Mindfulness-Based Existential Therapy: Connecting Mindfulness and Existential Therapy

Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 8:349–362, 2013Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 1540-1383 print/1540-1391 onlineDOI: 10.1080/15401383.2013.844655

Mindfulness-Based Existential Therapy:Connecting Mindfulness and Existential

Therapy

WES HARRISLewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon, USA

Mindfulness practice in psychotherapy is mostly associatedwith cognitive-behavioral approaches. However, there are otherapproaches that fit well with mindfulness. A distinction can bedrawn between meditation and mindfulness, which better estab-lishes mindfulness as a powerful metatechnique that is supportive tomany therapeutic models. Mindfulness is well suited for use in exis-tential therapy. Currently, mindfulness is utilized in acceptanceand commitment therapy (ACT), and even though ACT is consid-ered a cognitive-behavioral approach, it is compatible in manyways with existential therapy. There are links between mindful-ness, existential therapy, and ACT relevant to mindfulness-basedexistential therapy.

KEYWORDS mindfulness, existential, acceptance, meditation,therapy, creativity

Mindfulness in psychotherapy is becoming more established, and there is apush to integrate it into many traditional therapeutic approaches. Currently,mindfulness has been best integrated into third-wave cognitive-behavioraltherapies (Baer, 2003). The essential principles and practice of mindfulness,however, are well suited for existential therapy as well. Its integration couldprovide an approach that allows mindfulness to be utilized within a frame-work that does not always sync well with traditional cognitive-behavioraltherapy (Claessens, 2010). There is, however, a particularly high level of com-patibility between acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT; Hayes, Luoma,

Address correspondence to Wes Harris, Counseling Psychology, Lewis & Clark College,0615 S.W. Palatine Hill Road, Portland, OR 97219, USA, (MSC 86). E-mail: [email protected]

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Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006) and existential therapy. ACT, a third-wavecognitive-behavioral therapy, provides a practical way to apply mindfulnesswithin the existential framework that brings together two already highly com-patible approaches. Mindfulness-based existential therapy (MBET; Nanda,2010) connects mindfulness with existential therapy, and utilizing ACT tomake this connection seems appropriate.

The creators of mindfulness-based stress reduction (Kabat-Zinn, 1982),mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (Teasdale, 1995), and dialectical behav-ior therapy (Linehan, 1993) have incorporated mindfulness into their respec-tive third-wave cognitive-behavioral theories and have given it legitimacy asa core component of evidence-based practices. Mindfulness has increasedin popularity due to the innovative way it has been used in third-wavecognitive-behavioral approaches. This rise in popularity is seemingly redefin-ing mindfulness as being related to or even created from cognitive-behavioraltheory. The close association between third-wave cognitive-behavioral the-ory and mindfulness makes it difficult to find mindfulness in psychotherapydiscussed outside of the context of cognitive-behavioral therapies. However,mindfulness in psychotherapy does not need to be the exclusive domain ofcognitive-behavioral theory.

I will give a brief overview of mindfulness practice and the benefitsfrom the perspective of Western psychology. I will discuss how mindfulnessis a metatechnique that can be useful in conjunction with many therapeu-tic approaches. Next, I present an overview of existential therapy whilehighlighting its compatibility with mindfulness. I will focus on a few coreexistential principles and theories that seem best suited for MBET. I will alsodiscuss the basics of ACT. Finally, I will explore how mindfulness, ACT, andexistential therapy work well in conjunction with one another.

OVERVIEW OF MINDFULNESS

The practice of mindfulness has benefited people around the world forthousands of years. Within the last few decades, it has gained popularityin Western psychology and medicine. Mindfulness practice is linked withmeditation and involves the intentional awareness of thoughts in the presentmoment without judgment (Kabat-Zinn, 2003). Mindfulness and meditationare well established in many contexts outside of psychotherapy, especially inEastern contemplative practices such as Buddhism. Outside of psychother-apy, mindfulness is often the core of meditation practices that aim towardspiritual growth and development. Mindfulness in psychotherapy is notalways used with formal meditation, and the aim is often different. In psy-chotherapy, mindfulness is used to support goals, to reduce stress, to helpprevent relapse, or to achieve some other objective. Spiritual attainment issometimes addressed in psychotherapy in conjunction with mindfulness, but

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generally, mindfulness is used to help people gain awareness and insightinto other issues. Some therapists also employ mindfulness with the intentof achieving meta-awareness: to be aware of awareness (Hargus, Crane,Barnhofer, & Williams, 2010).

The Relationship Between Mindfulness and Meditation

The terms meditation and mindfulness are not synonymous and have beendefined in a variety of ways (Awasthi, 2013). Jon Kabat-Zinn (2003) definedmindfulness as “the awareness that emerges through paying attention onpurpose, in the present moment, and nonjudgmentally to the unfolding ofexperience moment by moment” (p. 145). I define meditation broadly to beany practice engaged in to cultivate a particular mindstate. Meditation canbe thought of as a practice and mindfulness can be thought of as a qualityof awareness. It may be difficult to find a style of meditation that does notinvolve mindfulness. In general, mindfulness is the core of meditation. In aformal sense, meditation usually involves taking a specific posture with thebody and exclusively engaging in a specific mental activity. Informally, itis used to describe any activity done with mindfulness. Washing the dishescan be a meditation when done mindfully. There are many ways to describemindfulness, but most descriptions center around the three basic attributesof present centeredness, intentionality, and nonjudgment (Allen et al., 2006).

Present centeredness is an aspect of mindfulness that is rooted in thehere-and-now, moment-to-moment flow of direct experience. By staying inthe moment, distractions are minimized and unique insights have the spaceto arise. The attribute of intentionality means that practicing mindfulness isnot just a relaxation exercise. Even though it may seem like the practitioneris doing nothing, this is not the case. While being mindful, the person pur-posefully watches the content of their thoughts trying to maintain constantawareness. The third attribute of nonjudgment means that no thoughts aresuppressed, criticized, or pushed away. Nonjudgment also means avoidingfavorable judgments. The idea is to merely observe the flow of thoughts asthey pass through the present moment. Observing thoughts in the presentmoment can help individuals to recognize a distinction between themselvesand their thoughts (Baer, 2003). The ability to recognize this distinction iscrucial in helping people with anxiety and depression.

Benefits of Mindfulness

Mindfulness is both criticized and applauded for showing promise in thetreatment of a variety of disorders (Teasdale, 2003). It is commended due tothe growing body of empirical evidence showing its efficacy treating issuessuch as chronic pain, depression, anxiety, and disordered eating (Wanden-Berghe, Sanz-Valero, & Wanden-Berghe, 2011). Additionally, it has been

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shown to increase quality of attention, function of the immune system, andfeelings of empathy. The use of mindfulness has been criticized for beingapplied to various issues without a better scientific understanding of how itworks (Teasdale, 2003).

MINDFULNESS AND CHRONIC PAIN

Researchers have found that mindfulness practice can help individuals copewith chronic pain. One study indicated that Zen monks who practice mind-fulness have thicker cortical regions in their brain compared with individualswithout meditation experience (Grant, Courtemanche, Duerden, Duncan,& Rainville, 2010). Thicker cortical regions are associated with lower painsensitivity (Grant et al., 2010). Researchers have indicated that mindfulnesspractice reduces anxiety about pain, and consequently, reduces pain itself(Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985). Data show mindfulness to be highlyeffective in reducing back and neck pain, and arthritic pain in particular(Rosenzweig et al., 2010).

MINDFULNESS AND ANXIETY, DEPRESSION, AND EATING DISORDERS

Similar to pain reduction, there is an indication that mindfulness benefitspeople with anxiety, depression, and eating disorders (Allen et al., 2006).Researchers have found that metacognition plays a powerful role in the useof mindfulness to treat these disorders. When people can take a step backand separate themselves from the content of their thoughts, they are lesslikely to get drawn into overwhelming emotional states (Williams, 2010).Additionally, there is evidence that mindfulness practice changes processeson the neurological level by increasing activity in a brain network relatedto attention regulation and reducing activity in brain systems implicated inconceptual-linguistic self-view (Goldin, Ramel, & Gross, 2009). Researchershave shown these changes to be directly linked to a reduction in socialanxiety disorder (Goldin et al., 2009).

MINDFULNESS AND ATTENTION

Mindfulness practice increases attention, which is an important factor inthe treatment of pain, depression, and anxiety. Paying attention becomesbeneficial when an individual can attend to their reactions with some con-tinuity (Williams, 2010). Reacting to a threat to personal well-being can behealthy, but often, reactions are unbalanced and lead to emotional unease(Williams, 2010). Developing awareness by paying attention is an impor-tant step in correcting these types of reactions. There is strong evidencethat attention and awareness play a crucial role in relapse prevention forsubstance abuse and major depressive disorder (Witkiewitz & Bowen, 2010).Through paying attention, individuals can learn to recognize problematic


thought patterns and deidentify with them. Additionally, individuals withimproved awareness can better track other warning signs before relapseoccurs (Hargus et al., 2010). Attention helps treat a variety of disorders butalso helps individuals succeed in a variety of academic, professional, and per-sonal endeavors as well. Researchers have indicated that attention is trainablethrough mindfulness practice (Lutz et al., 2009).

MINDFULNESS AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Mindfulness seems to benefit individuals physiologically as well as psycho-logically. There is evidence that the immune system is boosted in correlationwith increased left-sided anterior activation, which occurs while practicingmindfulness (Davidson et al., 2003). It is interesting to note that left-sidedanterior activation is connected to positive affect and immune system func-tion (Davidson et al., 2003). Programs such as mindfulness-based stressreduction have been shown to correlate with better physical health and,in particular, a reduced incidence of sickness (Carmody, Reed, Kristeller, &Merriam, 2008). Mindfulness practice seems to work with the connectionbetween mood and physical health.

MINDFULNESS AND EMPATHY

Along with boosting the immune system and attention abilities, there isan emerging connection between empathy and mindfulness (Block-Lerner,Adair, Plumb, Rhatigan, & Orsillo, 2007). Empathy is valuable for therapists.When therapists empathize with their clients, it helps clients feel validated,which strengthens the therapeutic alliance. Through empathizing with theclient, a connection can be formed that helps the client feel safe openingup to the therapist. Empathy also strengthens relationships outside of ther-apy. Mindfulness practice that involves cultivating positive regard for othershas been shown to help people feel empathetic and connected to people intheir community (Hutcherson, Seppala, & Gross, 2008). A primary attribute ofmindfulness is nonjudgment, which supports the development of empathy;better mindfulness skills have been shown to correlate with greater degreesof empathy (Dekeyser, Raes, Leijssen, Leysen, & Dewulf, 2008). With mind-fulness comes a reduction in distraction and a greater degree of focus thathelps a connection form between two people. Once a connection is made,it is easier to empathize with the suffering of others (Nanda, 2005).

OVERVIEW OF EXISTENTIAL THERAPY AND ITS COMPATIBILITYWITH MINDFULNESS

Existential therapy is different than many models of psychotherapy becauseit is an overarching way of thinking rather than a set of prescribed techniques

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and principles. It is generally opposed to deterministic perspectives andhas developed along humanistic lines. There is no one existential method.Existential therapy is a broad umbrella that utilizes a large array of methodsand techniques (Corrie & Milton, 2000).

Even though much variety can be found within existential therapy, thereare still core guiding principles. Finding meaning in life holds a primaryplace in existentialism (Längle, 2005). Discovering what is most meaningfulto an individual is emphasized to inspire and motivate change (Frankl, 1985).Confronting death and accepting its inevitability are also central (Daly, 2007).Psychological unease is generally not viewed in terms of pathology (Corrie& Milton, 2000). It is more typical to explore psychological unease within thecontext of freedom and responsibility (Yalom, 1980). Through applying theseprinciples, practitioners of existentialism push for awareness and insight as ameans to navigate life’s difficulties.

There is an emerging interest among some existential therapists to inte-grate mindfulness-based therapy with existentialism (Nanda, 2010). MBET isa relatively new practice and is not clearly outlined as a formal approach.There is little scholarly literature referring to MBET directly, but there issubstantial published discourse comparing cognitive-behavioral therapy andexistential therapy (Claessens, 2010; Corrie & Milton, 2000; Edwards, 1990;Hickes & Mirea, 2012; Loewenthal, 2010). Some existential therapy practition-ers are pushing to integrate with a variety of different therapeutic models(Schneider, 2008). Mindfulness is a particularly well-suited method to usewithin an existential therapy framework because it does not conflict withcore existential principles and can enhance the exploration of existentialthemes.

Existential therapy avoids rigid therapist-directed interventions(Edwards, 1990). The purpose of mindfulness is not to interpret the client’sexperience for them and require them to conform to an external explanationof what they are experiencing, but to guide the client as they build awarenessand develop skills toward discovering their own insights (Corrie & Milton,2000). Some existential therapists criticize cognitive-behavioral therapists forplacing too much emphasis on reformulating the client’s experience (Corrie& Milton, 2000). Instead, existentialists promote being with the client insteadof doing to the client (Edwards, 1990). Even though mindfulness in psy-chotherapy is often associated with cognitive-behavioral therapy, the coreprinciples of present centeredness, intentionality, and nonjudgment are notnecessarily typical for mainstream cognitive-behavioral therapy. However,when considering the commonalities and compatibility between mindful-ness and existential therapy, there does not seem to be a fundamentalcontradiction between the two.

Another commonality between existential therapy and mindfulness isthe assumption that no one can know exactly the experience of another,so clients must be engaged in their experience to the fullest possible extent


(Corrie & Milton, 2000). The therapist’s role is to assist the client in thisengagement and to help them clarify their experience for themselves. In thisprocess, mindfulness is a valuable skill for both the therapist and the client.With mindfulness, the client gains the ability to fully engage in their experi-ence to gain insight, and the therapist increases their ability to be present andassist the client in clarifying their interpretation (Block-Lerner et al., 2007).

At the heart of both mindfulness practice and existential therapy arecore views that show a tremendous amount of compatibility. Nanda (2009)summarizes these shared core views when she notes, “Both the practicesof mindfulness and existential-phenomenological therapy are concernedwith exploring human existence. Both acknowledge change, impermanence,uncertainty, suffering/existential anxiety and death, as givens of existence.Both see self and reality as relational, without rigid or permanent substance”(p. 147). From a perspective that recognizes impermanence and uncertainty,freedom has the potential to arise. Both approaches value exploring freedomin the face of the harsh realities of human existence. Exploring imperma-nence and uncertainty can lead to new ways of relating to the world evenwhen faced with the limitations of death.

Possible Incompatibilities

Mindfulness practice is consistent with existential therapy, as long as con-sideration is given to proper utilization. There are several possible ways inwhich incompatibilities could arise. There is the potential to detach fromexperience (Geller, 2003), and there is also the possibility for an emphasison rigid goal setting to arise instead of open-ended discovery. These arenot necessarily incompatibilities but are pitfalls that might occur if properattention is not given to integrating the two approaches.

While practicing mindfulness, an individual attempts to minimize dis-tractions, turns inward, and often experiences deep relaxation. There is apossibility they may detach from their experience in the present moment andlose awareness. Instead of engaging their experience, they might avoid it andsimply follow the sensation of relaxation. It is important for the therapist andthe client to help each other stay grounded and watch the mind without judg-ment and without tuning out. In both mindfulness practice and existentialtherapy, it is important to avoid disengaging from direct experience.

Another potential pitfall pertains to utilizing mindfulness in a cognitive-behavioral therapy-oriented way. Much of the literature about mindful-ness and psychotherapy is related to mindfulness-based stress reduction(Kabat-Zinn, 1982), mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (Teasdale, 1995),and dialectical behavioral therapy (Linehan, 1993). Although all of theseapproaches embrace nonjudgment, present centeredness, and intentional-ity, they also have a tendency toward being rigidly goal-oriented. Flexibilityshould be retained so that the process is not bound to a concrete agenda.

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OVERVIEW OF ACT

It is possible for those individuals familiarizing themselves with mindfulnessfrom a psychotherapy perspective to be unsure how to apply it. The primaryevidence-based practices incorporating mindfulness, such as mindfulness-based stress reduction, mindfulness-based cognitive therapy, and dialecticalbehavior therapy, are heavily focused on skills training. The bulk of theseapproaches revolve around the therapist or trainer teaching the client in amodule-based program. Some training will be inevitable for clients who arenot familiar with mindfulness. However, skills training does not have to bethe primary focus, and once a basic familiarity is established, the client andthe therapist can practice honing their mindfulness skills in or out of session.ACT (Hayes et al., 2006) seems to be a good fit when it comes to employingan evidence-based framework for mindfulness that is highly compatible withexistential therapy (Badiee, 2008).

ACT is an evidence-based practice that is generally considered a third-wave cognitive-behavioral therapy. Empirical evidence shows efficacy acrossa broad range of issues such as anxiety, depression, addiction, and obsessive-compulsive disorder. It is appropriate for use with groups, individuals, andcouples. It can effectively be used in short- or long-term treatment. ACTis humanistic in that it encourages the therapist to relate to the client withcompassion, empathy, acceptance, and respect. It also encourages an egal-itarian atmosphere where the client and therapist are working together asimperfect human beings. ACT is based on specific core principles suchas not pathologizing human experiences, acceptance, living in accordancewith one’s values, recognizing the self as context, cognitive defusion, andmindfulness (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012).

When using ACT, no attempt to pathologize and reduce symptoms isdirectly attempted; instead, alleviating symptoms is a byproduct of successfultreatment (Harris, 2006). Flexibility, rather than rigid treatment goals, is cru-cial to producing symptom reduction. A core principle of ACT is that workingdirectly to get rid of a symptom interferes with the person’s ability to over-come their problem (Harris, 2006). Struggling with a problem gives it powerand triggers conceptual-linguistic traps that exaggerate its reality. An opposi-tional approach can set up a static pattern of reactivity that becomes difficultto break.

Suffering and Acceptance

Suffering is inevitable, and much of the suffering caused by issues such asanxiety and depression centers around avoidance (Harris, 2006). Becausesuffering is a normal part of the human experience, ACT shies away frompathologizing a person’s unpleasant experiences. For instance, symptoms of


anxiety and depression are unavoidable human experiences just the sameas joy and happiness. Anxiety and depression become unbearable and over-whelming due to individual’s reactions to them. Therapists who use ACTaddress unpleasant experiences without avoidance or struggling. ACT schol-ars deem struggle and avoidance counterproductive and instead put a heavyemphasis on acceptance (Bunting & Hayes, 2008). That does not mean anindividual is discouraged from taking action. Instead, acceptance is appliedto the individual’s internal experience, hopefully better preparing them totake action in a way that is in accordance with their values. An individualsuffering from physical abuse will take action to protect him or herself andat the same time accept the inevitable pain that arises from the situation.From a place of acceptance, the individual is less likely to compound theirsituation by struggling with circumstances out of their control.

Cognitive Defusion

Cognitive defusion is a principle in ACT that facilitates a healthy acceptanceof suffering and relies on relational frame theory (RFT). Briefly, practitionersof RFT state that language is at the root of suffering (Harris, 2006). Humanlanguage is not just limited to words. It also includes symbols, images, andgestures. We use language internally while thinking and externally whilecommunicating with others. Russell Harris (2006) wrote, “A more technicalterm for the private use of language is ‘cognition’” (p. 4). In RFT, languageand mind are inseparable. According to therapists who use RFT, the waywe interpret and think about our experience is deeply entwined with theexperience of psychological distress.

When cognitive defusion is applied, the individual is encouraged todisentangle himself or herself from language. When observing thoughtsintentionally without judgment, it is possible to gain perspective on certaincharacteristics about those thoughts. This process utilizes mindfulness anddefuses the actual self from thoughts about the self. Cognition is a responseto the perception of the external world (internal bodily sensations included),not reality itself. It is possible to move from the thought of “I am anxious”to “I am experiencing some feelings of anxiety.” When cognitive defusion isapplied, people see that thoughts are not reality, but they are words aboutthe experience of reality, thereby undermining the literal quality of thoughts(Bunting & Hayes, 2008).

Self as Context

When an individual’s sense of self is not defined by thoughts and insteadthoughts are considered to be bits of transient information about the self,then a new sense of self can emerge. In ACT, the term self as context (Hayeset al., 2012) is used to describe the arena in which thoughts and feelings

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occur, rather than the process of thoughts and feelings defining the self(Bunting & Hayes, 2008). Cognitive defusion can help an individual movefrom a sense of self that is defined by thoughts to one that observes thoughts.

Values and Committed Action

Another core principle in ACT is living in accordance with one’s values andcommitting to action. Values are defined as globally desired life directionswithin the ACT framework (Fletcher & Hayes, 2005). When people becomeentangled in inflexible thought patterns, it is difficult to bring awarenessto values and to live in accordance with them. ACT practitioners work touncover values and empower individuals to commit themselves to act in linewith their values, rather than in ways that are only in the service of trying toavoid unpleasant experiences.

Mindfulness is completely integrated into ACT. It is utilized as a tech-nique to enhance and facilitate the therapeutic process. Like mindfulnessin other models of psychotherapy, mindfulness in ACT is centered onpresent centeredness, intentionality, and nonjudgment. In ACT, mindfulnessis directly applied to cognitive defusion, acceptance, the self as context, andliving in accordance with one’s values in a unique way (Fletcher & Hayes,2005).

CONNECTING EXISTENTIAL THERAPY AND ACT

It should not be difficult to see the compatibility between existential ther-apy and mindfulness. There seems to be a complementary relationshipbetween the two leading toward the call for MBET (Nanda, 2010). ACT hasbeen called existential humanistic cognitive-behavioral therapy due to theespecially strong link between ACT and existential therapy (Harris, 2006).Because mindfulness is a core component of ACT, the discussion regard-ing compatibility between mindfulness and existential therapy covered agreat deal of evidence as to why existential therapy and ACT are a good fit.However, there are a few main points of compatibility in addition to whathas already been covered. Existential therapy and ACT both avoid patholo-gizing unpleasant experiences. Also, they both address freedom, acceptance,and values in a similar way.

Working toward freedom is common between the two approaches. ACTframes this concept in terms of freedom from the constraints of languagehijacking our experience of reality. When we can subjugate language infavor of direct experience, freedom from ingrained patterns of reactivity isgained. Existential therapy frames freedom in the face of limitations. Workingwithin that dialectic toward freedom is similar to increasing flexibility to gainfreedom in ACT (Badiee, 2008). The way in which both approaches accept


human suffering is utilized similarly. From a place of greater freedom, aperson can better discover what is important to them. Exploring values andacting on them to bring about change is central to both approaches. MBETand ACT seem to integrate naturally.

USEFULNESS FOR COUNSELORS

The mindfulness aspect of MBET in particular is relevant and useful forcounselors of all backgrounds. It is a skill-based disposition that can becultivated intentionally. It is helpful for counselors because it can enhanceattention, which helps the individual stay focused on what is most importantin the present moment (Goldin et al., 2009; Lutz et al., 2009). In this way, itbecomes a metamethod that has the potential to improve the implementationof whatever method the counselor is working with.

Research has indicated that the quality of the relationship between coun-selor and client is an important factor, perhaps even more so than thecounselor’s level of experience or method of choice (Hubble, Duncan, &Miller, 1999; Wampold, 2001). Being present, attentive, and empathetic aretraits often associated with strengthening the counselor–client relationship.In addition to attention, empathy can be strengthened through mindfulnesspractice (Dekeyser et al., 2008). Counselors who train in mindfulness havethe potential to create a strengthened therapeutic relationship with theirclients.

Working from an MBET perspective, particularly in conjunction withACT, provides a wide variety of approaches. Some clients seem quite inter-ested in targeting specific unpleasant qualities of their experience and wantconcrete strategies for change. Other clients are more interested in work-ing through confusion and distress related to more nebulous difficulties.A conflict need not arise between a depth approach and a solution-focusedapproach. Instead, interventions from a third-wave cognitive-behavioral ther-apy like ACT can be interwoven with traditional interventions from existentialtherapy to meet the needs of both scenarios. Having this flexibility inapproach may be particularly useful for clinicians working in settings wheremanaged care dictates that certain aspects of the service are to be pro-vided, such as the need for concrete goals, rigid treatment planning, timelimitations, and clearly outlined interventions.

CONCLUSION

MBET may be a new addition to counseling and psychotherapy theory, butmindfulness and existential therapy are well established. Both approachesare well developed and have been shown to be beneficial. When the core

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principles and methodologies are examined, it is easy to see a great deal ofcompatibility between the two. Mindfulness practice is a powerful addition toexistential approaches to psychotherapy that supports introspection and self-knowledge. ACT in particular has striking similarities to existential therapyand is a structured way to bridge mindfulness and existential therapy. MBETpromotes personal empowerment in the face of unpleasant aspects of thehuman condition. Through examining existential therapy, mindfulness, andACT, a strong connection with MBET emerges.

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Wes Harris is a Master’s Degree Candidate in the Professional Mental HealthCounseling Program at Lewis & Clark College, Portland, Oregon.

Documents

Mindfulness-Based Existential Therapy: Connecting Mindfulness and Existential Therapy