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UNITED STATES
:PARTMENT OF
OMMERCEUBLICATION
-vi- /*
NBS TECHNICAL NOTE 619
U.S.PARTMENT
OFOMMERCE
National
Us 753to. &/9
Millimeter Attenuation
and Reflection Coefficient
Measurement System
NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS
The National Bureau of Standards1 was established by an act of Congress March 3,
1901. The Bureau's overall goal is to strengthen and advance the Nation's science andtechnology and facilitate their effective application for public benefit. To this end, the
Bureau conducts research and provides: (1) a basis for the Nation's physical measure-ment system, (2) scientific and technological services for industry and government, (3)
a technical basis for equity in trade, and (4) technical services to promote public safety.
The Bureau consists of the Institute for Basic Standards, the Institute for Materials
Research, the Institute for Applied Technology, the Center for Computer Sciences andTechnology, and the Office for Information Programs.
THE INSTITUTE FOR BASIC STANDARDS provides the central basis within the
United States of a complete and consistent system of physical measurement; coordinates
that system with measurement systems of other nations; and furnishes essential services
leading to accurate and uniform physical measurements throughout the Nation's scien-
tific community, industry, and commerce. The Institute consists of a Center for Radia-
tion Research, an Office of Measurement Services and the following divisions:
Applied Mathematics—Electricity—Heat—Mechanics—Optical Physics—Linac
Radiation2—Nuclear Radiation2—Applied Radiation 2—Quantum Electronics3—Electromagnetics 3—Time and Frequency3—Laboratory Astrophysics3—Cryo-
genics3.
THE INSTITUTE FOR MATERIALS RESEARCH conducts materials research lead-
ing to improved methods of measurement, standards, and data on the properties of
well-characterized materials needed by industry, commerce, educational institutions, andGovernment; provides advisory and research services to other Government agencies;
and develops, produces, and distributes standard reference materials. The Institute con-
sists of the Office of Standard Reference Materials and the following divisions:
Analytical Chemistry—Polymers—Metallurgy—Inorganic Materials—Reactor
Radiation—Physical Chemistry.
THE INSTITUTE FOR APPLIED TECHNOLOGY provides technical services to pro-
mote the use of available technology and to facilitate technological innovation in indus-
try and Government; cooperates with public and private organizations leading to the
development of technological standards (including mandatory safety standards), codes
and methods of test; and provides technical advice and services to Government agencies
upon request. The Institute also monitors NBS engineering standards activities and
provides liaison between NBS and national and international engineering standards
bodies. The Institute consists of the following divisions and offices:
Engineering Standards Services—Weights and Measures—Invention andInnovation—Product Evaluation Technology—Building Research—Electronic
Technology—Technical Analysis—Measurement Engineerings—Office of Fire
Programs.
THE CENTER FOR COMPUTER SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY conducts re-
search and provides technical services designed to aid Government agencies in improv-
ing cost effectiveness in the conduct of their programs through the selection, acquisition,
and effective utilization of automatic data processing equipment; and serves as the prin-
cipal focus within the executive branch for the development of Federal standards for
automatic data processing equipment, techniques, and computer languages. The Center
consists of the following offices and divisions:
Information Processing Standards—Computer Information—Computer Services
—Systems Development-—Information Processing Technology.
THE OFFICE FOR INFORMATION PROGRAMS promotes optimum dissemination
and accessibility of scientific information generated within NBS and other agencies of
the Federal Government; promotes the development of the National Standard Reference
Data System and a system of information analysis centers dealing with the broader
aspects of the National Measurement System; provides appropriate services to ensure
that the NBS staff has optimum accessibility to the scientific information of the world,
and directs the public information activities of the Bureau. The Office consists of the
following organizational units:
Office of Standard Reference Data—Office of Technical Information and
Publications—Library—Office of International Relations.
1 Headquarters and Laboratories at Gaithersburg, Maryland, unless otherwise noted; mailing address Washing-ton, D.C. 20234.
2 Part of the Center for Radiation Research.3 Located at Boulder, Colorado 80302.
lational Bureau of Standards
OCT 1 8 1972
P^Crf- OCC
Qc loo
c, &—
UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCEPeter G. Peterson, Secretary
(j.% NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS • Lewis M. Branscomb, Director
NBSt-
TECHNICAL NOTE 619
ISSUED JULY 1972
Nat. Bur. Stand. (U.S.), Tech. Note 619, 175 pages (July, 1972)
CODEN: NBTNAE
Millimeter Attenuation
and Reflection Coefficient Measurement System
B. C. Yates and W. Larson
Electromagnetics Division
National Bureau of Standards
Institute for Basic Standards
Boulder, Colorado
"*f*u of
NBS Technical Notes are designed to supplement the
Bureau's regular publications program. They provide
a means for making available scientific data that are
of transient or limited interest. Technical Notes maybe listed or referred to in the open literature.
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. 20402(Order by SD Catalog No. 03.46:619). Priced, ,-£)
Contents
Page
Abstract 1
1. Introduction 1
2. System Description andMeasurement Procedures 2
2.1 Magnitude of reflection coefficient 2
2.1.1. Subsystem description 3
2.1.2. Measurement procedure 4
2.1.3. Brief modified reflectometertheory and tuning procedure 9
2.2. Attenuation 13
2.2.1. Subsystem description 13
2.2.2. Measurement procedure 14
3. Systematic Measurement Errors 15
3.1. Ref lectometer errors 16
3.1.1. Tuning errors 16
3.1.2. Precision Section error 18
3.2. Attenuation errors 20
3.2.1. Mismatch error 20
3.3. System measurement errors -
Attenuation and/or reflectioncoefficient magnitude 22
3.3.1. Converter linearity error 22
3.3.2. System instability error 23
3.3.3. Leakage error 24
3.3.3.1 RF Leakage 24
3.3.3.2 Intermediate FrequencyLeakage 26
iii
3.3.4. Signal-to-noise error 27
4. Standards 28
4.1. Reflection coefficient magnitudestandards 28
4.2. Standard attenuator 31
4.3. Interlaboratory standards 32
4.3.1. Reflection coefficient 32
4.3.2. Attenuation 35
5. Measurement Results 37
5.1. Reflection coefficient magnitude 37
5.2. Attenuation 39
Figures 1-21 43-63
Appendix A. 64
Appendix B. Estimated systematic error limits forWR15 attenuation measurements 66
Appendix C. Estimated systematic error limits forWR15 reflection coefficient magnitudemeasurements 67
Figures 22-27 68-96
Appendix D. Machine drawings for11 stub tuner for 5 5-65 GHz, WR15 68
Appendix E. Machine drawing for slidingload for WR15 waveguide 72
Appendix F. Machine drawing for sliding dumbbellshort for WR15 waveguide 74
Appendix G. Machine drawings for four piece brass andinvar precision waveguide for WR15 76
Appendix H. Machine drawing for quarter-wave shortcircuit for WR15 waveguide 80
IV
Appendix I. Machine drawings for circular waveguidebelow-cutoff attenuator for nominal30 MHz operation
References
82
97
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1. Block diagram of the reflection coefficientmagnitude subsystem using an i-f receiver.
Figure 2. Detailed diagram of the reflection coefficientmagnitude subsystem.
Figure 3. Detailed diagram of the two-loop automaticfrequency control network.
Figure 4. Waveguide termination.
Figure 5. Diagram of a tunable, single -directionalcoupler reflectometer (modified reflectometer)
.
Figure 6. Block diagram of the i-f series substitutionattenuation subsystem.
Figure 7. Detailed diagram of the rf receiver of theattenuation subsystem.
Figure 8. Graph for estimating the magnitude of 1/Kgiven a response variation R when sliding a
load with return losses of 30 to 70 decibels.
Figure 9. Graph for estimating the equivalent generatorimpedance for a given response variation
R x 10 when sliding a short-circuit termination
Figure 10. Change in reflection coefficient magnitudeversus dimension change in the nominal wave-guide width of 0.148 inch.
Figure 11. Change in reflection coefficient magnitudeversus dimensional change in the nominalwaveguide height of 0.074 inch.
Figure 12. Graph for estimating mismatch error limitswhen the attenuation and system VSWR are given.
Figure 13. Theoretical mixer power conversion non-linearityversus master-local oscillator power ratio.
Figure 14. Quarter-wavelength short-circuited waveguidestandards
.
vii
Figure 15. Graph for estimating the change in reflectioncoefficient of a quarterwave short circuitversus conductivity confidence interval (therelative error substracted from unity)
.
Figure 16. Current distribution for a rectangularTE,
nmode short-circuited waveguide.
Figure 17. Graph for estimating the change in reflectioncoefficient magnitude of a quarterwave shortcircuit versus dimensional deviation fromheight dimension of 0.074 inch.
Figure 18. Graph for estimating the change in reflectioncoefficient magnitude of a quarterwave shortcircuit versus dimensional deviation fromnominal width dimension of 0.148 inch.
Figure 19. Waveguide-Below-Cutof f attenuator.
Figure 20. Typical change in narrow dimension ofrectangular waveguide used for interlaboratoryreflection standards.
Figure 21. WR15 reflectometer and associated supporthardware
.
Figure 22. Machine drawings for 11 stub tuner for 55-65GHz, WR15.
Figure 23. Machine drawing for sliding load for WR15 wave-guide .
Figure 24. Machine drawing for sliding dumbbell short forWR15 waveguide.
Figure 25. Machine drawings for four piece brass and invarprecision waveguid'e for WR15.
Figure 26. Machine drawing for quarter-wave short circuitfor WR15 waveguide.
Figure 27. Machine drawings for circular waveguide below-cutoff attenuator for nominal 30 MHz operation.
vm
MILLIMETER ATTENUATION AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENT
MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
B.C. Yates and W. Larson
Abstract
This paper presents the details to implement aWR15 attenuation and reflection coefficient magnitudemeasurement system. A discussion of precision and ofsystematic error is given along with equations forestimating limits of the error. Machine drawings areprovided to fabricate the waveguide standards andnecessary hardware not commercially available.
Key words: Attenuation; Measurement system; Millimeter;Reflection coefficient, VSWR.
1 . Introduction
In the Electromagnetics Division of the National Bureau
of Standards, Boulder, Colorado, work is proceeding toward
the establishment and extension of calibration services at
frequencies in the millimeter region. Among the work com-
pleted at this time is a system for the measurement of
attenuation and reflection coefficient magnitude on waveguide
devices in WR15 waveguide. The purpose of this report is to
describe this calibration system and include the instrumentation,
measurement procedure, and error analysis employed in the
system development and evaluation.
2 . System Description and Measurement Procedures
The system can be conveniently broken into two parts for
the purposes of description and discussion. The part (sub-
system) dealing with measurement of reflection coefficient
will be described first.
2 . 1 Magnitude of Reflection Coefficient 1
Immense improvements in reflectometer techniques over
the past few years have made this method most accurate for
the measurement of microwave and millimeter impedance (VSWR
and reflection coefficient) 2[1,2]
3. In particular, the
: The reflection coefficient r at a single frequency, and for a
single mode of propagation having a sinusoidal time variation,is the ratio of the incident to reflected wave amplitudes at agiven terminal plane in a uniform waveguide. The reflectioncoefficient is a complex number having both a modulus (magnitude)and argument (phase).
2 The voltage standing-wave ratio (VSWR), in terms of theabove -defined reflection coefficient, is given by the relation,
i +|
r|
VSWR = a =
i -|r|
The converse relation (i.e., |r| in terms of c) is
a - 1r
+ 1
A more complete discussion of reflection coefficient andVSWR is given by Beatty [2].
Note: The symbol a is widely used to denote conductivity,but is used in this note only to designate VSWR.
3 Figures in brackets indicate the literature references at theend of this paper.
tuned modified reflectometer , a single directional coupler
with associated waveguide tuners, offers the best performance
and accuracy over a large dynamic range. Untuned reflectometer
techniques [3] have also been developed which provide a
reasonable accuracy.
2.1.1 Subsystem Description
Figure 1 is a block diagram of the reflection coefficient
magnitude calibration subsystem presently in use at NBS
.
The measurement system incorporates two microwave oscillators
,
the master oscillator (MO) and the sawtooth-modulated local
oscillator (LO) . The MO is tuned to the calibration frequency
and controlled with an AFC circuit. The LO center frequency
is tuned to either 30 MHz above or 30 MHz below the MO frequency
MO energy is propagated to the reflectometer where it is
reflected from the item under test and is applied to a mixer.
LO energy is also coupled directly to this mixer to produce
an i-f response of 30 MHz. The i-f response is then trans-
mitted through a monitor network, which also provides a
ground return for the mixer diode, and into a 30 MHz
waveguide below-cutoff (WBCO) piston attenuator. Next, the
attenuator output is amplified, detected, and filtered.
The filtered voltage is then applied to a monitor scope and a
strip chart recorder. For a dynamic range greater than 40 dB
,
the sawtooth audio modulation is amplified following the i-f
amplifier and synchronously detected.
3
Figures 2, 3, are more detailed diagrams of the system.
In order to provide a coherent scope response, system
stability, and wide dynamic range, a sawtooth voltage is
superimposed upon the LO repeller voltage to frequency
modulate (± 2 MHz) the LO. If better system stability than
the modulated method provides is required, the LO can be con-
trolled by an AFC circuit to maintain the i-f center frequency
at a fixed 30 MHz. This can be accomplished by employing
a separate AFC loop such as shown in figure 3. For more
detail on system stability see section 3.3.2.
2.1.2 Measurement Procedure
The measurement is performed by: 1) attaching the unknown
test item, V , to the reflectometer , 2) adjusting the gain
of the amplifier to obtain a convenient reference response on
a recorder (meter) , 3) replacing the test item by a reflection
coefficient standard (|r|
- 1), and 4) adjusting the 30 MHz
standard attenuator to obtain the original output on the
recorder. The reflection coefficient magnitude can then be
calculated by using the formula,
LR
= 20 lo §10 T^T' ™' u
'
where L„ is the measured relative return loss (the attenuation
difference between |r I and |r I). Tables are available to1 s ' ' u 1 J
facilitate the calculation of |r [41. Alternately, |r
can be calculated from the equations,
LR
= -20 log10
|T| (2)
and
ru l
= |rs |
•I r I
- (3)
When measuring terminations having a sliding load (fig. 4)
as a terminating element, both the maximum and minimum reflec-
tion coefficients are measured. Usually the reflection coeffi-
cient of the termination is taken as the average of these
measurements
.
Terminations having a small reflection coefficient
(|r| _< 0.01) and a sliding load|I",
|as a terminating element
are difficult to measure. Since both reflections are small,
it is not possible to immediately identify whether the average
reflection coefficient Irl belongs to the sliding load ori i ave & 6
to a discontinuity (fig. 4) associated with the termination.
(For the case (Irl > 0.011, Irl is equal to the reflection«. vii j , i i ave I
coefficient of the discontinuity |r„| (to an order of |rT
|
2)
provided that | F„ |>
|
I\|
) . This is because the average value
of reflection coefficient is associated with that element
which has the largest reflection (see Appendix A).
The usual method to separate the two reflection coeffi-
cients is to insert a low-loss discontinuity either inside
the termination or attached to the waveguide flange of the
termination in order to provide a reflection which is large
compared to that of the sliding load. A flat metal plate with
dimensions smaller than nominal waveguide dimensions and which
has a VSWR - 1.2 can easily be attached to the termination
and also provide the necessary discontinuity. An alternate
method is to use two different, sliding loads inside the termina-
tion if it is physically practical.
The measurement procedure is to attach the plate to the
termination, measure the maximum and minimum reflection
coefficients as a function of the sliding load, and calculate
the respective VSWR's, o and o . . (The d superscript^ ' max mm v r r
is used here to denote the VSWRs measured with the discontinuity
(plate) attached.)
The VSWR of the load aT
is calculated from the equation
[5]
aT
=A /
da /
da . . (4)U mov' mm *• -*L y max' min'
Next, measurements of the maximum and minimum reflection
coefficients are made with the discontinuity (plate) removed,
and the maximum and minimum VSWRs (a and a ) are calcu-max mm
lated. Here, a and a . are not to be confused with the' max mm
VSWRs in eq. 4 but pertain only to the VSWRs with the dis-
continuity (plate) removed. Substitution of a and a .
' r max mminto the equations,
o-. = o /o ., (5)
1 a / max mm
'
v *"
and
o n =Ja a '.
, (6)2 v max mm' v J
yields the VSWRs of the termination discontinuity and the
sliding load where a, and o?
are the VSWRs of the elements
with the smallest and largest reflection, respectively.
Comparison of eq. 5 and eq. 6 with eq . 4 removes the ambiguity
as to which VSWR is associated with the sliding load and
which VSWR is associated with the termination discontinuity.
When measuring terminations or nominally nonreflecting
one-ports'* which have a return loss greater than the dynamic
range of the measurement system, other measurement procedures
must be used. Four suitable techniques are described below.
The last two methods to be described (rf and i-f substitution)
can be also implemented for measuring attenuators over an
extended attenuation range. Details on direct substitution
attenuation measurements are given in reference [6]. All
methods assume that adequate signal power is available.
The first method is to measure the return loss in two
steps , first calibrating the reflection coefficient of a
transfer standard having a return loss of about 32 dB (|r| =
0.025) by the method described previously. Then, with the
power level at the measurement port increased to compensate
4A nominally nonreflecting one-port is a termination whichis intended to produce no reflection or nearly noreflection (| T |
< 0.001) .
for the return loss of the transfer standard (32 dB) , the
unknown |r is compared to the transfer standard. I r iis
i u i f i u i
calculated from eq . 1 where |r is the reflection coefficientn i s i
magnitude of the transfer standard. Alternately, the return
loss of the transfer standard can be added to the measured
return loss to obtain the return loss of the unknown.
The second method utilizes a reflection coefficient
standard that is fairly close in magnitude to the unknown
termination. In this case only a relatively small return
loss measurement which is within the dynamic range of the
system need be measured. Some excellent possibilities of
reflection coefficient standards of low VSWR are discussed
in section 4.1.
The third method utilizes a calibrated rf attenuator
isolated from and located between the generator and reflecto-
meter. This method makes a direct comparison between the
standard of reflection coefficient (|r - 1) and the unknown.
When the unknown is compared to the standard, a portion of
the substituted return loss is placed in the rf attenuator
and a portion in the i-f 30 MHz standard attenuator and the
losses summed. The unknown is calculated from eq. (1).
Since the rf attenuation in the third method is not
always accurately known, the fourth procedure makes use of
the i-f attenuator to determine the attenuation in the rf
attenuator. To do this the i-f attenuation is transferred to
a second auxiliary rf attenuator. Next, the attenuation in
the original (third method) rf attenuator is measured with
the i-f attenuator. The sum of the two i-f attenuator losses
is then used in eq . (1) to calculate |r|
. Although this
method is tedious, it has been found by experience to be more
accurate than the third method.
2.1.3 Brief Modified Reflectometer Theory and Tuning Procedure
For the measurement procedures outlined previously to
be valid, the output response from the modified reflectometer
must be proportional to the reflection coefficient of the
device located at the measurement plane. In order to obtain
this output response, the imperfections in the directional-
coupler- tuner assembly and the reflections from the
equivalent generator are eliminated or minimized by appro-
priate tuning adjustments as will be described.
When a signal originating from the generator is incident
on a device presenting a reflection coefficient, r , at
terminal surface T_ (fig. 5) in a reflectometer , a portion
of the reflected signal is coupled to the output arm of the
coupler. The output response b-, can be expressed by the
equation [1 ] ,
1
(7)b3
= c, K
+ FL
i - r . rT2i L
where r o . is the reflection coefficient of the equivalent2i n
source impedance looking back from T„ and
|K| - |S21 |
10D/2 °
(8)
D is the directivity of the reflectometer and the
transmission coefficient, S~, , is defined as the ratio of
the wave amplitude at T~ to that at T-. when T?
is terminated
by a nonreflecting device. S~, has magnitude values of
approximately 0.707, 0.95, and 0.995 for a 3 dB , 10 dB , and
20 dB coupler, respectively. Thus, when employing a coupler
with a directivity of 40 dB , is approximately 0.01 to
1*11
0.014 (3-20 dB coupler). These values of can be equal|K|
to or larger than|
I\|so that from eq. (7) it can be seen that
considerable error could result if the assumption were made
that b, was proportional to I\ . In the denominator of eq. (7),
the magnitude of r?.r, is relatively small but still gives an
appreciable error which will be discussed later.
Since both the directivity and T . errors are significant
in the detected reading of the reflectometer , it is necessary
to reduce their effects by appropriate tuning operations which
are to raise the directivity of the reflectometer and to
reduce r„. to a negligible value. Reduction of T~. to zero
implies the elimination of multiple reflections at terminal
plane, T~. If one could make the directivity infinite and
10
r„. = 0, eq. (7) would become
b3
= c'fL (9)
In other words, the output would be directly proportional to
the reflection coefficient of the device connected to T~ , and
the ratio of the |b,| response from the device to the
response from a standard of reflection coefficient would
give the proper value of T, (see eq. (1)). Although in
principle these conditions are realizable, in practice it
is possible only to approach them. However, one can approach
them so nearly that only a small residual error remains.
This deviation from perfect tuning conditions causes what is
called the tuning error. The section on measurement errors
gives the formulas to calculate the limits of tuning error.
For a more detailed discussion of tuning theory see [1,2].
Various techniques can be employed in raising the
directivity of the reflectometer and reducing r„. to a
negligible value. The individual techniques which are pre-
ferred by most metrologists are reviewed here.
The directivity of the reflectometer is raised by
inserting a sliding load of small reflection coefficient
(VSWR of 1.01 to 1.001) into the uniform precision waveguide
(fig. 5) and adjusting tuner A for a null response at the
detector. (It is possible to obtain a false tuning adjustment
11
if the null is not obtained first). Next, while the sliding
load is moved (at least a half wavelength) to obtain the
maximum- minimum variations, tuner A is adjusted to make these
variations as small as possible. Usually a variation of 0.5
to 1 dB is considered satisfactory.
After making the directivity adjustment, a sliding
short circuit is substituted for the sliding load in the
precision waveguide to make the T~. adjustment. Tuner B is
adjusted to minimize variations in |b,| in the same manner as
tuner A except that a detector null is not obtained originally.
The adjustment is usually continued until the T?
. variation is
less than 0.005 dB . An automated carriage has been devised
to facilitate the tuning procedures [7] and its use or a
similar device is highly recommended for tuning at millimeter
frequencies
.
It is always necessary to repeat the directivity ad-
justment (tuner A), after adjusting tuner B, but the r_.
adjustment (tuner B) usually need not be repeated again if the
output variation is reduced to 0.002 dB or less originally.
These adjustments should provide the necessary conditions that
the output signal is proportional to the reflection coefficient
of the device at T«, so that the measurement methods outlined
can be used.
12
Machine drawings for fabricating the tuners, sliding
load, and sliding short are given in Appendices D, E, and
F respectively.
2 . 2 Attenuation 5
The i-f substitution technique is most widely accepted
as the most accurate and most versatile method of performing
attenuation measurements over a wide range of frequencies
.
Several system configurations are possible with this measure-
ment technique [6]. The most commonly used is the series i-f
substitution system shown in figure 6 and described below.
2.2.1 Subsystem Description
The basic series i-f substitution system for measurement
of attenuation incorporates the hardware of the reflection
coefficient subsystem; the insertion point for attenuators
being located at the terminal plane for reflection coeffi-
cient measurements. The reflectometer provides a "matched
generator" and is also used to tune the receiver port so that
there are no multiple reflections between the input and out-
put ports of the device -under- test and the system into which
it is inserted.
5Attenuation is a general transmission term used to denote adecrease of signal magnitude, usually resulting from either a
dissipative or reflective loss. In this note, the termattenuation also implies a non-reflecting system at the placewhere the attenuator is inserted.
13
A signal from the MO is propagated through the reflec-
tometer and device-under- test (insertion point) and frequency
converted (heterodyned) to 30 MHz by mixing with the LO
.
After the 30 MHz signal is attenuated by the WBCO standard
attenuator, it is amplified, detected and displayed on a
monitor scope and chart recorder.
With this system configuration a change in attenuation
(e.g., an increase) in the device-under- test requires a
corresponding change (decrease) in the WBCO attenuator. Thus,
this configuration is called a series i-f substitution system.
2.2.2 Measurement Procedure
Preparatory to making a measurement the reflectometer
in the RF source portion of the waveguide system is tuned
by the procedures outlined in section 2.1.3 in order to
present a matched generator to the test device. The RF detec-
tor section (fig. 7) contains a precision waveguide and a wave-
guide tuner which is the output port of the insertion point.
After the reflectometer is properly tuned, the insertion point
is closed and aligned. The waveguide tuner in the RF detector
section is then adjusted for a reflectometer null response
(i.e., no i-f detector response). This completes the tuning
adjustments necessary to present the device -under-test with a
matched insertion point.
14
The measurement is performed by: 1) inserting the device
under test into the system at the insertion point, 2) adjusting
the gain of the i-f amplifier to obtain a convenient detected
reference response on a recorder (meter) (Note: when measuring
variable attenuators, the gain is adjusted with the rf attenua-
tion inserted), 3) removing the rf attenuation, and 4) substi-
tuting i-f attenuation from the WBCO standard to restore the
detected response to the reference value to obtain a direct
measure of the rf attenuation.
When setting either the standard or a rotary vane
attenuator, the dial should always be turned in the direction
of increasing attenuation to avoid backlash effects from the
gear mechanisms.
Alternate methods for making attenuation measurements
when the dynamic range of the detector system is exceeded are
described in section 2.1.2.
It should be noted that alignment of the flanges between
the device-under- test and the insertion point should be as
exact as possible in order to obtain repeatable measurements.
3 . Systematic Measurement Errors
The discussion of the limits of systematic measurement
errors encountered is divided into three parts . The first
part deals with errors in the measurement of reflection
coefficient. The second part deals with errors due to mismatch
15
in measuring the attenuation. And the third part deals with
errors common to the measurement of both attenuation and
reflection coefficient. Estimated systematic error limits
for NBS WR15 components and systems are summarized in appendices
B and C.
3 . 1 Reflectometer Errors
3.1.1 Tuning Errors
Evaluation of the tuning errors in a tuned reflectometer
is very important. Since the ideal conditions of K = °° and
T„ . = will not be realized in practice, the relation2i ft
b, = c'I\ will not be exact, and a residual error is present
in the measurement.
The maximum relative error in an unknown test item,
|r|
, due to K f °° and T?
. = is given by the equation, 6
I dr I , I
r
e |+ I r I
(10)r k r ru '
' ' ' u sruK
where |K| is approximated by eq . 8 and|
T|
is the reflection
coefficient magnitude of the standard.
To obtain the approximate magnitude of K, a load of
small known reflection coefficient, r. , is placed in the
precision waveguide section and its phase is varied by sliding
it more than one-half wavelength. Next, the attenuation
difference, R, in decibels between maximum and minimum output
6 Equation (10) contains a typographical error in reference [2]
16
signal variation is noted. This is the variation observed
when raising the directivity of the reflectometer (section
2.1.3). Then, |K| is calculated from the equation,
inR/20
|K| = ^ U. (11)
(ioR/2 ° - i) |r
L |
The estimation of 1 / | K | is facilitated by figure 8.
A typical value that can be obtained when sliding a load
(|rL
|
= 0.001) is R = 0.5 dB so that |K| * 3.5 x 101
*. This
corresponds to raising the directivity of the reflectometer
to greater than 90 dB . At millimeter wave frequencies 80 dB
is usually the upper directivity limit that can be maintained
for a three to four hour time interval without readjustment,
while 90 dB can be maintained over the same interval for
microwave frequencies
.
The maximum relative error due to r.. ^ but K = °° is2i
given by the relation, 7
I dr Ifir I
+I r I) I r„. i
i u ' ,v
' u '' s '
J' 2i
inR/20r2i |
= - (13)
:S 2 Si-, (12)
I r I l - |r,. r I
1 u
'
' 2i u
'
where \T n . is obtained from the equation.2i
'
n'
10R / 20
- 1
(ioR/20
+ i) I
r
L
in which R is now the output dB variation observed when a
short circuit (| r.
|
- 1) is slid more than one-half wavelength
Typical values are |r|
= 0.996, and R = 0.003 so that
'Equation (12) contains a typographical error in reference [2]
17
|r_. - 0.0002. The estimate of |r o .| is facilitated by1
2 x
'
' 2i
'
3
figure 9
.
The above results should not be difficult to obtain
provided good tuners and reasonable system stability are
available. As a word of caution, the tuning conditions are
sharply frequency sensitive and cannot be accurately maintained
unless the master oscillator is frequency controlled.
Equations (10) , (11) , (12) , and a form of (13) were
presented in reference [2].
3.1.2 Precision Section Error
Although the precision section of waveguide used in the
reflectometer is carefully constructed and considered to be a
standard transmission line, and thus could be discussed in the
section on standards, it is also an integral part of the reflecto-
meter. Thus, the errors associated with that waveguide section
are presented here.
A major portion of the reflectometer error is caused by
the cross -sectional deviation of the precision section from
standard waveguide dimension. It should be noted that this
particular error is the limiting factor in obtaining better
accuracy in waveguide impedance measurements , because it is
possible to reduce the tuning errors to a value much smaller
than the precision section error. Although present fabrica-
tion techniques make possible a waveguide tolerance of ± 50
microinch, this error can be significant. The quoted limit of
error from this source may be actually too conservative, and
a future reduction may be possible if and when a more rigorous
mathematical analysis of this type of problem can be performed
The residual reflection coefficient magnitude caused
by dimensional deviations Aa and Ab in the a and b dimensions
respectively, is given by the formula,
Af = 2
A
c J
Aa
4a
Ab
(1 + o)(14)
where
a = the broad waveguide dimension,
b = the narrow waveguide dimension,
X = the guide wavelength,
A = the cutoff wavelength,
o = the measured VSWR of the item under test. (Not to be
confused with conductivity of the metal)
.
This formula considers only the change in characteristic
impedance of the waveguide. Also, the respective error terms
are derived while holding the other waveguide dimension constant
at the nominal dimension. The "a" dimension error term is
believed correct to 2 percent. The "b" dimension is correct
to 1 percent for VSWR's less than or equal to 1.1 and varies
to 101 for VSWR's of 2. Graphs of the respective errors for
WR15 waveguide are given in figure 10 and figure 11.
Another possible error is due to the fact that the inside
corners of the waveguide are filleted and not sharp.
19
The reflection from the junction of standard rectangular wave-
guide to filleted waveguide has been derived [8] and is given
by the expression,
'A RAT = 4 - TT
8abI a
j
where R is the radius of curvature of a filleted corner
and the other parameters are as given for the previous
equation
.
Machine drawings for fabricating brass and invar
precision waveguide sections are given in Appendix G.
(15)
3 . 2 Attenuation Error
3.2.1 Mismatch Errors
The error due to mismatch must be considered in making
attenuation measurements because the attenuator is not
always inserted in a perfectly matched system.
The attenuation difference of a variable or rotary-vane
attenuator is measured by moving the vane from a zero or
reference angular position to the desired vane angle or
attenuation. The mismatch error [9] is expressed for the
attenuation difference measurement by the equation,
e(dB) = 20 log1(
(i -(£) r.r ) (i - ^s^r,
)
fi - t^r.r ) ri - ( f)
i g
(16)
S22V
20
where the frontscripts (i) and (£) , refer to the initial and
final values, respectively, and V. is the input voltage reflec-
tion coefficient of the variable attenuator when the attenua-
tor is terminated with a load (receiver) of reflection
coefficient, I\ . r is the reflection coefficient of theL g
generator, and S~~ is the reflection coefficient at the output
port when the input port is terminated with a load|I\
|
=0.
For insertion loss measurement of a fixed attenuator
the mismatch error [6] is given by the equation,
Id - s r )(i - s r ) - s s r r|
e(dB) = 20 log1f1
±±-& ±L± iZ Z1 L g » (17)1 1 - r r
TI
1 g l 1
where S, , is the attenuator input reflection coefficient, and
S, „ and S^-, are the attenuator transmission coefficients.
Figure 12 can be used to quickly estimate the mismatch error
for fixed attenuators having attenuation of 20 dB or more.
A typical value of mismatch error is approximately 0.008 dB for
WR15 attenuators (fixed or variable) with a system VSWR of 1.02
at the insertion point. The magnitude of this error is
approximately 50 percent of the total systematic error for
attenuation measurements from zero to 30 dB, and approximately
20 percent for a 50 dB measurement (see also Appendix 3)
.
21
3. 3 System Measurement Errors -- Attenuation and/or
Reflection Coefficient Magnitude
3.3.1 Converter Linearity
A knowledge of the degree of linearity of the power
conversion of the mixer is essential in the i-f measurement
system. When using a diode mixer in heterodyne receivers,
nonlinearity is always present. This nonlinearity is a
function of the ratio of the local oscillator power to the
master oscillator power. Empirically, it has been shown in
the NBS WR15 waveguide system that a 27 dB ratio (i.e.,
the MO power 27 dB down from the LO power) will give a non-
linearity less than 0.003 dB over the measurement range of
0-50 dB when the LO power is set at 2-3 mW at the mixer.
The deviation from linearity is reduced when the signal power
in the mixer is decreased relative to the local oscillator
power. These results are in good agreement with the theory
[10] (see figure 13)
.
In practice, the degree of linearity is established by
measuring the same known attenuation step (e.g., 5 or 10 dB)
at various power levels over the required measurement range.
The difference between the measured value at the higher
level and the value of attenuation at low levels, AdB (decibel),
is the converter nonlinearity.
22
The relative error in reflection coefficient magnitude
due to nonlinearity is calculated from the formula,
I
Arl
= 0.115 AdB (18)
where AdB (decibel) is the deviation from linearity. The
error for an attenuation measurement is AdB.
3.3.2 System Instability
Instability errors caused by power or frequency fluctua-
tions are dependent on the particular generators, amplifier,
detectors, power supply, and frequency stabilizer used and
cannot be predicted in advance for a particular system. The
variation of the output signal from an average power level
can be held to less than ± 0.1 dB with a stable power
supply and water cooling of the rf source (klystron). Phase
locking the signal klystron to a stable source operating at a
lower frequency (fig. 3) can hold the i-f output level fluctua-
tions to approximately ± 0.005 dB for a 30-60 second interval.
The two-loop AFC used here accomplishes this stability with
only a water-cooled LO. When the two-loop AFC was applied to
the LO also, the stability was held to better than ± 0.002 dB
for a 1-2 minute interval. Frequency stability of this
system (WR15) is approximately 1-2 kHz short-term and 5-10 kHz
daily drift.
23
Instability errors are usually treated as random errors
of measurement, a value being assigned after several hundred
random measurements are made. When only a few measurement
data are available, the error is formulated from eq . (18).
Connect-disconnect instabilities and repeatabilities of
flanges , attenuators , and terminations are discussed in Section
5 . 1 and 5.2.
3.3.3 Leakage
3.3.3.1 RF Leakage
The effect of rf leakage becomes noticeable and increases
the measurement error when measuring an attenuation ratio of
35-40 dB or more. This applies to a typical system where no
special precaution has been made to control the leakage.
The maximum attenuation error can be computed from the
equation [11]
,
AdB = 20 log. (19)
where P„ and P, represent the signal power and leakage
power, respectively. The reflection coefficient error is
given by applying the results of eq. (19) to eq . (18).
In practice eq. (19) is not easily utilized, because
an accurate measure of the leakage power cannot be made, but
it can be applied to yield approximate error limits. A
suggested method is to use a RF receiver (e.g., the attenuation
24
LO receiver) with an incorporated dial readout attenuator
attached. This receiver is mobile enough to be placed near
possible sources of leakage and can give an indication of
the leakage signal. The receiver can be "calibrated" by the
usual attenuation measurement system.
The leakage can be eliminated or minimized by several
trial - and-error techniques. Placing the signal sources in
shielded containers will usually sufficiently reduce this leak-
age source. Waveguide joints can be wrapped with steel wool
or metal foil, and polytetrafluoroethylene-metal gaskets [12]
have been used at microwave frequencies. Also, if the system
is of a permanent nature, painting joints with a solution
containing a high silver content will eliminate the leakage.
Unfortunately, a major source of leakage may be the test item
(e.g., a rotary vane attenuator). In the case of some
commercial attenuators, the leakage power is down only 40 dB
from the incident power in the waveguide and it is rarely
down more than 60 dB. Fabrication techniques for NBS rotary-
vane attenuators using absorbing material have been devised
to reduce the leakage to more than 120 dB below the incident
power [13] . Leakage in an NBS fabricated WR15 rotary-vane
attenuator was shown to be at least 80 dB below the incident
power
.
25
3.3.3.2 Intermediate Frequency Leakage
I-f leakage is present around the standard attenuator,
i-f amplifier, converter, and the associated i-f coaxial cables.
The leakage from the standard attenuator can be contained
by proper fabrication techniques. The i-f amplifier should
be placed in a shielded container which has filtered power
input connectors. The coaxial cable connector leakage can be
reduced by wrapping the joint with lossy cloth and metal foil,
but the suggested procedure is to use a conductive silver paint
on threaded connectors and pack metal foil around the outer
walls of BNC type connectors.
A field strength meter and probe or alternately an
additional i-f receiver can be used to detect this type of
leakage .
If the i-f leakage cannot be controlled adequately (30-50 dB
range), a rf substitution in conduction with the i-f substi-
tution (similar to the method used for nonre fleeting termina-
tions (see Section 2.1.2)) will usually overcome the problem,
since the signal power will be much larger than the leakage
power. Although this method requires an additional calibration,
it may yield a more accurate attenuation measurement. The
technique is to remove approximately 20-25 dB of attenuation
from the attenuator which holds the MO-LO 30 dB ratio (for
power linearity) to an auxiliary attenuator. The unknown item
is then calibrated by using the attenuations of the rf and
i-f attenuators.
26
At least 20-25 dB (the amount removed previously) must be
measured by the rf attenuator. If the i-f leakage cannot be
reduced to a negligible amount, an estimate of its AdB
attenuation change can be treated as a systematic error as
in the case of rf leakage.
3.3.4 Signal- to-Noise Error
In the series i-f substitution system used at NBS , it has
been demonstrated experimentally that attenuation measurement
error due to noise is not significant. This is because the
principal noise present in the 30 MHz detection system origi-
nates from the i-f amplifier and not the mixer. Thus, since
the i-f amplifier receives a constant signal level from the
30 MHz attenuator, as is the case with the series i-f substi-
tution, no apparent signal-to-noise error arises. The latter
statement assumes a 50 dB range only. (There may be some
range greater than 50 dB where the mixer noise dominates).
An error due to noise that may be significant is that due
to loss of readout resolution (i.e., the true signal level is
not readily determined from the random variations caused by
noise) . This problem can usually be corrected by using a long
time-constant filter after the amplifier detector when measur-
ing over a dynamic range of 0-50 dB . Also, the resolution can
be improved by increasing the signal power and using the i-f
and rf substitution technique described previously.
27
The measurement error from random variations due to a
small signal-to-noise ratio is the observed readout variation
in decibels for attenuation measurements, and the associated
reflection coefficient error is given by eq. (18).
4. Standards
4 . 1 Reflection Coefficient Magnitude Standards
The standard of reflection coefficient used for impedance
measurements at NBS is the quarter-wavelength short-circuited
waveguide, more commonly called the quarter-wave short
circuit (fig. 14) .
The main advantages of this type of standard are: 1) the
reflection coefficient magnitude can be calculated from
derived formulas given in references [14], [15] if conductivity
or attenuation measurements [16], [17] of the waveguide are
available. Relatively crude measurements of conductivity
will suffice to obtain the reflection coefficient to excellent
accuracy (fig. 15). For example, a 20 percent error in the
conductivity measurement will result in only a 0.015 percent
error in the standard; 2) the axial component of current
vanishes a quarter-wavelength from the shorting plate (fig. 16)
which makes the dissipative loss in the waveguide joint neglig-
ible; and 3) small dimensional variations in the waveguide cross
section have a negligible effect on the reflection coeffi-
cient. An increase in height of 0.001 inch causes 0.0008
28
percent change in reflection coefficient (fig. 17) at
62.5 GHz; an increase in width of 0.001 inch causes approxi-
mately a 0.001 percent change at the same frequency (fig. 18).
NBS short circuits are fabricated from electroformed silver
or copper to a tolerance of ± 0.0002 inch for the narrow and
wide waveguide dimensions.
The critical dimension of a short circuit is the length
(ideally a quarter wavelength) . The length of the short
circuit must be accurately dimensioned in the fabrication
process in order to achieve the vanishing of the axial compo-
nent of current at the connector surface. If the electrical
length is different from that at the design frequency, current
will flow across the discontinuity and result in a loss of
power, so that the reflection coefficient will be less than
the calculated value
.
The proper length of the short circuit corrected for
the change in phase factor due to guide attenuation [18] is
given by the equations
,
A aI =
(1 + a /3) 4 3ep (20)
and
where
:
b(A/Uep [2(b/a)(A/A
c) + e
r ]
(21)
a = the measured waveguide attenuation constant,m & '
29
and
2tt3 = t— = the wave phase factor,
g
A = the guide wavelength,
A = cutoff wavelength,
A = free space wavelength,
b = narrow inside dimension of waveguide,
a = broad inside dimension of waveguide,
e = relative dielectric constant of the laboratory
environment
.
The reflection coefficient magnitude (|r |) is given
by the equation,
r = 1 - 2a(i + I )s
'
^ ep y (22)
The attenuation constant is obtained by comparing the
change in attenuation between a quarter-wave short circuit
and a five-quarter-wave short circuit which is designed to
operate at mid-frequency (mid-frequency is not essential) of
the particular waveguide band. The attenuation at other
frequencies in the particular waveguide size is given by the
equation
,
a = a
1 1 3/2 r
f
f.
er
+ 2(b/a)(A/Ac )
2 1
e + 2(b/a) (A /A )2
r y'
J y w cnr ;
U )2
»> gm
(23)
where the m-subscripted parameters correspond to the parameter
wavelength values at the mid-frequency f .
The reflection coefficient magnitude measurement error
due to the quarter-wave short circuit is directly related to
the error of the standard. In other words,
30
dr arJ
' ' s '
rI I
rIii i s i
The fractional error in the reflection coefficient of the
NBS quarter-wave short circuits is estimated to be less than
± 0.03 percent
.
Machine drawings for fabricating quarter-wave short
circuits are given in Appendix H.
The previous discussion on quarter-wave shorts does not
mean to imply that other reflection coefficient standards
could not be fabricated in WR15 waveguide. Examples of several
possibilities are half-round inductive obstacles [18, 19],
waveguide irises, inductive and capacitive posts [20, 21] and
waveguide holes [22].
4 . 2 Standard Attenuator
The IF substitution method has been used at NBS for com-
parison of attenuation difference and insertion loss in wave-
guide sizes WR2 8 to WR4 30 for many years. This method employs
a waveguide below- cutoff (WBCO) attenuator operating at the
selected frequency of 30 MHz. The WBCO is a continuously
variable attenuation standard whose incremental attenuation
may be closely predicted from a knowledge of its waveguide
dimensions [23]. If the waveguide section is uniform, nearly
lossless, and excited sinusoidally in only one mode, the field
decays exponentially along the waveguide in a predictable manner
31
Thus , a probe or pickup coil which is moved a known distance
(with respect to an excitation coil) along the waveguide axis
causes a calculable change in insertion loss. If certain
constraints are applied regarding frequency of operation,
resistivity of the waveguide, and the waveguide dimensions,
the attenuator will constitute a nearly ideal standard.
Grantham and Freeman have published detailed theoretical
factors affecting the design of the WBCO attenuator and its
use as a standard attenuator [24]. The NBS Monograph 97 [6]
treats the WBCO for general considerations, dimensional
tolerances and accuracy of measurement of displacement, skin
depth corrections, loading effects, and mode purity.
The errors in the NBS WBCO attenuator is estimated to
be within 0.002 dB + 0.002 dB/20 dB. The error in reflection
coefficient magnitude is given by application of eq . (18).
The machine drawings required to reproduce the NBS model
VII WBCO standard attenuator are included in Appendix I.
Figure 19 is a photo of an NBS WBCO attenuator.
4 . 3 Interlaboratory Standards
4.3.1 Reflection Coefficient
The most frequently encountered type of interlaboratory
standard (fig. 20) uses a change in height of the narrow wave-
guide dimension to achieve a calculable reflection coefficient.
The ratio of waveguide heights is closely equal to the VSWR for
32
ratios less than 1.5. The frequency characteristic of this
type of device is dependent on the capacitive effect of the
waveguide discontinuity, but it is of second order. Formulas
are available [20] for the capacitive correction terms. Thus,
this type of standard has the desirable qualities of being
more broadband than most types and having a calculable
reflection coefficient. This type of device usually incor-
porates a low-reflection sliding load to terminate the
structure
.
Caution should be observed when selecting interlaboratory
standards for measurement purposes. Two of the main sources
of trouble in a poor quality standard are nonflatness of the
connector (flange) surface (see fig. 4) and mechanical and
electrical instability of the sliding load incorporated in
the reflector.
A connector (flange) surface which has protrusions, bent
surfaces or separated seams (where the device is fabricated
from 2-4 separate pieces) does not mate properly so that there
is excessive joint loss and leakage which will change with
use of the standard, thereby changing the measured value.
Another disadvantage of joint loss is the increased leakage
signal which can effect the measurement accuracy. Also, pro-
trusions on the connector (flange) surface can damage the fine
surface finish of a precision waveguide section which will
degrade the accuracy of the measurement system.
33
The electrical instability of the sliding load is the
most common flaw in an otherwise good standard. It is
possible to overcome this fault by improving the mechanical
fit between the shaft and the shaft hole, or by providing a
better sliding fit between the load supporting mechanism and
the waveguide. The recommended procedure is to mount a
pyramidal taper on a block which has teflon guides that provide
a close fit with the waveguide walls. Both the taper and the
block should be made from an rf absorbing material. If
properly constructed, the electrical instability is virtually
eliminated
.
Other qualities to be considered in selection of a
standard are: 1) accessibility to the reverse side of the
connector (flange) surface to provide fast connect/disconnect,
and 2) sturdy construction to eliminate flexing of the flange
and associated waveguide.
Cautions to be observed before and after calibration
are: 1) Inspect for flat front and reverse connector (flange)
surfaces. This includes removal of paint and uneveness on
the reverse side which can cause different pressures to be
applied to the mating surface, 2) inspect interior waveguide
walls for freedom from dust and lint, and 3) inspect connector
surfaces for freedom from grease and corrosion.
34
4.3.2 Attenuation
There are two basic types of rf attenuation inter-
laboratory standards, the fixed attenuator [25] for insertion
loss and the variable attenuator for attenuation difference.
There are two designs of variable attenuators that are
suitable for calibration. One type has a resistive vane which
moves into the waveguide field from a side wall. The other
type is the rotary-vane attenuator. Both types of attenuators
have good resolution at low values of attenuation, but the
rotary-vane attenuator has superior resolution at high values
as compared to the first type. The rotary-vane attenuator is
less frequency-sensitive and has less incremental phase
change than the other type
.
The rotary-vane attenuator which basically consists of
a dissipative vane rotated in a circular waveguide is the
preferred variable attenuation interlaboratory standard. It
has the property that the "ideal" attenuation can be calculated
by the expression
A = -40 log cos 6 + c (25)
where 6 is the angle between the rotating vane and the polari-
zation of the circular TE, , mode, and c is the residual
attenuation when 0=0.
Equation (25) is ideal because fabrication imperfections
can cause deviations in actual attenuation for a known vane
angle 6. Among the factors causing these deviations are
35
mismatch, misalignment of the rotating vane, insufficient
attenuation of the vane, imperfections in the gear drive
mechanisms, readout parallax, and a warped vane. Vane align-
ment techniques have been developed to reduce the errors from
stator and rotating vane misalignment [26, 27, 28]. Likewise,
fabrication techniques have also been improved so that the
mechanical and physical imperfections are minimized [13].
Two main types of single-value attenuators are the fixed
pad and the single-step attenuator. The disadvantage of the
fixed pad is that it must be inserted and removed during a
calibration, thus requiring good system stability and a
repeatable connect-disconnect system assembly (see Section 5.2
for measurement results).
The step attenuator can remain in the system during its
operation and thus overcomes the disadvantage of the fixed
pad if its mechanical characteristics are stable and repeatable.
The step attenuators usually consist of a movable resistive
vane located between the two sets of coupling holes of an
in-line directional coupler. When the vane is located in the
center of the waveguide, energy is transmitted through the
device via the coupling path, thus being attenuated in
proportion to the design coupling factor. When the vane is
located in the minimum electric field (against the wall) only
a small residual attenuation results. Thus, with this device
a fixed attenuation step can be measured without insertion
and removal of the device. Other advantages of this device
36
are low VSWR and minor frequency sensitivity.
Precision calibrated attenuators used as interlaboratory
standards require careful handling and should meet the
following criteria to give satisfactory results. They should:
1) be electrically stable over several years time,
2) be mechanically rugged so that the electrical character-
istics do not change through handling,
3) be electrically stable under environmental changes
such as temperature, humidity, etc.,
4) be electrically stable for reasonable overloads (power)
,
5) have a VSWR of less than 1.2 (the nearer to 1.00, the
better)
,
6) have input and output waveguide ports that are axially
in line,
7) have a small to negligible leakage power, and
8) have excellent flanges or connector surfaces.
A more complete discussion of the above is found in reference
[6].
5. Measurement Results
5 . 1 Reflection Coefficient Magnitude
Measurements were performed on two WR15 waveguide reflec-
tors which were manufactured at the NBS . The reflection coeffi
cient magnitudes were approximately 0.1 and 0.024. The devices
37
were measured each day for 10 days in order to obtain pre-
liminary information on the standard deviations of individual
runs (flange repeatability) and of day to day measurements
(system random error)
.
The 0.024 device was made with a standard UG-385/U flange
and the 0.1 device was made with a flat (non-bossed) mating sur-
face. The waveguide precision section to which the devices
were joined is a flat surface. Alignment pins were used on
both flanges.
The results show that the device with the flat flange
is more stable and repeatable. For the 0.1 device (flat
flange) the standard deviation within runs (based on 4
individual determinations per run) was 0.02 percent of the
reflection coefficient magnitude, and the standard deviation
between daily averages was 0.015 percent giving a quadrature
sum of 0.025 percent.
The 0.024 device exhibited some instability, and a plot
of the results displays a "learning curve" (the standard
deviation values decreased by an order of magnitude from start
to finish) so that a components of variance analysis is not
possible at present. Since the standard deviation of the daily
averages for the 0.1 device is small (which implies that the
measurement system is stable) , the conclusion is that the
UG-385/U flange is the contributing factor to the reflector
instability and is indeed inferior in respect to measurement
repeatability
.
38
Additional measurements on the 0.024 device which
consisted of tightening the flange bolts by proceeding in either
a clockwise or counter clockwise direction around the flange
by one operator reduced the standard deviation from 0.8 percent
to 0.07 percent. However, when operators were changed,
different values of reflection coefficient were obtained.
At present, measurements using this type of flange are
unstable, and until further research on flange repeatability
and the development of procedures to torque the flange bolts,
no definite limits of the repeatability of reflection coeffi-
cient measurements using the UG-385/U flange can be reached.
5 . 2 Attenuation
The measurement of attenuation difference with a rotary-
vane attenuator involves angular rotation of the center vane
by a dial mechanism being set on several prescribed marks.
The repeatability of such a measurement of attenuation in-
volves these factors: (1) ability of the rotor vane to
repeat the same angular displacement for a given dial setting,
(2) the ability of the operator to set and read the same mark,
and 3) system stability. Thus, the lack of repeatability
introduces a random error in the process of several measurements
,
(A precise high resolution WR15 rotary-vane attenuator with
a repeatability of .011 dB at a dial setting of 50 dB has
been designed and constructed at the NBS.
)
39
The procedure for an insertion loss measurement requires
that the waveguide assembly be opened to accept the device-
under-test. In both the closed and receptive position, the
waveguide holes must be maintained in exact axial alignment
to make precision measurements. The connect-disconnect and
bolting of the flanges should be done with great care,
especially in WR15 and smaller waveguide sizes. Laboratory
benches are commercially available for holding waveguide assem-
blies in a stable and rigid position. The present NBS developed
millimeter measurement system- (fig. 21) for attenuation and
impedance uses a commercial laboratory bench with moderate
modifications. The attenuation calibration system is arranged
in such a manner that fixed pads, inline multi-hole attenuators,
directional couplers , and variable attenuators all can be
inserted into the system with minimum effort.
At this time the estimate of the attenuation measurement
system random error limits have not been completed, but some
typical measurement results are presented in the following
paragraphs
.
Several commercially available waveguide devices were
measured as fixed interlaboratory standards for insertion
loss in WR15 waveguide measurement system at 62 and 64 GHz.
One device, a directional coupler terminated with a
matched load at one output port, was used as an inline fixed
attenuator with a nominal value of 1 dB. The directional
40
coupler was measured in the condition that it was received
in the laboratory, that is, with a slight bend in the flange
of one port. The estimated value of 3S (three times the
calculated standard deviation of the mean) for six determina-
tions taken in this circumstance was 0.129 dB . After the
flange of the damaged port was realigned by machining, the
calculated values of 3S for five determinations was 0.009 dB.
Thus, the above measurements of insertion loss illustrate
that excellent alignment of the output flanges is a must for
precision measurements in millimeter waveguide.
Two fixed attenuators in WR15 waveguide measured
at 62 and 64 GHz were of nominal values of 10 and 20 dB. The
calculated values of 3S for five determinations of the 10 dB
attenuator at 62 GHz and of a 20 dB attenuator at 64 GHz was
0.023 dB and 0.012 dB , respectively. The measurement precision
was better with the 20 dB attenuator due to better flange
alignment
.
The insertion loss or attenuation of a twenty-eight inch
section of commercial silver WR15 waveguide was measured at
64 GHz. The value of 3S for five determinations was 0.012 dB.
The nominal value of attenuation of the twenty-eight inch
section was 1.5 dB , or about 0.05 dB/inch.
41
The authors extend their appreciation to R.W. Beatty for
his helpful suggestions regarding this paper and to G.C. Counas
and R.D. Hunter for their help in the system instrumentation
and measurements.
42
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50
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51
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52
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5
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CONDUCTIVITY
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Figure 15. Graph for estimating the change in reflectioncoefficient of a quarterwave short circuitversus conductivity confidence interval (therelative error substracted from unity)
.
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63
APPENDIX A
To illustrate the statement in section 2.1.2 that the
average reflection coefficient magnitude Irl is associated& 6ii ave
with that element which has the largest reflection, consider
the following lossless case (for definitions of losslessness
see [29], p. 48) of a termination with a fixed discontinuity
r„ and a sliding load r. .
It can be shown [30, 31] that
IrD l
+l
rL
max1 + IVl
and
mml - r r
1 D L
or
mm1 - r r1
I D L
>Ir,
> r,
where Irl and Irl . correspond to the measured maximum1
' max '' mm r
and minimum reflection coefficients. Then, the average
reflection coefficient magnitude
r = —I I r I + ir,
1 ave i 'max Hi mi
or
(1 rLn
l -Ir r 1
21
! D L 1
r > rD 1 I L
64
t 1 - l
r pl2
)
1 - IVJ 2
r > r
is in either case a first order approximation to the largest
reflection coefficient.
65
/
APPENDIX B
Estimated Systematic Error Limits for WR15 Attenuation Measurements
The following estimated error limits are based on toler-ances for the NBS WR15 components and systems.
Converter (Mixer) Error ±0.003
xt . . f40 dBI measured ±0.004Noise up to J I
\cn j-dJ attenuation ±0.020 dB
30 MHz Standard AttenuatorLoading effects ±0.001 dBMode purity ±0.001 dBDimensional Tolerance ±0.002 dB/20 dB
Mismatch Error vs. Attenuator VSWR
(System VSWR at insertion point = 1.02)
Attenuator VSWR Mismatch Error (dB)
1.05 ±0.0051.10 ±0.0081.15 ±0.0131.20 ±0.017
Total Systematic Error (dB)Attenuator VSWR
ial Setting(dB) 1 05 1 .10 1 15 1 20
10 ±0 .012 ±0 .015 ±0 .020 ±0 02420 ±0 012 ±0 .015 ±0 .020 ±0 .02430 ±0 .014 ±0 .017 ±0 022 ±0 .02640 ±0 .018 ±0 .021 ±0 .026 ±0 .03050 ±0 .036 ±0 .039 ±0 .044 ±0 048
APPENDIX C
Estimated Systematic Error Limits (AT) for
WR15 Reflection Coefficient Magnitude (|r|) Measurements
The following estimated error limits are based ontolerances for the NBS WR15 components and systems.
> 0.025
Tuning Error
Directivity
2i
Converter Error
30 MHz Standard Attenuator
Reflection CoefficientMagnitude Standard
Precision Section
Total Error
Reported Estimated Error
±0.00015 (1 + |r|
)
±0.00012 (i + | r]
)
±0.00035 |r|
±0.00046 |r|
±0.0003 |r|
±0.0006
±0 .00087 + .00138 | r|
AT = ±(1 + i.5|r| )x 10-3
I T| < 0.025
Converter Error
30 MHz Standard Attenuator
Total Error
Reported Estimated Error
±0.00105 |r|
±0.00138 |r|
±0.00087 + 0.0030 | r|
AT = ±(1 + 3|T| ) x 10
67
APPENDIX D
Machine drawings for 11 stub tuner
for 55-65 GHz, WR15.
Figures 22(a), 22(b), 22(c).
Certain commercial equipment and materials are identified
in this paper in order to adequately specify the experimental
procedure. In no case does such identification imply
recommendation or endorsement by the National Bureau of
Standards , nor does it imply that the material or equipment
identified is necessarily the best available for the purpose.
68
List of parts* stock i rems
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71
APPENDIX E
Machine drawing for sliding load
for WR15 waveguide.
Figure 23
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APPENDIX H
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References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
R.W. Beatty, Microwave impedance measurements and standards,
NBS (U.S.) Monogr. 82, 32 pages (August 1965).
W.J. Anson, A guide to the use of the modified reflecto-
meter technique of VSWR measurement, J. of Res. Eng. and
Instr., Vol. 65C, No. 4, pp. 217-222, Oct. -Dec. 1961.
W.E. Little and D.A. Ellerbruch, Precise reflection
coefficient measurements with the untuned reflectometer
,
J. Res. NBS, (U.S.) Vol. 70 C, (Eng. and Instr.) 165-168
(July-Sept. 1966).
R. W. Beatty, and W. J. Anson, Table of magnitude of
[5]
[6
[7]
[8]
reflection coefficient versus return loss LR
= 20 log,.,
—
NBS Tech. Note 72, Sept. 19, 1960.
M. Sucher and J. Fox (editors), Handbook of Microwave
Measurements, Vol. I, pp. 103-105 (Polytechnic Press of the
Polytechnic Institute of Brooklyn, 1963).
R. W. Beatty, Microwave attenuation measurements and stan-
dards, NBS (U.S.) Monogr. 97, 48 pages (April 3, 1967).
M.H. Zanboorie, A semi-automatic technique for tuning a
reflectometer , IEEE Trans, on Microwave Theory and Techniques
(correspondence), Vol. MTT-13, pp. 709-710, Sept. 1965.
D.M. Kerns and W.T. Grandy, Jr., Perturbation theorems
for waveguide junctions, with applications, IEEE Trans, on
Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-14, pp. 85-92,
Feb. 1966.
97
[9] R.W. Beatty, Mismatch errors in the measurement of ultra-high
frequency and microwave variable attenuators, J. of Res.,
NBS, Vol. 52, No. 1, pp. 7-9, Jan. 1954.
[10] D. Russel and W. Larson, RF Attenuation, Proc. of IEEE,
Vol. 55, No. 6, pp. 942-959, June 1967.
[11] C.G. Montgomery (editor), Technique of Microwave Measure-
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Co., Inc., New York, N.Y., 1947).
[12] M.B. Hall, N.T. Larsen, and W.E. Little, Combination rf
radiation and fluid pressure seal, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 54,
No. 11, pp. 1585-1586, Nov. 1966.
[13] W.E. Little, W. Larson, and B.J. Kinder, Rotary-vane
attenuator with an optical readout, J. of Res. NBS (U.S.),
Vol. 75C, (Eng. and Instr.) No. 1, 1-5, (Jan. -March 1971).
[14] R.W. Beatty and D.M. Kerns, Recently developed microwave
impedance standards and methods of measurement, IRE Trans,
on Instr., Vol. 1-7, pp. 319-321, Dec. 1958.
[15] R.W. Beatty and B.C. Yates, A graph of return loss versus
frequency for quarter-wavelength short-circuited waveguide
impedance standards, IEEE Trans, on Microwave Theory and Tech
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[16] T.Y. Otoshi, C.T. Stelzried, B.C. Yates, and R.W. Beatty,
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MTT-18 No. 7, pp. 406-409, July 1970.
98
[17] R. W. Beatty, A two-channel nulling method for measuring
attenuation constants of short sections of waveguide
and the losses in waveguide joints, Proc. IEEE, Vol. 53,
No. 6, pp. 642-643, June 1965.
[18] B.C. Yates and W.E. Little, Complex reflection coefficient
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[19] D.M. Kerns, Half-round inductive obstacles in rectangular
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[25] W. Larson, Inline waveguide attenuator (correspondence),
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99
[26] W. Larson, Analysis of rotation errors of a waveguide
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Lines, to be published by NBS.
100
FORM NBS-114A (1-71)
U.S. DEPT. OF COMM.BIBLIOGRAPHIC DATA
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1. PUBLICATION OR REPORT NO.
Technical Note 619
2. Gov't AccessionNo.
3. Recipient's Accession No.
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE
Millimeter Attenuation and Reflection Coefficient
Measurement System
5. Publication Date
July 19726. Performing Organization Code
7. AUTHOR(S)
B. C. Yates and W. Larson8. Performing Organization
10. Project/Task/Work Unit No.
27242039. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME AND ADDRESS
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16. ABSTRACT (A 200-word or less factual summary of most significant information. If document includes a significantbibliography or literature survey, mention it here.)
This paper presents the details to implement a WR 15 attenuation andreflection coefficient magnitude measurement system. A discussion of
precision and of systematic error is given along with equations for estimatinglimits of the error. Machine drawings are provided to fabricate the waveguidestandards and necessary hardware not commercially available.
17. KEY WORDS (Alphabetical order, separated by semicolons)
Attenuation; Measurement system; Millimeter; Reflection coefficient, VSWR.
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