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8/17/2019 Mindfulness Psychology
1/22
Mindfulness Training as a Clinical Intervention: A
Conceptual and Empirical Review
Ruth A. Baer, University of Kentucky
Interventions based on training in mindfulness skills are
becoming increasingly popular. Mindfulness involves in
tentionally bringing one!s attention to t"e internal and e#ternal
e#periences occurring in t"e present moment$ and is often
taug"t t"roug" a variety of meditation e#ercises. T"is review
summari%es conceptual approac"es to mindfulness and
empirical researc" on t"e utility of mindfulnessbased
interventions. Metaanalytic tec"ni&ues were incorporated to
facilitate &uantification of findings and comparison across
studies. Alt"oug" t"e current empirical literature includes
many met"odological flaws$ findings suggest t"at
mindfulnessbased interventions may be "elpful in t"e
treatment of several disorders. Met"odologically sound
investigations are recommended in order to clarify t"e utility of
t"ese interventions.
Key words: mindfulness$ meditation$ metaanalysis$
treatment outcome. [Clin Psychol Sci Prac 10: 125–143, 2003]
Mindfulness is a way of paying attention that originated in
Eastern meditation practices. t has !een descri!ed as "!ringing
one#s complete attention to the present e$peri%ence on a
moment%to%moment !asis& 'Marlatt ( Kris%teller, )***, p. +-
and as "paying attention in a particular way on purpose, in the
present moment, and non/udg%mentally& 'Ka!at%0inn, )**1, p.
1-. 2he a!ility to direct one#s attention in this way can !e
developed through the practice of meditation, which is de3ned
as the intentional self%regulation of attention from moment tomoment
4end correspondence to Ruth A. Baer, 5epartment of
6sychol%ogy, ))7 Kastle 8all, University of Kentucky,
9e$ington, K: 1;7;+%;;11. E%mail r!aer
8/17/2019 Mindfulness Psychology
2/22
mental health treatment pro%grams usually teach these skills
independently of the reli%gious and cultural traditions of their
origins 'Ka!at%0inn, )*@9inehan, )**!-. n the current
empirical literature, clinical interventions !ased on training in
mindfulness skills are descri!ed with increasing freuency, and
their popu%larity appears to !e growing rapidly. According to
4almon, 4antorelli, and Ka!at%0inn
')**-, over 1; hospitals and clinics
in the United 4tates and a!road were
off ering stress reduction programs
!ased on mindfulness training as of
5C );.);*FclipsyF!pg;)7
'(() AMERICA* +,-C/0/1ICA0 A,,/CIATI/* 23' 3'4
8/17/2019 Mindfulness Psychology
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)**?. Mindfulness training is also a central component of
dialectical !ehavior therapy '9inehan, )**a, )**!-, an
increasingly popular approach to the treatment of !order%line
personality disorder. 2he empirical literature on the eff ects of
mindfulness training contains many method%ological
weaknesses, !ut it suggests that mindfulness inter%ventions may
lead to reductions in a variety of pro!lematic conditions,
including pain, stress, an$iety, depressive re%lapse, and
disordered eating 'e.g., Ka!at%0inn, )*@Ka!at%0inn et al.,
)**@ Kristeller ( 8allett, )***@ 4hapiro, 4chwart>, ( Bonner,
)**@ 2easdale et al., ;;;-.
2his review summari>es the recent literature on mind%fulness
training as a clinical intervention. Girst, current methods for
teaching mindfulness skills are descri!ed. He$t, conceptual
approaches that articulate how mindful%ness skills may !e
helpful in treating clinical conditions are summari>ed. Ginally, the
empirical literature on the eff ects of mindfulness training is
reviewed.2his review does not address transcendental meditation '2M-
and other concentration%!ased approaches, which have !een
reviewed elsewhere '5elmonte, )*7@ 4mith, )*?7-.
Ioncentration%!ased approaches train participants to restrict the
focus of attention to a single stimulus, such as a word 'e.g., a
mantra-, sound, o!/ect, or sensation. Dhen attention wanders, it
is redirected to the o!/ect of meditation. Ho attention is paid to
the nature of the dis%traction. Mindfulness meditation, in
contrast, involves o!%servation of constantly changing internal
and e$ternal stimuli as they arise.
2his review also does not address 9anger#s ')**, )**?-
cognitive model of mindfulness, which includes alertness todistinctions, conte$t, and multiple perspectives, open%ness to
novelty, and orientation in the present '4tern!erg, ;;;-.
Mindfulness interventions studied !y 9anger and colleagues 'e.g.,
9anger, )**@ 9anger ( Moldoveanu, ;;;- often include teaching
participants to consider in%formation or situations from multiple
perspectives or within new conte$ts in order to increase learning or
cre%ativity. Although this concept of mindfulness shares with
meditative approaches an emphasis on Je$i!le awareness in the
present, several important diff erences can !e noted. 9anger#s
')**- mindfulness interventions usually involve working with
material e$ternal to the participants, such as information to !e
learned or manipulated, and often in%clude active, goal%orientedcognitive tasks, such as solving pro!lems. n contrast, the
meditation%!ased approaches
descri!ed in this review often are directed toward the in%ner
e$periences of the individual 'e.g., thoughts, emo%tions- and
emphasi>e a less goal%directed, non/udgmental o!servation.
9anger ')**- has cautioned against drawing unwarranted
parallels !etween the two forms of mindful%ness, noting that theyare derived from very diff erent his%torical and cultural
!ackgrounds.
I*TER5E*TI/*, 6A,E2 /* MI*2780*E,, TRAI*I*1
Mindfulness6ased ,tress Reduction
2he most freuently cited method of mindfulness training is the
mindfulness%!ased stress reduction 'MB4R- pro%gram, formerly
known as the stress reduction and rela$%ation program '4R%R6@
Ka!at%0inn, )*, )**;-. t was developed in a !ehavioral
medicine setting for populations with a wide range of chronic
pain and stress%related disor%ders. 2he program is conducted as
an % to );%week course for groups of up to ; participants who
meet weekly for .7 hr for instruction and practice in
mindfulness med%itation skills, together with discussion of stress,
coping, and homework assignments. An all%day '?%hr-
intensive mindfulness session usually is held around the si$th
week. 4everal mindfulness meditation skills are taught. Gor e$%
ample, the !ody scan is a 17%min e$ercise in which atten%tion is
directed seuentially to numerous areas of the !ody while the
participant is lying down with eyes closed. 4en%sations in each
area are carefully o!served. n sitting med%itation, participants
are instructed to sit in a rela$ed and wakeful posture with eyes
closed and to direct attention to the sensations of !reathing.
8atha yoga postures are used to teach mindfulness of !odily
sensations during gentle movements and stretching.
6articipants also practice mind%fulness during ordinary activities
like walking, standing, and eating.
6articipants in MB4R are instructed to practice these skills
outside group meetings for at least 17 min per day, si$ days per
week. Audiotapes are used early in treatment, !ut participants
are encouraged to practice without tapes after a few weeks. Gor
all mindfulness e$ercises, participants are instructed to focus
attention on the target of o!servation 'e.g., !reathing or walking-
and to !e aware of it in each moment. Dhen emotions,
sensations, or cognitions arise, they are o!served
non/udgmentally. Dhen the participant notices that the mind haswandered into thoughts, mem%ories, or fantasies, the nature or
content of them is !rieJy noted, if possi!le, and then attention is
returned to the
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present moment. 2hus, participants are instructed to no%tice
their thoughts and feelings !ut not to !ecome a!sor!ed in their
content 'Ka!at%0inn, )*-. Even /udgmental thoughts 'e.g.,
"this is a foolish waste of time&- are to !e o!served
non/udgmentally. Upon noticing such a thought, the participantmight la!el it as a /udgmental thought, or simply as "thinking,&
and then return attention to the pres%ent moment. An important
conseuence of mindfulness practice is the reali>ation that most
sensations, thoughts, and emotions Juctuate, or are transient,
passing !y "like waves in the sea& '9inehan, )**!, p. ?-.
Mindfulness6ased Cognitive T"erapy
2easdale, 4egal, and Dilliams ')**7- proposed that the skills of
attentional control taught in mindfulness medita%tion could !e
helpful in preventing relapse of ma/or de%pressive episodes.
2heir information%processing theory of depressive relapse
suggests that individuals who have e$%perienced ma/or
depressive episodes are vulnera!le to re%currences whenever
mild dysphoric states are encountered, !ecause these states
may reactivate the depressive thinking patterns present during
the previous episode, or episodes, thus precipitating a new
episode. Mindfulness%!ased cog%nitive therapy 'MBI2- is a
manuali>ed '4egal, Dilliams, ( 2easdale, ;;- %week group
intervention !ased largely on Ka!at%0inn#s ')**;- MB4R
program. t incorporates ele%ments of cognitive therapy that
facilitate a detached or de%centered view of one#s thoughts,
including statements such as "thoughts are not facts& and " am
not my thoughts.& 2his decentered approach also is applied to
emotions and !odily sensations. MBI2 is designed to prevent
depressive relapse !y teaching formerly depressed individuals
to o!%serve their thoughts and feelings non/udgmentally, and to
view them simply as mental events that come and go, rather
than as aspects of themselves, or as necessarily accu%rate
reJections of reality. 2his attitude toward depression%related
cognitions is !elieved to prevent the escalation of negative
thoughts into ruminative patterns '2easdale et al., )**7-.
I*TER5E*TI/*, I*C/R+/RATI*1
MI*2780*E,, TRAI*I*1
2ialectical 6e"avior T"erapy
5ialectical !ehavior therapy '5B2- is a multifaceted ap%proach
to the treatment of !orderline personality disorder '9inehan,
)**a, )**!-. t is !ased on a dialectical world%
view, which postulates that reality consists of opposing forces.
2he synthesis of these forces leads to a new reality, which in
turn consists of opposing forces, in a continual process of
change. n 5B2, the most central dialectic is the relationship
!etween acceptance and change. Ilients are encouraged toaccept themselves, their histories, and their current situations
e$actly as they are, while working in%tensively to change their
!ehaviors and environments in order to !uild a !etter life. 2he
synthesis of this apparent contradiction is a central goal of 5B2.
5B2 includes a wide range of cognitive and !ehavioral
treatment procedures, most of which are designed to change
thoughts, emotions, or !ehaviors. Mindfulness skills are taught
in 5B2 within the conte$t of synthesi>ing acceptance and
change. Although the skills taught are sim%ilar to those targeted
in MB4R, including non/udgmental o!servation of thoughts,
emotions, sensations, and envi%ronmental stimuli, the concepts
are organi>ed somewhat diff erently. Gor e$ample, 9inehan
')**a, )**!- descri!es three mindfulness "what& skills
'o!serve, descri!e, par%ticipate- and three mindfulness "how&
skills 'non/udg%mentally, one%mindfully, eff ectively-. 5B2 clients
learn mindfulness skills in a year%long weekly skills group, which
also covers interpersonal eff ectiveness, emotion regulation, and
distress tolerance skills. Ilients work with their indi%vidual
therapists on applying skills learned in group to their daily lives.
9inehan ')**1- notes that some severely impaired in%
dividuals may !e una!le or unwilling to meditate as e$tensively
as Ka!at%0inn#s ')**;- MB4R program rec%ommends. 2hus,
5B2 does not prescri!e a speci3c fre%uency or duration of
mindfulness practice. nstead, goals for mindfulness practice are
esta!lished !y individual clients and their therapists. 5B2 off
ersnumerous mind%fulness e$ercises from which clients may
choose 'some adapted from 8anh, )*?+-. n one e$ample,
clients imag%ine that the mind is a conveyor !elt. 2houghts,
feelings, and sensations that come down the !elt are o!served,
la%!eled, and categori>ed. n another e$ercise, clients imag%ine
that the mind is the sky, and that thoughts, feelings, and
sensations are clouds that they watch passing !y. 4everal
variations on o!serving the !reath are taught, including following
the !reath in and out, counting !reaths, coordi%nating !reathing
with footsteps while walking, and fol%lowing the !reath while
listening to music. 4ome e$ercises encourage mindful
awareness during everyday activities,
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such as making tea, washing dishes or clothes,
cleaning house, or taking a !ath.
Acceptance and Commitment T"erapy
Acceptance and commitment therapy 'AI2@ 8ayes, 4trosahl, (Dilson, )***- is theoretically !ased in con%temporary !ehavior
analysis '8ayes ( Dilson, )**-. Al%though AI2 does not
descri!e its treatment methods in terms of mindfulness or
meditation, it is included here !e%cause several of its strategies
are consistent with the mind%fulness approaches descri!ed.
Ilients in AI2 are taught to recogni>e an o!serving self who is
capa!le of watching his or her own !odily sensations, thoughts,
and emotions. 2hey are encouraged to see these phenomena
as separate from the person having them. Gor e$ample, they are
taught to say, "#m having the thought that #m a !ad person,&
rather than "#m a !ad person& 'Kohlen!erg, 8ayes, ( 2sai,
)**, p. 7-. 2hey also are encouraged to e$peri%ence
thoughts and emotions as they arise, without /udging,
evaluating, or attempting to change or avoid them. 8ayes ')*?-
descri!es an e$ercise in which the client imagines that his or her
thoughts are written on signs carried !y parading soldiers. 2he
client#s task is to o!serve the parade of thoughts without
!ecoming a!sor!ed in any of them. AI2 e$plicitly teaches
clients to a!andon attempts to con%trol thoughts and feelings,
!ut instead to o!serve them non%/udgmentally and accept them
as they are, while changing their !ehaviors in constructive ways
to improve their lives '8ayes, )**1-.
Relapse +revention
Relapse prevention 'R6@ Marlatt ( =ordon, )*7- is a cognitive%
!ehavioral treatment package designed to fore%stall relapses in
individuals treated for su!stance a!use. Mindfulness skills are
included as a techniue for coping with urges to engage in
su!stance use. Marlatt ')**1- notes that mindfulness involves
acceptance of the constantly changing e$periences of the present
moment, whereas ad%diction is an ina!ility to accept the present
moment and a persistent seeking of the ne$t "high& associated with
the addiction. 2he metaphor of "urge sur3ng& encourages clients to
imagine that urges are ocean waves that grow gradually until they
crest and su!side. 2he client "rides& the waves without giving in to
the urges, thus learning that urges will pass. 8owever, the client also
learns that new urges will appear and that these urges cannot easily
!e
eliminated. nstead, urges must !e accepted as normal re%
sponses to appetitive cues. Mindfulness skills ena!le the client
to o!serve the urges as they appear, accept them non%
/udgmentally, and cope with them in adaptive ways.
C/*CE+T8A0 A++R/ACE,: /< MI*2780*E,, ,=I00, MA-
E0+
2he authors of these treatment strategies have suggested
several mechanisms that may e$plain how mindfulness skills
can lead to symptom reduction and !ehavior change.
E#posure
2he 3rst pu!lished study of the eff ects of MB4R 'Ka!at%
0inn, )*- descri!ed its application in patients with chronic
pain. MB4R is !ased, in part, on traditional med%itation
practices, which often include e$tended periods of
motionless sitting. Although a rela$ed posture typically isadopted, prolonged motionlessness can lead to pain in
muscles and /oints. Mindfulness meditation instructors of%ten
encourage students not to shift position to relieve the pain,
!ut instead to focus careful attention directly on the pain
sensations, and to assume a non/udgmental attitude toward
these sensations, as well as toward the various cog%nitions
'"this is un!eara!le&- emotions 'an$iety, anger-, and urges
'to shift position- that often accompany pain sensations. 2he
a!ility to o!serve pain sensations non%/udgmentally is
!elieved to reduce the distress associated with pain.
Ka!at%0inn ')*- suggests that application of this strategy !y
chronic pain patients might serve several func%tions. Gor e$ample,
prolonged e$posure to the sensations of chronic pain, in the
a!sence of catastrophic conse%uences, might lead to
desensiti>ation, with a reduction over time in the emotional
responses elicited !y the pain sensations. 2hus, the practice of
mindfulness skills could lead to the a!ility to e$perience pain
sensations without e$cessive emotional reactivity. Even if pain
sensations were not reduced, suff ering and distress might !e
alleviated.
Ka!at%0inn et al. ')**- descri!e a similar mechanism for the
potential eff ects of mindfulness training on an$i%ety and panic.
4ustained, non/udgmental o!servation of an$iety%related
sensations, without attempts to escape or avoid them, may lead
to reductions in the emotional reac%tivity typically elicited !yan$iety symptoms. 2his approach is similar to the interoceptive
e$posure strategy descri!ed !y Barlow and Iraske ';;;-, who
instruct clients to in%
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duce symptoms of panic through e$ercises such as hyper%
ventilation and aero!ic activity, and to practice tolerating
these sensations until they su!side. n contrast, however,
mindfulness training does not include the deli!erate in%
duction of panic symptoms. nstead, participants are in%structed to o!serve these sensations non/udgmentally when
they naturally arise.
9inehan ')**a, )**!- descri!es individuals with !or%
derline personality disorder as emotion pho!ic. 2hat is, they are
often afraid of e$periencing strong negative aff ec%tive states.
2his fear is understanda!le, !ecause their neg%ative aff ective
states typically are very intense. 8owever, their attempts to
avoid these states often have maladaptive conseuences.
9inehan ')**a, )**!- suggests that pro%longed o!servation of
current thoughts and emotions, without trying to avoid or escape
them, can !e seen as an e$ample of e$posure, which should
encourage the e$tinc%tion of fear responses and avoidance
!ehaviors previously elicited !y these stimuli. 2hus, the practiceof mindfulness skills may improve patients# a!ility to tolerate
negative emotional states and a!ility to cope with them
eff ectively.
Cognitive C"ange
4everal authors have noted that the practice of mindfulness may
lead to changes in thought patterns, or in attitudes a!out one#s
thoughts. Gor e$ample, Ka!at%0inn ')*, )**;- suggests that
non/udgmental o!servation of pain and an$iety%related thoughts
may lead to the understanding that they are "/ust thoughts,&
rather than reJections of truth or reality, and do not necessitate
escape or avoidance !ehavior. 4imilarly, 9inehan ')**a,
)**!- notes that o!%serving one#s thoughts and feelings and
applying descrip%tive la!els to them encourages the
understanding that they are not always accurate reJections of
reality. Gor e$ample, feeling afraid does not necessarily mean
that danger is im%minent, and thinking " am a failure& does not
make it true. Kristeller and 8allett ')***-, in a study of MB4R in
patients with !inge eating disorder, cite 8eatherton and
Baumeister#s ')**)- theory of !inge eating as an escape from
self%awareness and suggest that mindfulness training might
develop non/udgmental acceptance of the aversive cognitions
that !inge%eaters are thought to !e avoiding, such as
unfavora!le comparisons of self to others and per%ceivedina!ility to meet others# demands.
2easdale ')***- and 2easdale et al. ')**7-, in their
discussion of MBI2, suggest that the non/udgmental,
decentered view of one#s thoughts encouraged !y mind%fulness
training may interfere with ruminative patterns !elieved to !e
characteristic of depressive episodes 'Holen%8oeksema, )**)-.
2hat is, mindfulness training may en%a!le formerly depressed
individuals to notice depressogenic thoughts and to redirectattention to other aspects of the present moment, such as
!reathing, walking, or environ%mental sounds, thus avoiding
rumination. 2easdale has descri!ed this perspective on one#s
thoughts as "meta%cognitive insight.& 2easdale et al. ')**7- also
note that a practical advantage of mindfulness skills in
encouraging cognitive change is that they can !e practiced at
any time, including during periods of remission, when depresso%
genic thinking may !e occurring too rarely to permit reg%ular
practice of traditional cognitive therapy e$ercises, such as
identi3cation and disputing of cognitive distortions. 2hat is, a
mindful perspective a!out one#s thoughts can !e applied to all
thoughts.
,elfManagement
4everal authors have noted that improved self%o!servation resulting
from mindfulness training may promote use of a range of coping
skills. Gor e$ample, Ka!at%0inn ')*- suggests that increased
awareness of pain sensations and stress responses as they occur
may ena!le individuals to en%gage in a variety of coping responses,
including skills not included in their treatment program. Kristeller and
8allett ')***- suggest that the self%o!servation skills developed
through mindfulness training might lead to improved recognition of
satiety cues in !inge eaters, as well as in%creased a!ility to o!serve
urges to !inge without yielding to them. Marlatt ')**1- suggests asimilar eff ect in patients recovering from addictions. 2easdale et al.
')**7- note that mindfulness training encourages awareness of all
cognitive and emotional events as they occur, including those that
may !e early signs of potential depressive relapse. 2hus,
mindfulness training may promote recognition of early signs of a
pro!lem, at a time when application of previously learned skills will
!e most likely to !e eff ective in prevent%ing the pro!lem. 9inehan
')**!- suggests that non/udg%mental o!servation and description
permits recognition of the conseuences of !ehaviors 'e.g., irritating
one#s !oss with freuent lateness- in place of glo!al /udgments
a!out the self 'e.g., " am a !ad employee&-. 2his recognition may
lead to more eff ective !ehavior change, including re%duction of
impulsive, maladaptive !ehaviors. 9inehan
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')**!- also suggests that learning to focus "one%
mindfully& on the present moment develops control of at%
tention, a useful skill for individuals who have difficulty
completing important tasks !ecause they are distracted
!y worries, memories, or negative moods.
Rela#ation
2he relationship !etween meditation and rela$ation is somewhat
comple$. 4everal authors '=olden!erg et al., )**1@ Ka!at%0inn
et al., )**@ Kaplan, =olden!erg, ( =alvin%Hadeau, )**- have
suggested that mindfulness%!ased stress reduction may !e
applica!le to stress%related medical disorders, including
psoriasis and 3!romyalgia. 2hese authors note that meditation
often induces rela$%ation, which may contri!ute to the
management of these disorders. 2he induction of rela$ation
through various meditation strategies has !een well documented
'Benson, )*?7@ Crme%Lohnson, )*1@ Dallace, Benson, (
Dilson, )*1-. 8owever, the purpose of mindfulness training is
not to induce rela$ation, !ut instead to teach non/udg%mental
o!servation of current conditions, which might include
autonomic arousal, racing thoughts, muscle ten%sion, and other
phenomena incompati!le with rela$ation. n addition, evidence
suggests that rela$ation eff ects are not uniue to meditation, !ut
are common to many re%la$ation strategies '4hapiro, )*-.
2hus, although practice of mindfulness e$ercises may lead to
rela$ation, this out%come may not !e a primary reason for
engaging in mind%fulness skills.
Acceptance
2he relationship !etween acceptance and change is a cen%tral
concept in current discussions of psychotherapy '8ayes, Laco!sen,
Gollette, ( 5ougher, )**1-. 8ayes ')**1- sug%gests that acceptance
involves "e$periencing events fully and without defense, as they are&
'p. ;-, and notes that empirically oriented clinicians may have
overemphasi>ed the importance of changing all unpleasant
symptoms, without recogni>ing the importance of acceptance. Gor
e$ample, an individual who e$periences panic attacks may engage
in numerous maladaptive !ehaviors in an attempt to prevent future
attacks, including drug and alcohol a!use, avoidance of important
activities, and e$cessive an$ious vigilance toward !odily states. f
the individual could ac%cept that panic attacks may occasionally
occur and that they are time%limited and not dangerous, panic
attacks would !ecome unpleasant !ut !rief e$periences to !e tol%
erated, rather than fearsome and dangerous
e$periences to !e avoided, even at the cost of
signi3cant maladaptive !e%havior. All of the treatment programs reviewed here include ac%
ceptance of pain, thoughts, feelings, urges, or other !od%ily,cognitive, and emotional phenomena, without trying to change,
escape, or avoid them. Ka!at%0inn ')**;- de%scri!es
acceptance as one of several foundations of mind%fulness
practice. 5B2 provides e$plicit training in several mindfulness
techniues designed to promote acceptance of reality. 2hus, it
appears that mindfulness training may pro%vide a method for
teaching acceptance skills.
Relations"ip 6etween Mindfulness Training and
Cognitive6e"avioral Approac"es
2his discussion suggests that mindfulness training is con%sistent
with cognitive%!ehavioral treatment procedures in several ways.2raining in self%directed attention can result in sustained
e$posure to sensations, thoughts, and emo%tions, resulting in
desensiti>ation of conditioned responses and reduction of
avoidance !ehavior. Iognitive change appears to result from
viewing one#s thoughts as temporary phenomena without
inherent worth or meaning, rather than as necessarily accurate
reJections of reality, health, ad/ustment, or worthiness. 6ractice
of meditation also may lead to rela$ation and improved self%
management.
8owever, mindfulness training diff ers from traditional cognitive%
!ehavioral treatment in important ways. Gor e$%ample, mindfulness
training does not include the evalua%tion of thoughts as rational or distorted, or systematic attempts to change thoughts /udged to !e
irrational. n%stead, participants are taught to o!serve their thoughts,
to note their impermanence, and to refrain from evaluating them.
Another important diff erence is that traditional cognitive%!ehavioral
procedures usually have a clear goal, such as to change a !ehavior
or thinking pattern. n con%trast, mindfulness meditation is practiced
with a seemingly parado$ical attitude of nonstriving. 2hat is,
although a task is prescri!ed 'e.g., sit still, close your eyes, and pay
atten%tion-, no speci3c goal is adopted. 6articipants are not to strive
to rela$, reduce their pain, or change their thoughts or emotions,
although they may have sought treatment for these purposes. 2hey
are simply to o!serve whatever is happening in each moment
without /udging it. Ginally, mindfulness researchers have suggested
that eff ective teach%ing of mindfulness skills !y mental health
professionals re%uires that they engage in their own regular
mindfulness
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practice '4egal et al., ;;-. 6rofessionals using more
tra%ditional cognitive%!ehavioral strategies generally
are not e$pected to engage in regular practice of the
skills they are teaching.
Although the practice of mindfulness generallyinvolves acceptance of current reality, rather than
systematic at%tempts to change reality, individuals who
practice these skills may e$perience reductions in a
variety of symptoms. 2he empirical literature
addressing this issue is reviewed ne$t.
EM+IRICA0 RE,EARC /* MI*2780*E,,6A,E2
I*TER5E*TI/*,
2he empirical literature investigating the eff ects of mind%fulness%
!ased interventions is reviewed here. Meta%analytic procedures
were incorporated to facilitate uanti3cation of 3ndings and
comparisons across studies. 2o locate relevant studies, acomputer search 'using 6sycnfo and Medline data!ases- was
conducted of articles and chapters including the terms
mindfulness or meditation. Reference lists of all articles were
searched for additional articles. 4tudies were included if they
were pu!lished in English and compared a group of participants
trained in mindfulness with a group not trained, or a group who
provided data !efore and af%ter mindfulness training.
Unpu!lished dissertations and conference papers were
e$cluded, as were studies address%ing nonmindfulness forms of
meditation, such as transcen%dental meditation '2M-. 4tudies of
mindfulness as de3ned !y 9anger ')**, )**?- also were
e$cluded, for reasons descri!ed earlier. 2wenty%one studiesmeeting these cri%teria were found.
Gor each study, several demographic and methodolog%ical
varia!les were coded, including num!er, type, and
characteristics of participants, research design, the nature of the
mindfulness intervention, type of comparison group, whether
participants were randomly assigned to interven%tion or
comparison groups, the dependent varia!les re%ported, and
follow%up intervals and data.
Eff ect si>es 'Iohen#s d - were calculated for all studies that
provided sufficient data. Iohen#s d e$presses eff ect si>e in
standard deviation units@ thus, an eff ect si>e of ).; on a given
dependent measure indicates that the treatment group scored
one standard deviation !etter, on average, than the comparisongroup on that measure. Gor studies using !etween%groups
designs, eff ect si>es were calculated with the following formula
d 'M t M
c-FSD
p, in which M
t the mean of the treatment group
on a speci3c mea%
sure, M c the mean of the comparison group on that mea%sure,
and SDp the pooled standard deviation of the two groups. f
means or standard deviations were not provided, eff ect si>es
were calculated from the signi3cance level ' p-. Gor studies
using within%groups designs, eff ect si>es were calculated from t
or F ') df -, or from the signi3cance level when t or F were not
reported. Ialculations of eff ect si>es relied on methods
descri!ed !y Rosenthal ')*1-.
/verview of Treatment 0iterature
4tudies e$amining the eff ects of mindfulness%!ased inter%
ventions are summari>ed in 2a!le ). 2he studies are grouped !y
participant population, !eginning with stud%ies of chronic pain
patients. He$t are studies of patients with other A$is disorders
'an$iety, eating, and ma/or de%pressive disorders-, followed !y
studies of patients with other medical pro!lems '3!romyalgia,
psoriasis, and can%cer-. He$t are studies with mi$ed populations,
including psychotherapy and medical patients. 2he last group in%cludes studies of nonclinical populations 'students and other
volunteers-. Dithin each group studies are listed in order of
pu!lication date.
4ample si>es in these studies have ranged from )+ to
)1. Mean age of participants has ranged from 7;
years, with a mean of 17 years. =ender ratio of the
samples has ranged from ; to 1+N male. Education and
raceFethnicity were rarely reported.
Hine studies used pre%post designs with no control group.
Hine used !etween%groups designs with 2reatment As Usual
'2AU- or waiting%list control groups. Most stud%ies used the );
week MB4R group intervention 'Ka!at%0inn,)*, )**;-, or a
variation of this intervention tailored to the population under
study. 2wo studies '2eas%dale et al., ;;;@ Dilliams, 2easdale,
4egal, ( 4ouls!y, ;;;- e$amined MBI2. 5ependent varia!les
have in%cluded a variety of self%report measures of pain, other
med%ical symptoms, an$iety, depression, eating !ehaviors, and
general psychological functioning, as well as o!/ective measures
such as analysis of urine chemistry.
Gor each study eff ect si>es were calculated separately for each
dependent measure completed at the conclusion of treatment and atall reported follow%up intervals. 6ost%treatment eff ect si>es then
were averaged across dependent measures within studies, yieldinga single posttreatment eff ect si>e for each study. 4imilarly, eff ect
si>es for all de%pendent measures completed at all follow%up
intervals were averaged, yielding a single follow%up eff ect si>e for each
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C0I*ICA0+, -C/0/1 -:,CIE*CEA*2+RACTICE9 53(*'$,8MME
R'(()
cal studies of effects of mindfulness%!ased interventions
Type Mean @ Researc" Treatment Control Rand @ 2ependent
,tudy * +articipant Age Male 2esign 1roup 1roup Assn Att 5ariables
Ka!at%0inn 7) Ihronic 1+ 7 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho ) 6ain Rtg nde$
')*- pain patients Body 6arts 6A
nterfere rtg
M4I9
6CM4 total
4I9%*;%R =4Ka!at%0inn *; Ihronic 11 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho )7 4ame as a!ove
et al. ')*7- pain patientsa
6art )
Ka!at%0inn 1 Ihronic 1 1 Between group MB4R 2AU Ho O 4ame as a!ove
et al. ')*7- pain patients!
'n )- 'n )-
6art Ka!at%0inn ;)1 Ihronic O ) 4eries of follow%ups MB4R Hone Ho O 6ain Rtg nde$
et al. ')*?- pain patientsc
.71 months Body 6arts 6A
post%MB4R M4I9
4I9%*;%R =4Randolph ? Ihronic 7; ) 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho O 6ain rtgs
et al. ')***- pain patients B4%=4
6CM4 total
6ain !eliefsKa!at%0inn An$iety 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho 8amilton An$
et al. ')**- patients 8anilton 5ep
B5@ BA@ G44
Mo!ility nv
Miller et al. ) An$iety O O %year follow%up MB4R Hone Ho O 8amilton An$
')**7- patients 'patients from 8amilton 5ep
from Ka!at% Ka!at%0inn et al., B5@ BA@ G44
0inn et al., )**- Mo!ility nv
)**-Kristeller ( ) Binge eating 1+ ; 6re%post Pariant of Hone Ho )1 Binge fre
8allett ')***- disorder MB4R Binge Eat 4c
B5@ BA
Eating rtgs2easdale ) Remitted 11 1 Between group MBI2 2AU :es )? M55 relapse
et al. ';;;- M55 after 'n +- 'n +*-
medicn t$
Dilliams 1) Remitted 1 ? Between group MBI2 2AU :es O Auto!iog
et al. ';;;- M55 after 'n )- 'n ;- Memory test
medicn t$d
Kaplan 7* Gi!ro%myalgia 1+ ); 6re%post Pariant of Hone Ho PA4#s pain, sleep, e
et al. ')**- patients MB4R M4I9
4I9%*;%R =4
Ioping 4trat Q
Gi!ro mpact Q
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)
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MI*2780*E,,TRAI*I*1
9 6AER
)) Gi!ro%myalgia 1+ ? Between group MB4R Dait list Ho * Pas#s pain, sleep, etc. ;.1 O
et al. ')**1- patients 'n ?*- 'n )-@ Gi!ro mpact Q
declined 4I9%*;%R =4
MB4R
'n 1-Ka!at%0inn ? 6soriasis 1 1+ Between group Mindfulness 2AU :es O 5ays to clearing
et al. ')**- patients tapes during of psoriasis
receiving light t$
light therapy
4peca et al. *; Iancer 7) )* Between group Pariant of Dait list :es ) 6CM4
';;;- patients MB4R 4C4Iarlson et al. 71 Iancer
f 7) )* +%month follow% Pariant of Hone Ho O 6CM4
';;;- patients up in 4peca et al. MB4R 4C4
';;;-
Kut> et al. ; 9ong%term O 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho O 4I9%*;%R
')*7- dynamic 6CM4
therapy clients nterfere rtg
2hera rtgsRoth ( Ireasor + Cutpatients 1 )+ 6re%post MB4R Hone HC 1; 4I9%*;%R
')**?- inner city BA
9atinoF9atina M4I9
Mi$ed d$ 4elf%esteemRei!el et al. )) Medical 1? * 6re%post MB4R Hone Ho )) 4G%+
';;)- patients, M4I9
Mi$ed d$ 4I9%*;%R =4Massion et al. )+ 8ealthy 1 ; Between group Regular Hon% Ho O Melatonin meta!olit
')**7- women mediators mediators in urine Astin ')**?- )* Iollege O 7 Between group MB4R Dait list :es )1 4I9%*;%R =4
students 'n )- 'n ?- Iontrol nv
H46R24hapiro et al. ? 6remed and O 11 Between group MB4R Dait list :es 4I9%*;%R =4
')**- med students 4I9%*;%R 5ep
42A
Empathy rtg
H46R2
Dilliams ?7 Iommunity 1 Between group MB4R Dait list :es )7 54
et al. ';;)- volunteers and info 4I9%*;%R =4
M4I9
Notes. rand assn random assignment@ att attrition from treatment group@ post posttreatment@ foll follow%up@ M55 ma/or depressive disorder@
medicn medication@ t$ treatment@ d$ diagnosis@ MB4R Mindfulness%Based 4tress Reduction@ MBI2 Mindfulness%Based Iognitive 2herapy@2AU 2reatment As Usual@ rtg rating@ 6A pro!lem assessment@ M4I9 Medical 4ymptom Ihecklist@ 6CM4 6rofile of Mood 4tates@ 4I9%*;%R 4ymptom Ihecklist%*; Revised@ =4 =eneral 4everity nde$@ An$ an$iety@ 5ep depression@ B5 Beck 5epression nventory@ BA Beck An$ietynven%tory@ G44 Gear 4urvey 4chedule@ nv inventory@ Auto!iog auto!iographical@ PA4 visual analog scale@ 4trat strategies@ Q uestionnaire@fi!ro fi!romyalgia@ 4C4 4ymptoms of 4tress nventory@ 4G%+ 4hort Gorm +@ H46R2 nde$ of Iore 4piritual E$periences@ 42A 4tate%2rait
An$iety nventory@ 54 5aily 4tress nventory@ H4 no significant difference !etween posttest and follow%up.ancludes 7) patients from Ka!at%0inn
')*-.!ncludes ) patients from 6art ) of this study.
cncludes patients from
Ka!at%0inn ')*- andKa!at%0inn et al. ')*7-.d 4u!set of patients in
2easdale et al. ';;;-.ensufficient data to calculate.
f 4u!set of patients in 4peca et al. ';;;-.
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)
)
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study that reported follow%up data. Mean posttreatmentand follow%up eff ect si>es are presented in the 3naltwo columns of 2a!le ).
Ho studies of 5B2, AI2, or R6 were included, !e%cause
none were found that e$amined the mindfulness component
independently of the !ehavior change strate%gies alsoincluded in these treatment approaches. 2hus, although
empirical studies support the efficacy of these treatments
'Iurry, Marlatt, =ordon, ( Baer, )*@ to, 5onovan, ( 8all,
)*@Koons et al., ;;)@9inehan, Arm%strong, 4uare>,
Allmon, ( 8eard, )**)@9inehan, 8eard, ( Armstrong, )**@
9inehan, 2utek, 8eard, ( Armstrong, )**1@4trosahl, 8ayes,
Bergan, ( Romano, )**@0ettle ( Raines, )**-, the relative
contri!ution of mindfulness training to these treatment
eff ects has not !een investi%gated. n contrast, studies of
MBI2 were included, !e%cause mindfulness training
appears to !e the central focus of this approach, although
some cognitive techniues have !een incorporated.
1eneral 7indings
Chronic Pain. Gour studies have e$amined the eff ects of MB4R
on patients with chronic pain. 2he 3rst study 'Ka!at%0inn, )*-
descri!es pre%post data for 7) patients. 2he second study
'Ka!at%0inn, 9ipworth, ( Burney, )*7-, has two parts. 6art )
presents pre%post data for a sample of *; patients, including the
7) patients from Ka!at%0inn ')*-. n 6art , ) of these *;
patients are compared to ) other pain patients who had
received 2AU in the pain clinic !ut had not participated in MB4R.
6arts ) and of this study are entered separately in 2a!le ).
2he third study 'Ka!at%0inn, 9ipworth, Burney, ( 4ellers, )*?-
is an e$tensive series of follow%up evaluations of chronic painpatients who had completed MB4R over the preceding several
years, including patients in the previous two studies. 2hus, the
3rst four entries in 2a!le ) are de%rived from three pu!lished
articles with overlapping par%ticipant samples. Ginally, Randolph,
Ialdera, 2acone, and =reak ')***- investigated the eff ects of
MB4R in an in%dependent sample of ? chronic pain patients.
n general, 3ndings for chronic pain patients show sta%
tistically signi3cant improvements in ratings of pain, other
medical symptoms, and general psychological symptoms.
Many of these changes were maintained at follow%up eval%
uations. Most of these comparisons used pre%post designs
with no control group.
Axis I Disorders. Ka!at%0inn et al. ')**- e$amined a sample of
patients with generali>ed an$iety and panic disorders, and
found signi3cant improvements in several measures of an$iety
and depression, !oth at posttreatment and at %month follow%up.
A no%treatment control group was not included. Miller, Gletcher,and Ka!at%0inn ')**7- reported a %year follow%up of the same
participants and found that treatment gains had !een
maintained.
Kristeller and 8allett ')***- e$amined the eff ects of
MB4R on !inge eating disorder. n a pre%post design with
no control group, ) female patients showed statistically
signi3cant improvements in several measures of eating
and mood.2easdale et al. ';;;- e$amined the eff ects of MBI2 on
rates of depressive relapse in a large sample of patients whose
ma/or depressive disorder 'M55- had remitted af%ter treatment
with medication. All participants had dis%continued their
medications at least ) weeks !efore the study !egan. 6atients
were randomly assigned to either MBI2 '%week manuali>ed
group treatment- or 2AU and then followed for ) year. Gor
patients with three or more previous depressive episodes,
results showed much lower relapse rates for MBI2 patients
'?N of patients relapsed- than for the 2AU group '++N of
patients relapsed- during the )%year follow%up period. 8owever,
relapse rates for the MBI2 and 2AU groups did not diff er for
patients with only one or two previous episodes.
Using a su!set of the participants from 2easdale et al.
';;;-, L. M. =. Dilliams et al. ';;;- found that those who had
completed MBI2 produced fewer general and more speci3c
memories when asked to recall events from their pasts inresponse to cue words. 2he authors speculate that mindfulness
training may modify the overgeneral auto!iographical memory
!elieved to !e characteristic of individuals with depression
'Kuyken ( Brewin, )**7-.
Other Medical Disorders. 2wo studies have investigated eff ects
of MB4R on 3!romyalgia. Both reported improve%ments in a
variety of symptoms. n a study of psoriasis pa%tients, Ka!at%
0inn et al. ')**- found that patients who listened to
mindfulness audiotapes during individual light%therapy sessions
showed uicker clearing of their skin 'Mdn +7 days- than did
patients who received light ther%apy alone 'Mdn *? days-.
4peca, Iarlson, =oodey, and Angen ';;;- e$amined the
eff ects of MB4R in a group of cancer patients and reported
signi3cant reductions in
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mood distur!ance and stress levels. Iarlson, Ursuliak,
=oodey, Angen, and 4peca ';;)- reported that these
changes were maintained at +%month follow%up.
Mixed Clinical Populations. Kut> et al. ')*7- studied asample of long%term psychodynamic therapy patients with
diagnoses including an$iety and o!sessive neuroses, and
narcissistic and !orderline personality disorders. 2hey
completed a );%week MB4R program while continuing with
their individual psychotherapy and showed statisti%cally
signi3cant improvements in a variety of self% and therapist%
rated symptoms. Roth and Ireasor ')**?- stud%ied
outpatients from a low%income, primarily 9atino pop%ulation
attending an inner city health clinic and showed statistically
signi3cant improvements on several measures of medical
and psychological functioning. Rei!el, =reeson, Brainard,
and Rosen>weig ';;)- studied medical patients with a
variety of medical and psychiatric diagnoses and found
signi3cant improvements in medical and psycho%logical
symptoms. Hone of these studies used control groups.
Nonclinical Populations. Massion, 2eas, 8e!ert, Dert%heimer,
and Ka!at%0inn ')**7- analy>ed urine levels of a melatonin
meta!olite in two groups of women. 9evels were signi3cantly
higher in women previously trained in MB4R who continued to
meditate regularly than in wo%men who had never !een trained
and did not meditate. 2he authors cite previous 3ndings
suggesting that mela%tonin level may !e related to immune
function 'Bartsch et al., )**@=uerrero ( Reiter, )**-, andsuggest that mind%fulness meditation may inJuence health
status through its eff ects on melatonin. Astin ')**?- and 4hapiro
et al. ')**- studied student populations who completed group
MB4R, reporting signi3cant eff ects on psychological symptoms,
empathy ratings, and spiritual e$periences. Both of these
studies used waiting%list control groups. Dilliams, Kolar, Reger,
and 6earson ';;)- studied community volunteers who
completed MB4R to reduce their stress levels, re%porting
signi3cant improvements in medical and psycho%logical
symptoms.
Mean Effect ,i%e at +osttreatment
6osttreatment eff ect si>es ranged from ;.)7 to ).+7. An overallmean of these eff ect si>es, collapsed across studies, wascalculated. n order to include only independent mean
eff ect si>es in this calculation, the eff ect si>es o!tained from
Ka!at%0inn ')*- and 6arts ) and of Ka!at%0inn et al. ')*7-
3rst were averaged, !ecause these comparisons have
overlapping participant samples. 4imilarly, the mean eff ect si>es
o!tained for 2easdale et al. ';;;- and L. M. =. Dilliams et al.
';;;- were averaged, !ecause these two studies also haveoverlapping participant samples. After these preliminary
calculations, )7 independent posttreat%ment mean eff ect si>es,
each from a separate sample, were availa!le for analysis. 2heir
mean was ;.?1 'SD ;.*-. Dhen each of these )7 eff ect si>es
was weighted !y sample si>e, overall mean eff ect si>e was
;.7*.
Mean Effect ,i%e at 7ollow8p
Gollow%up data were reported less often. Eff ect si>es atfollow%up ranged from ;.; to ).7. Before an overall meanof these eff ect si>es was calculated, mean eff ect si>eso!tained from studies with overlapping participant sampleswere averaged. 2he overall mean of these independentfollow%up eff ect si>es was ;.7* 'SD ;.1)-.
Iohen ')*??- has descri!ed eff ect si>es of d ;., d ;.7,
and d ;. as small, medium, and large, respectively. 2hus, on
the average, the literature reviewed here suggests that
mindfulness%!ased interventions have yielded at least medium%
si>ed eff ects, with some eff ect si>es falling within the large
range. Many of the eff ect si>es calculated for these studies are
pro!a!ly conservative, !ecause several studies did not present
means, standard deviations, or t values, making it necessary to
calculate d from the p value. n many cases e$act p values were
not reported. nstead, for e$%ample, a p value !etween .;) and .
;7 might have !een re%ported as .;7, which was then used to
compute d. 9arger ps yield smaller d s. n addition, when
3ndings were re%ported only as nonsigni3cant, eff ect si>es of
>ero were recorded. f means, SDs, o r t values had !een
reported in these cases, the calculated eff ect si>e might have
!een larger than >ero.
Relations"ips 6etween Mean Effect ,i%e at +osttreatment
and ,tudy C"aracteristics
Relationships !etween mean eff ect si>es at posttreatment andselected methodological varia!les can !e seen in 2a!le . 'Gollow%up eff ect si>es are not included in this ta!le.- 2he small num!er of studies availa!le and the noninde%pendence of some of the eff ectsi>es make statistical analy%ses of these diff erences impractical.2hus, these 3ndings
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Table '. Mean effect si>e at posttreatment and methodological varia!les
5ariable N Mean d SD
Research design6re%post ;.?) ;.11Between group ); ;.+* ;.1
Random assignment
'!etween group-:es ? ;.?7 ;.1Ho ;.77 ;.
2ype of control groupDait list 7 ;.?1 ;.112AU 1 ;.77 ;.;
6articipant populationIhronic pain 1 ;.B? ;.1Cther A$is
a1 ;.*+ ;.1?
Medical!
1 ;.77 ;.;*Honclinical
c1 ;.*A ;.11
5ependent measure6ain )? ;.B) ;.;Cther medical 'self%rated-
d)) ;.11 ;.+
An$iety ;.?; ;.1)5epression 7 ;.,+ ;.;4tress ;.+B ;.;=lo!al psychological
e) ;.+1 ;.1
C!/ective medicalf
;.,; ;.7
Method of Ialculating d Using M s and SDs, or t ); ;.,? ;.1;
Using p ;.1, ;.
ancludes an$iety, depression, and !inge eating.
!ncludes fi!romyalgia, psoriasis, and cancer.
cncludes
students and nonclinical volunteers.dncludes fatigue and sleep ratings, and medical symptom checklist.
encludes 6CM4 total mood distur!ance, 4I9%*;%R =4.
f ncludes urine and skin analysis.
should !e interpreted cautiously, as diff erences may not !e
signi3cant. Mean eff ect si>es were similar for studies using pre%
post and !etween%groups designs. Mean eff ect si>e was
somewhat larger when participants had !een randomly as%
signed to groups. 4tudies using waiting%list control groupsyielded slightly larger eff ect si>es than those using 2AU. Dhen
organi>ed !y type of participant, mean eff ect si>es appear
somewhat larger for comparisons using nonclinical populationsor patients with selected A$is pro!lems than for those with
chronic pain or medical pro!lems. Dhen organi>ed !y the type
of dependent varia!le, mean eff ect si>es ranged from ;.) for
pain measures to ;.+ for mea%sures of depression.
Ginally, eff
ect si>es derived from means and SDs or t val%ueswere somewhat larger, on average ';.?- than those derived from p
values ';.1-. 2his 3nding illustrates the im%portance of including
means, standard deviations, and t values in future research. =iven
the small num!er of avail%a!le studies, e$amination of interactions
!etween method of calculating d and other methodological varia!les
is not feasi!le. 8owever, !ecause none of the chronic pain stud%
ies reported means, SDs, or t values, eff ect si>es for thesestudies were calculated from p values. t is possi!le that meaneff ect si>e for chronic pain patients might have !een larger if these studies had provided additional data.
Clinical ,ignificance of 7indings
2he clinical signi3cance of the changes reported in these
studies is difficult to assess. 4everal studies reported only
raw scores on dependent measures, whereas others re%
ported percentage change in scores or the statistical signi%
3cance of the change in scores. n these cases the severity
of participants# pro!lems !efore treatment, or their pro$%imity
to the normal range of functioning afterwards, can%not readily
!e determined.
n order to assess the clinical signi3cance of some of the
3ndings reviewed here, reported raw scores for more freuently
used dependent measures were converted to 2%score euivalents or
ranges of functioning, with use of the instruments# pu!lished
manuals or pro3le sheets. Gor e$ample, several studies reported
pre% and posttreatment raw scores for the =lo!al 4everity nde$
'=4- of the 4ymptom Ihecklist *;%Revised '4I9%*;%R- '5erogatis,
)*-. 2hese scores were converted to 2 scores '2%score
euivalents for males and females were averaged- and then
averaged across studies. 2his procedure yielded a mean pretest 2
score for the =4 of +?, with a mean posttest 2 score of +;. Because
2 scores have a mean of 7; and a SD of );, this 3nding suggests
that patients scored nearly SDs a!ove the mean !efore treatment
and ) SD a!ove the mean after treatment. 4everal studies using the
=4 could not !e included in this procedure !ecause they did not
report scores, instead reporting only percentage decrease in scores,or the statistical signi3cance of the change in scores.
4imilar procedures were followed for the Beck 5epres%sion
nventory 'B5- and the Beck An$iety nventory 'BA- with use of
ranges of functioning descri!ed in the manuals 'Beck ( 4teer,
)*?, )**-. Cn the B5 raw scores of ;* are considered
asymptomatic, whereas scores of );) indicate mild to
moderate depression. Gor two studies reporting B5 scores, the
mean pretreatment score was )+. 'mild%moderate-, and the
mean posttreatment score was .+1 'asymptomatic-. Gor two
studies reporting BA scores, the mean pretreatment score was
;.1 'mod%erate- and the mean posttreatment score was ?.*1
'minimal to mild-.2hese indications of clinical signi3cance must !e con%sidered
tentative, !ecause they are !ased on very few stud%
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ies, some of which used uncontrolled pre%post designs.
8owever, they suggest that mindfulness training, on aver%
age, may !ring participants with mild to moderate psy%
chological distress into or close to the normal range.
Attrition$ Ad"erence$ and Maintenance of Mindfulness +ractice
2hirteen studies reported !oth the num!er of individuals who
agreed to participate in mindfulness training and the num!er
who completed it. 6rogram completion usually was de3ned as
attendance at a minimum num!er of ses%sions, or was
unde3ned. 6ercentage of enrolled partici%pants who completed
treatment ranged from +; to *?, with a mean of 7N 'SD
.*)-. 2he lowest completion rate '+;N- was noted !y Roth (
Ireasor ')**?-, who stud%ied an inner city health clinic
population. 2he highest com%pletion rate '*?N- was reported !y
4hapiro et al. ')**-, whose participants were premedical and
medical students.2he most e$tensive analysis of program completion was
provided !y Ka!at%0inn and Ihapman%Daldrop ')*-, who
reported completion rates for the MB4R program 'at that time
known as the 4tress Reduction and Rela$ation 6rogram- at the
University of Massachusetts Medical Ien%ter. '2his study is not
included in 2a!le ), !ecause it did not e$amine treatment
eff ects.- 5uring the %year period e$amined ')*)*1-, ),)77
patients were referred to the program, mostly !y their
physicians. Cf these patients, ?7N completed an intake
interview, and *;N of those interviewed enrolled in the program.
Cf the ?1 patients who enrolled, ?+N completed the program,
whereas )7N dropped out after !eginning and *N never attended a ses%sion. Regression analyses showed that patients
with stress%related pro!lems 'hypertension, an$iety, sleep
disorders, etc.- were signi3cantly more likely to complete the
pro%gram than those with chronic pain complaints 'lower !ack,
headache, etc.-. Iompleters also had somewhat higher
pretreatment scores than noncompleters on the =4 and the
C!sessive%Iompulsive 'CI- scales of the 4I9%*;%R. Dithin the
chronic pain group, women were slightly more likely than men to
complete the program.
Cnly three studies reported the e$tent to which partic%ipants
completed their assigned home practice during the course of the
mindfulness intervention. Kristeller and 8al%lett ')***-, in asample of women with !inge eating disor%der, noted that
participants reported engaging in a mean of )7. hr of
meditation 'SD .)7- across the +%week in%tervention program.
Reported practice time was signi3%cantly correlated with
improvements in Binge Eating 4cale
scores 'r .++- and in B5 scores 'r .7*-. Astin ')**?-, in a
sample of college students, reported that participants practiced
meditation for an average of ; min per day, .7 days per week.
Reported practice time and improvement on the =4 of the 4I9%
*;%R were not signi3cantly corre%lated. Rei!el et al. ';;)-reported that *;N of their mi$ed sample of medical patients
practiced three times per week or more and 7?N practiced
nearly every day, most for )7 ; min each time.
Gour studies reported the e$tent to which participants
trained in mindfulness skills continued to practice these skills
after treatment had ended. n a series of follow%up studies of
former MB4R patients, Ka!at%0inn et al. ')*?- noted that
?7N of former patients reported that they still practiced
meditation 'averaged across follow%up intervals of +1
months-. Cf these patients, 1N meditated regu%larly '≥
three times weekly, ≥ )7 min each time-, whereas )*N
meditated sporadically 'one or two times weekly, ≥ )7 min
each time, or ≥ three times weekly, ≤ )7 min each time-,
and N were classi3ed as marginal meditators ' one time
weekly for any length of time, or three times weekly, )7
min each time-. 6ractice of yoga two or more times per week
was reported !y )N of respon%dents, and 1*N reported
using awareness of !reathing in daily life often.
Ka!at%0inn et al. ')**-, at %month follow%up of patients with
an$iety disorders, found that 1N reported practicing meditation or
yoga three or more times per week, for )717 min each time.
Mindfulness of !reathing in daily life was practiced !y *7N '??N
often and )N some-times-. Miller et al ')**7- contacted ) of these
patients for a %year follow%up evaluation and reported that ); '7+N-
still practiced meditation 1 regularly, sporadically, and marginally
'as de3ned a!ove-. 4i$teen of ) '*N- reported that they used
awareness of !reathing in daily life '1 often,
)) sometimes, and ) rarel -.
K. A. Dilliams et al. ';;)-, in a sample of community
volunteers self%identi3ed as "stressed out,& reported that
at %month follow%up )N of MB4R participants were
prac%ticing either meditation, yoga, or awareness of
!reathing in daily life.
+atients! Reactions to Treatment
n their follow%up study of former MB4R patients, Ka!at%0inn et
al ')*?- found that the ma/ority of those who considered
themselves improved since completing MB4R attri!uted 7;
);;N of their improvement to the M4BR
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program. 2he ma/ority gave ratings of ); on a );%point
rating of the importance of completing the program ') not
at all important! ); "er important -, and +N reported that
they "got something of lasting value& from the pro%gram.
Most commonly reported changes included a "new outlookon life& and improved a!ility to control, under%stand, and
cope with pain and stress.
Miller et al. ')**7-, in their %year follow%up of pa%tients
with an$iety disorders, asked participants to rate the
importance of the MB4R program on a )); scale ') no
importance! ); "er important -. 2he ma/ority gave ratings
of ? or higher, and *N reported that the program had
"lasting value& for them.
Astin ')**?- asked undergraduate participants to rate the
e$tent to which their mindfulness program had "last%ing value
and importance.& Cn a );%point scale, partici%pants gave a mean
rating of *.. Randolph et al. ')***- reported that *N of their patients with chronic pain re%ported !ene3ts of "lasting value&
and rated the program#s importance at . on a );%point scale.
Rei!el et al. ';;)- reported that their mi$ed sample of medical
patients rated their satisfaction with MB4R at 1.*; on a 7%point
scale.
Although these 3ndings suggest that participants in
mindfulness%!ased interventions rate these program highly, they
should !e interpreted cautiously. 2hey are derived only from
participants who completed their treatment pro%grams.
6articipants who dropped out might have given lower ratings.
Ka>din ')**1- notes that client satisfaction measures may not
correlate with measures of dysfunction, and Brock, =reen,Reich, and Evans ')**+- suggest that participants who have
invested su!stantial time and eff ort in a treatment program may
!e unwilling to evaluate it negatively. 8owever, Ka>din ')**1-
also notes that client satisfaction is an important consideration
when one is choosing among treatment alternatives, and these
results suggest that many clients 3nd mindfulness interventions
!ene3cial.
Met"odological Issues
As noted in 2a!le ), the pu!lished literature on the eff ects of
mindfulness training reports changes in the therapeutic direction
in several populations on a variety of dependent measures.
8owever, many studies have signi3cant method%ologicalweaknesses that make it difficult to draw strong conclusions
a!out the eff ects of mindfulness%!ased inter%ventions. 2hese
issues are summari>ed !elow.
Control #roups. 4everal of the studies reviewed e$am%ined
the eff ects of MB4R with pre%post design and no control
group. Although most of these studies reported statistically
signi3cant improvements in a wide range of dependent
varia!les, none controlled for passage of time, demand
characteristics, or place!o eff ects, or compared MB4R toother treatments.
4everal studies used !etween%groups designs with
waiting%list or 2AU control groups. 2he latter studies pro%vide
!etter controls for demand characteristics and place!o
eff ects, and permit comparisons with alternative treat%ments.
8owever, in the studies reviewed here, 2AU con%sisted of
medical approaches or unspeci3ed mental health
approaches. Gor e$ample, in Ka!at%0inn et al. ')*7, 6art -,
2AU included medical approaches to chronic pain, such as
nerve !locks, physical therapy, analgesics, and anti%
depressants. n Ka!at%0inn et al. ')**-, 2AU consisted of
phototherapy for psoriasis. Gor 2easdale et al. ';;;- and L.M. =. Dilliams et al. ';;;-, 2AU included depression%
related visits to a general practitioner, psychiatric treat%ment,
counseling, psychotherapy, and other mental health
contacts. 2hus, these studies do not allow comparison of
mindfulness training with other speci3c psychological ap%
proaches.
Sample Si$es. 4ome of the studies reviewed here report
small sample si>es. According to Iohen ')*??-, an ;N
chance of detecting a medium%to%large treatment eff ect 'd
;.?;- with a two%tailed t test at alpha .;7 reuires
participants per sample. Guture research should include
sample si>es adeuate to detect medium%to%large treatmenteff ects.
%"aluation of Inte&rit of 'reatment. Evaluation of the eff ects of
any treatment reuires that it !e adeuately ad%ministered
'Ka>din, )**1-. ntegrity of treatment imple%mentation can !e
enhanced through rigorous training and regular supervision of
therapists, with procedures such as direct o!servation, review of
audio% or videotapes of ses%sions, and feed!ack. 2he studies
reviewed here do not de%scri!e the procedures used to train
therapists or to evaluate their delivery of mindfulness treatment.
2easdale et al. ';;;- report that MBI2 sessions were video% or
audio%taped to allow monitoring of treatment integrity, !ut anal%
ysis of these tapes is not descri!ed. n several studies therapists
are descri!ed as "e$perienced,& !ut the term is
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not well de3ned. Many of the studies reviewed here were
conducted in the program developed !y the originator of MB4R
'Ka!at%0inn, )*, )**;-. 4imilarly, the MBI2 groups in
2easdale et al. ';;;- were led !y the developers of the
treatment. n these cases it seems likely that thera%pistsconducted the treatment competently. 8owever, !e%cause
mindfulness%!ased interventions are relatively new and may !e
less familiar than more esta!lished cognitive%!ehavioral
interventions, descriptions of the training and supervision of the
therapists conducting the mindfulness treatment might increase
con3dence in the 3ndings from future studies.
Clinical Si&nificance. 2he clinical signi3cance of the eff ects
of an intervention can !e evaluated in several ways ' La%
co!son ( Revensdorf, )*@ Laco!son ( 2rua$, )**)@
Ka>din, )**1-. Gor e$ample, after patients have completed
the e$perimental treatment, the e$tent to which they fallwithin the normal range on relevant dependent measures
can !e e$amined. Alternatively, their diagnostic status can
!e reevaluated to determine whether they continue to meet
criteria for the disorder for which they sought treat%ment. 2he
studies reviewed here do not e$plicitly address the clinical
signi3cance of their 3ndings in either of these ways.
ncreased attention to the issue of clinical signi3%cance
would contri!ute su!stantially to the utility of future studies.
C/*C08,I/*
n spite of signi3cant methodological Jaws, the current literature
suggests that mindfulness%!ased interventions may help to
alleviate a variety of mental health pro!lems and improve
psychological functioning. 2hese studies also suggest that many
patients who enroll in mindfulness%!ased programs will complete
them, in spite of high demands for homework practice, and that
a su!stantial su!set will con%tinue to practice mindfulness skills
long after the treatment program has ended. Mindfulness%!ased
interventions ap%pear to !e conceptually consistent with many
other em%pirically supported treatment approaches and may
provide a technology of acceptance to complement the
technology of change e$empli3ed !y most cognitive%!ehavioral
pro%cedures '9inehan, )**a-.
2hus, it appears that methodologically sound studies of mindfulness%!ased interventions would !e very informa%tive.
Randomi>ed clinical trials are needed to clarify
whether o!served eff ects are due to mindfulness training or to
confounding factors such as place!o eff ects or passage of time
'Iham!less ( 8ollon, )**-. Cutcome studies using waiting%list or
no%treatment controls might shed more light on the eff ects of
mindfulness training as a treatment pack%age, !ut more rigorous
tests would compare mindfulness%!ased interventions to esta!lished
treatments. 5ismantling studies of treatment packages that include
!oth mindfulness and !ehavior change strategies, such as 5B2,
AI2, and R6, could clarify the relative contri!utions of acceptance%
!ased and change%!ased strategies in these packages. Dhether the
eff ectiveness of esta!lished treatment pro%grams may !e increased
!y adding mindfulness training is also an important uestion.
Additional research could in%vestigate the eff ects of mindfulness
practice on a !roader range of outcomes, such as su!/ective well%
!eing and ual%ity of life, as well as symptom reduction. 2he
mechanisms through which mindfulness training may create clinical
change, such as e$posure, rela$ation, and cognitive change, also
should !e e$amined.
2he 5ivision ) 2ask Gorce on 6romotion and 5is%semination
of 6sychological 6rocedures ')**7- proposed de3nitions for
well%esta!lished and pro!a!ly efficacious treatments. Dell%
esta!lished treatments have !een shown to !e superior to a
place!o or alternative treatment, or euivalent to an already
esta!lished treatment, in group%design studies with adeuate
sample si>es and conducted !y diff erent investigators.
Alternatively, they have demon%strated efficacy in a large series
of single case designs that compare the intervention to another
treatment. n all cases, well%esta!lished treatments have !een
investigated for speci3c disorders, with use of treatment
manuals and well%speci3ed samples.
5esignation as "pro!a!ly efficacious& reuires two stud%ies
showing the treatment to !e more eff ective than a wait%ing%listcontrol group, or than another treatment '!ut conducted !y thesame investigator-, or two studies demon%strating eff ectivenessin heterogeneous client samples.
Give studies of MB4R using group designs with random
assignment are reviewed here 'Astin, )**?@ Ka!at%0inn et al.,
)**@ 4hapiro et al., )**@ 4peca et al., ;;;@ K. A. Dilliams et
al., ;;)-. All show MB4R to !e more eff ec%tive than a waiting%
list or 2AU control group. 4amples in%clude students 'two
studies-, psoriasis patients, cancer patients, and community
volunteers complaining of high stress levels. 2hus, MB4R may
meet criteria for the "pro!%
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a!ly efficacious& designation in that it has !een shown to !emore eff ective than waiting%list or 2AU control groups inseveral studies using heterogeneous samples.
MBI2 may !e approaching the "pro!a!ly efficacious&
designation for the prevention of depressive relapse. 2eas%dale
et al. ';;;- is among the strongest of the studies re%viewedhere. t shows MBI2 to !e superior to 2AU in preventing
relapse, using a treatment manual '4egal et al., ;;- and a
large and clearly speci3ed sample of formerly depressed
patients. Additional studies conducted !y inde%pendent
investigators con3rming this 3nding, or showing MBI2 to !e
euivalent or superior to another treatment in preventing
depressive relapse, would ualify MBI2 for the "well
esta!lished& designation.
2wo issues may complicate the empirical validation of
mindfulness%!ased interventions. 2he empirical evalua%tion of
any intervention reuires clear operational de3ni%tions of
concepts and procedures, and the identi3cation of conceptually
sound mechanisms that may account for changes produced !y
the intervention. 2he preceding dis%cussion illustrates that
mindfulness%!ased interventions can !e rigorously
operationali>ed, conceptuali>ed, and empir%ically evaluated.
8owever, to do so risks overlooking important elements of the
long tradition from which mindfulness meditation originates. As
descri!ed !y Ka!at%0inn ';;;-, the practice of mindfulness
meditation is concerned with the cultivation of awareness,
insight, wis%dom, and compassion, concepts that may !e
appreciated and valued !y many people yet difficult to evaluate
empir%ically. 2hus, although methodologically rigorous investi%
gations of the eff ects of MB4R are !oth possi!le and necessary,
perhaps researchers should consider ways to in%corporate theseother concepts, in addition to more read%ily measured constructs
such as symptom reduction.
n addition, unlike many empirically supported treat%ments,
MB4R was not developed to treat any speci3c dis%order.
Although the initial pu!lications e$amined its eff ects in chronic
pain patients, it is generally taught in groups of people with a
wide range of complaints. As the term stress reduction implies, it
is designed to reduce suff ering and im%prove health and well%
!eing, and to !e !roadly applica!le to many pro!lems. 2hus,
evaluation of its eff ectiveness with speci3c disorders, although
necessary for empirical validation, may not !e entirely consistent
with current methods of application in many settings. Dhen
studies are conducted with mi$ed populations, thorough
diagnostic
assessment of participants would help clarify eff ectson speci3c conditions.
Although the empirical literature supporting its effi%cacy is
small, MB4R programs are widely availa!le. 4cheel ';;;- and
4wenson ';;;- have descri!ed a similar pro%liferation of 5B2
programs, of which mindfulness training is an importantcomponent. =iven the potential !ene3ts and increasing
popularity of mindfulness training, it seems critically important to
conduct methodologically sound empirical evaluations of the
eff ects of mindfulness inter%ventions for a range of pro!lems,
!oth in comparison to other well%esta!lished interventions and
as a component of treatment packages.
AC=*/anne 4egerstrom, and =reg
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