hand, for those who believe that people working at auniversity in Poland are perceived in the same way, the fourth factorincludes only a variable reflecting a smaller amount of free time. Itshould be stressed, however, that the fourth factor explained thesmallest part of the total variability of the analysed phenomenon thanthe other factors, both for all the respondents and for those who believethat university employees are perceived in the same way as thoseemployed in other places.

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Table 2. Results of factor analysis of the reasons for the lack of interest in the university as a workplace

(for all respondents)

VariableFactor

1 2 3 4

Negative general impressions from studies 0.869 0.125 0.201 0.043

Negative experiences as a student related

to contacts with lecturers 0.857 0.110 0.074 0.058

Willingness to break off any contacts with universities 0.762 –0.124 0.007 0.042

Need to share your valuable knowledge with others 0.419 0.184 0.377 –0.111

Uncertainty of keeping the job and job instability 0.086 0.822 0.182 –0.042

Lack of career prospects –0.031 0.812 0.034 0.085

Low pay 0.112 0.699 –0.052 0.204

Low social prestige –0.010 0.477 0.444 0.358

Less free time than in other places –0.038 –0.037 0.783 –0.228

Shame about the workplace 0.185 –0.006 0.677 0.488

Fast burning of professional and life energy 0.277 0.165 0.653 0.021

Willingness to use the knowledge and skills acquired

during the studies to work in a place other than a university –0.028 –0.208 0.104 –0.841



(for respondents who believe that university employees are better perceived in Poland

than employees of other organisations)


1 2.566 2.566 21.383 21.383

2 2.352 4.918 19.601 40.984

3 1.722 6.640 14.350 55.334

Źródło: Own calculations based on research results.

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Table 4. Results of factorial analysis of the reasons for the lack of interest of respondents in universities

as a workplace (for respondents who believe that university employees are better

perceived in Poland than employees of other organisations)

VariableFactor

1 2 3

Negative experiences as a student related to contacts with lecturers 0.874 0.064 0.040

Negative general impressions from studies 0.853 0.057 0.242Willingness to break off any contacts with universities 0.755 –0.114 –0.005Need to share your valuable knowledge with others 0.509 0.137 0.200Lack of career prospects –0.085 0.730 –0.093Low social prestige 0.153 0.698 0.122Uncertainty of keeping the job and job instability 0.020 0.663 0.352Low pay 0.198 0.627 0.051Willingness to use the knowledge and skills acquired during

the studies to work in a place other than a university 0.066 –0.466 –0.003Less free time than in other places 0.007 –0.120 0.893Fast burning of professional and life energy 0.255 0.456 0.617Shame about the workplace 0.326 0.146 0.542



(for respondents who believe that university employees in Poland

are perceived in the same way as employees of other organisations)


1 2.634 2.634 21.950 21.9502 2.161 4.795 18.009 39.9593 2.081 6.876 17.344 57.3034 1.422 8.298 11.854 69.157


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Table 6. Results of factorial analysis of the reasons for the lack of interest of respondents

in universities as a workplace (for respondents who believe that university

employees in Poland are equally perceived as employees of other organisations)

VariableFactor

1 2 3 4

Lack of career prospects 0.852 0.043 0.111 0.055

Uncertainty of keeping the job and job instability 0.832 0.131 0.131 –0.078

Low pay 0.795 0.049 –0.122 –0.147

Low social status 0.595 –0.082 0.300 0.519

Negative general impressions from studies 0.167 0.848 0.273 0.028

Willingness to break off any contacts with universities –0.085 0.798 0.010 0.018

Negative experiences as a student related to

contacts with lecturers 0.133 0.798 0.181 0.029

Shame about the workplace 0.187 –0.012 0.808 0.219

Fast burning of professional and life energy –0.133 0.288 0.763 0.042

Need to share your valuable knowledge with others 0.106 0.205 0.631 –0.027

Less free time than in other places 0.015 0.023 0.287 0.830

Willingness to use the knowledge and skills acquired during

the studies to work in a place other than a university –0.336 0.118 –0.351 0.617


It is worth reminding that in the case of factor analysis in relation tomarket attitudes or behaviours, the identified factors may be interpreted assegments of respondents (cf. B. Horn, W. Huang). Representatives ofparticular segments show homogeneous opinions on the causes ofreluctance to take up employment at universities (Table 7). Cleardifferences are visible, however, between representatives of segmentsseparated according to their opinions on the perception of university staffin comparison with employees of other organisations. The statementcontained in the research hypothesis H1 in the case of respondents turnedout to be true.

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Table 7. Identified segments of respondents due to their opinions

on the perception of university employees in Poland

Segment characteristics


Based on the results of a comparative analysis of the internal structureof factors identified for each of the three groups of respondents, it can beassumed that opinions on the relative perception of university employees inPoland are a feature differentiating the indicated causes of lack of interestin the university as an employer. Therefore, the question arises whetherthis differentiation is statistically significant or not. In order to find an

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for all respondentsSegment

for people who believe thatuniversity employees

are better perceived in Polandthan employees

of other organisations

for people who believe thatuniversity employees

in Poland are perceived in thesame way as employees of other organisations

1

2

3

4

Negative generalimpressions from studiesNegative experiences as astudent related to contactswith lecturersWillingness to break off anycontacts with universities

Uncertainty about keeping the job and job instabilityLack of career prospects

Less free time than in other places

—

Negative experiences as a student related to contactswith lecturersNegative general impressionsfrom studiesWillingness to break off anycontacts with universities

Lack of career prospects

Less free time than in otherplaces

—

Lack of career prospectsUncertainty about keeping thejob and job instabilityLow pay

Negative general impressionsfrom studiesWillingness to break off anycontacts with universitiesNegative experiences as astudent related to contacts withlecturers

Shame about the workplaceFast burning of professional andlife energy

Less free time than in otherplaces

answer to these questions, the Kruskal-Wallis test was carried out (Table8). However, the statistically significant differences can only be observed inthe case of one variable, i.e. 'the willingness to use the knowledge and skillsacquired during studies in working in a place other than the university'.Only for this variable is the significance level 'p' lower than the limit valueof 0.05. The statement contained in the research hypothesis H2 in the caseof respondents is therefore true only for the mentioned variable. It is worthrecalling that this variable did not enter into any factor regardless of theanalyzed group of respondents.

Table 8. Analysis of the difference significance between the respondents' answers concerning

the reasons for the lack of interest in the university as a workplace due to the criterion

of their opinions concerning the perception of people working at the university in Poland

Opinions on perception of persons KW Signifi-Variable working in a higher education institution test cance

value level „p”

Low social status better than persons working in other institutions 46.44 0.135the same as persons working for other institutions 54.56

Low pay better than persons working in other institutions 46.68 0.164the same as persons working for other institutions 54.32

Lack of career better than persons working in other institutions 49.68 0.764prospects the same as persons working for other institutions 51.32

Uncertainty about keeping the better than persons working in other institutions 51.52 0.704job and job instability the same as persons working for other institutions 49.48

Need to share your valuable better than persons working in other institutions 46.34 0.141knowledge with others the same as persons working for other institutions 54.66

Shame about the workplace better than persons working in other institutions 47.92 0.328the same as persons working for other institutions 53.08

Fast burning of professional better than persons working in other institutions 52.76 0.421and life energy the same as persons working for other institutions 48.24

Less free time than better than persons working in other institutions 54.02 0.210in other places the same as persons working for other institutions 46.98

Negative general impressions better than persons working in other institutions 45.46 0.072from studies the same as persons working for other institutions 55.54

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Cont table 8

Opinions on perception of persons KW Signifi-Variable working in a higher education institution test cance

value level „p”

Negative experiences as better than persons working in other institutions 47.14 0.227a student related to contacts the same as persons working for other institutions 53.86with lecturers

Willingness to break off better than persons working in other institutions 46.17 0.121any contacts with universities the same as persons working for other institutions 54.83

Willingness to use the knowledge better than persons working in other institutions 57.25 0.011and skills acquired during the same as persons working for other institutions 43.75the studies to work in a place other than a university


Finally, it should be added that in 2019 the university was still not anattractive employer for the majority of respondents (76.6% of people).Therefore, the situation did not change in comparison with the years 2016and 2018, when more than half of the respondents did not take into accounttaking up employment at the university.

Summary

The results of the survey indicate that more than half of therespondents believed that university employees in Poland are betterperceived than those working in other organisations. It should beremembered, however, that over 46% of respondents expressed the opinionthat the perception of people working in universities is worse. Taking intoaccount the opinion on this subject in the factor analysis as an elementpotentially determining the internal structure of the reasons for the lack ofinterest in the university as an employer allowed to identify cleardifferences in the structure of these reasons. Among those who express theopinion that university employees are better perceived, the most important

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were image reasons related to negative experiences of their own. However,among those who believed that university employees are perceived inPoland in the same way as employees of other organisations, the causesreflecting the lack of material and non-material sense of security attributedto work at the university came to the fore. The statement contained in theresearch hypothesis H1 in the case of respondents turned out to be true.The aforementioned element, however, was a feature differentiating in astatistically significant way only in the case of one analysed reason, whichis 'the willingness to use the knowledge and skills acquired during studiesin work in a place other than a university'. Thus, it can be said that thestatement contained in the research hypothesis H2 in the case ofrespondents turned out to be true only for this variable.

The results of the research and the conclusions drawn from it have acognitive and application value. They are, of course, particularly importantfor universities, as they indicate the necessity for this group of employersto undertake coherent and comprehensive actions in the field of personnelpolicy which, according to the assumptions of marketing orientation,should be consistent with the expectations of individual segments of thelabour market participants including the segments of young potentialemployees, which were identified during the research. Analysing thecharacteristics of persons belonging to particular segments, it is worthnoting that the consequences of the HR policy have, among others, also theattitude of university employees towards students. As it can be seen, notonly actions taken towards employees have specific personal effects, butalso actions taken during the implementation of the didactic process inrelation to students. This confirms the extremely high complexity of thephenomenon of fulfilling the role of employer by a university, thusindicating the need for a holistic approach to all activities that may affectthe perception of the university as an employer.

Of course, the conducted research has certain limitations. They includethe following scope: subjective (only representatives of young potentialemployees), geographical (only representatives of Polish young potentialemployees), objective (no in-depth analysis of particular causes). In order toeliminate these limitations, in subsequent stages of the research processconcerning the reasons for lack of interest in universities as employers, itis planned to broaden each of the above mentioned areas by including

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universities as employers and representatives of young potential employeesfrom other countries. This will make it possible to conduct comparativeanalysis in terms of entities and geography. So far, three editions of theresearch have been carried out, gradually extending their scope. It isplanned to continue them in the future so that comparative analyses can beconducted also in a time perspective.

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PPrrooffeessssoorr AAggnniieesszzkkaa IIzzaabbeellaa BBaarruukk,, ŁŁóóddźź UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff TTeecchhnnoollooggyy,, PPoollaanndd —— lecturer at LodzUniversity of Technology, Faculty of Management and Production Engineering, Department ofManagement Systems and Innovation. Her publications comprise 434 peer-reviewed positionsincluding 14 books about transaction and personal marketing and their mutual interdependencies.

AAnnnnaa GGoolliisszzeekk,, PPhhDD..,, UUnniivveerrssiittyy ooff LLiiffee SScciieenncceess iinn LLuubblliinn,, PPoollaanndd —— sociologist, lecturer in theManagement Department at the University of Life Sciences in Lublin. Graduate of the Faculty of SocialSciences of the John Paul II Catholic University of Lublin. He earned his doctoral degree from theFaculty of Philosophy and Sociology of the Maria Curie Skłodowska University in Lublin. His majorscientific interests include organisational and management sociology, with a particular focus on theproblem of organisational culture, business communication, inventics and social psychology.

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Internet sources:At the end of the reference description add:http://www.websiteaddress (dd.mm.yyyy)The date in parentheses is the date when the publication was released online.

The same applies to descriptions of drawings and tables.

Citation within the main body (possible cases):(Smith, 2013)(Smith, 2012a)(Smith, 2012b)(Smith, 2013, p. 67)(Smith and Jones, 2012)(Smith, Jones and Williams, 2011)(Smith, 2012a, 2013; Smith and Jones, 2012)(Smith, 2013; after: Jones, 2012)

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MINIB, 2019, Vol. 32, Issue 2, p. VIII–IX

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minib.plminib.pl/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/MINIB_32_2019_ang.pdf · Dear All, We present to You the 32nd issue of our periodical. The issue contains nine interesting articles discussing