Miller Creek Demonstration Forest—a forest born of fire: a ...Welcome to Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in the Northern Rocky Mountains. The Demonstration Forest is part of the

United StatesDepartmentof Agriculture

Forest Service

Rocky MountainResearch Station

General TechnicalReport RMRS-GTR-7

May 1998

A Forest Born of FireA Field GuidePenelope A. LathamRaymond C. ShearerKevin L. O’Hara

Miller CreekDemonstration Forest

In cooperation with

The AuthorsPenelope A. Latham, at the outset of this report, Research Specialist, Schoolof Forestry, University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812. Now, ResearchEcologist, Oregon State University Research and Experiment Station, 569Hanley Road, Medford, OR 97502.

Raymond C. Shearer, Research Silviculturist, Intermountain ResearchStation, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Missoula, MT 59801.

Kevin L. O’Hara, Associate Professor of Silviculture, School of Forestry,University of Montana, Missoula, MT 59812.

Acknowledgments and CooperatorsThis project is the result of a cooperative research agreement (No.

INT-94944-RJVA) between the University of Montana, School of Forestry,Missoula, the USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountain Research Station,Missoula, and the Flathead National Forest, Kalispell, MT. It would not havebeen possible without the dedication and commitment of Peter Stickney of theRocky Mountain Research Station who contributed the results of long-termunderstory vegetation studies at Miller Creek. We also appreciate the person-nel at the Flathead National Forest Supervisor’s Office and Tally Lake RangerDistrict, and the graphic assistance of Marcia Laritz of Media Works inBozeman, MT. The principal author considers the hours spent becomingfamiliar with the Demonstration Forest to be a privilege and a valuable educa-tional opportunity.

ContentsPage

Miller Creek’s Ever Changing Forests.............................................................. 1History of the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest ............................................ 3How to Tour the Forest .................................................................................... 3Research at Miller Creek.................................................................................. 4How the Forest Develops ................................................................................. 7Tours of the Demonstration Areas ................................................................... 8Prescribed Fire Tour ........................................................................................ 8

South-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ....................................................... 8West-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ........................................................ 9East-2: Clearcut and Slashed, Unburned ................................................... 10East-3: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned ....................................................... 10

Wildfire Tours ................................................................................................. 11South-8: Clearcut and Slashed, Broadcast Burned, Later

Reburned by Wildfire ............................................................................... 11South-13: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire .................................................... 12South-14: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, Salvage Logged,

Windrowed and Burned, and Helicopter Seeded .................................... 13West-4: Clearcut and Slashed, Prescribed Burned .................................... 13West-5: Old Forest, Burned by Wildfire, Salvage Logged .......................... 14West-6: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire ....................................................... 15West-7: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned by Wildfire .................................... 15

The Future at Miller Creek ............................................................................. 16Glossary ......................................................................................................... 17Background Reading ..................................................................................... 18

Cover photographs: Visitors attending a field workshop in 1987 receive information from Ray Shearer atthe top of unit South-8 before they walk the Wildfire Trail, Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

In the evening of August 7, 1968, a prescribed fire on clearcut East-3 reduced the amount of slash, litter,and duff and enhanced quick establishment of a new forest by natural regeneration.

We want to hear from you!Please send us your:

• Comments on results of past and current research at Miller Creek• Comments on management of this Demonstration Forest

Interested in a group tour? Interested in having the traveling display come to your school?Let us know.

Tally Lake Ranger DistrictFlathead National ForestUSDA Forest Service1335 Highway 93 WestWhitefish, MT 59937406-862-2508

Miller Creek Demonstration ForestA Forest Born of Fire

A Field Guide

Principles of Ecosystem Management Emerge FromResearch and Adaptive Forestry

Rocky Mountain Research Station324 25th Street

Ogden, UT 84401

1USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Miller Creek’s Ever Changing Forests ________

Welcome to Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in theNorthern Rocky Mountains. The Demonstration Forest ispart of the Flathead National Forest in Montana. MillerCreek tells a story about forest change and the roleof disturbance, primarily fire, in that change. TheNorthern Rockies contain “fire-dependent forests,” meaningthat most of the plant communities here require firefor their continued existence on the landscape. Severaldecades of forest practices and fire suppression havechanged naturally occurring processes of fire disturbance,thereby altering the structure and composition of many ofthese forests.

Western larch, a key feature of Miller Creek forests, is afire-dependent species. Larch, as with many other speciesin the Northern Rocky Mountains, have specific character-istics that allow them to survive and regenerate followingfire. Mean fire-free intervals in western larch forests rangefrom 24 to 130 years—a relatively short time in the life of a300–700 year old larch tree.

Miller Creek Demonstration ForestA Forest Born of FireA Field Guide

In the mountainous terrain at Miller Creek, fire’s variableeffect has created forests now in many stages of develop-ment. The diverse plant communities and stand structuresthat result create habitat for many species from rare plantssuch as the tiny moonwort to large mammals such asmoose. The long-term consequences of natural distur-bances tend to enhance biological diversity.

2 USDA Forest Service Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7. 1998

Humans also played a role in structuring theforest. Scientists believe that early Native Americans hada major impact on North American ecosystems by repeat-edly burning the vegetation. These fires, generally set attimes other than naturally caused lightening fires, hadvarying effects on vegetation, contributing to the mosaicof plant communities and classes of development.

In recent years, trees recolonized sites too slowly follow-ing the use of prescribed fire. Forest managers wanted toknow why. Research at Miller Creek explains the relation-ship between fire and regrowth in western larch forestsand creates an understanding of how management prac-tices such as clearcutting and prescribed burning mimicnatural processes of disturbance.

The photographs in our mini-poster show forest develop-ment that began after a wildfire in Miller Creek on August23, 1967, in virgin forest on a south-facing slope. They showan abundantly regenerating forest. Other forest stands atMiller Creek have different vegetation structures, thus cre-ating a mosaic of diverse ecosystems. These forests of con-trasting structures and disturbance patterns function dif-ferently and are suitable for meeting a range of ecologicaland management objectives. While forest communitiesand structures continue to change, management thatis tied to ecosystem integrity may help to retain

disturbance processes such as fire that historicallystructured these landscapes. Continued research andresults of adaptive management practices enable forestmanagers to understand the effect of treatments onthe land.

Native American fires, andthis prescribed fire onSeptember 5, 1968, on awest-facing slope (West-4),usually produced lowerintensity fires.


History of the Miller Creek DemonstrationForest ____________________________________

Research began at the 5,000 acre Miller Creek area in1966 to study the effect of prescribed fire and silviculturaltreatments on regeneration. In 1989, the Flathead NationalForest set this area aside as a Demonstration Forest to pro-tect the study area and to encourage continuing researchand education.

Past research at Miller Creek measured how prescribedfire, conducted over a range of fuel and site conditions, af-fected air quality, vegetation development, conifer regen-eration, water quality, erosion, and small animal popula-tions. Current research focuses on how conditionsexisting during stand initiation combined to affect forestprocesses (such as germination, seed dispersal, and compe-tition) and subsequently, to produce different forest struc-tures (different physical sizes and distribution of trees).Forest structures are important because they affect under-story plant and animal habitat, biological diversity, andproductivity. Future research will be concerned with ex-tending studies of stand level (a large group of similartrees) to the even larger scales required for ecosystemmanagement—the management of many differentkinds of stands over large landscapes that also en-compass rivers and lakes and mountains and valleysand all the plants and animals inhabiting the area.

How to Tour the Forest ____________________

Your best tour of Miller Creek Demonstration Foreststarts with a study of our map. This map contains keys tostudy sites for easy reference and gives the approximatemileage between stops. Once you are in your vehicle andinto the forest, you will find self-guiding trails with inter-pretive signs that explain points of interest. Keep this bookhandy for site-specific information. After the self-guidedfield tours, the amphitheater in South-13 or CouncilRock in East-3 are ideal places to have lunch and dis-cuss what you’ve seen or just enjoy the view. Grouptours can also be arranged with the Tally Lake Ranger Dis-trict (see inside front cover).

Forest Service guide Peter Stickney discusses changes in standdevelopment at the amphitheater within the wildfire-burned South-13 .


Providing public information is an important part ofMiller Creek Demonstration Forest. A traveling displayshows the intimate relationship between initial site condi-tions, disturbance, and forest development. A glossary atthe end of this booklet explains forestry terms that maybe unfamiliar.

Research at Miller Creek ___________________

Before the 1960’s, prescribed fire was used in the WesternUnited States to reduce fire hazard after forest stands wereharvested. But managers did not have enough informationabout the effect of fire on vegetation to predict effects ontree regeneration and response of other plant life. Although

scientists knew that western larch, a valuable timber spe-cies in the Northern Rocky Mountains, was associated withnaturally occurring fire, adequate natural regeneration wasdifficult to obtain. Western larch was assigned the highestresearch priority.

Western larch is a key component of Miller Creekforests and an important resource for both humansand wildlife. It occurs naturally only within a relativelysmall area from southern interior British Columbia southinto western Montana west of the Continental Divide, andin central Idaho and west through northern and centralIdaho to the crest of the Cascades (see range map). Thisbeautiful tree is well known for the quality of its wood,aesthetic appeal, and importance to wildlife. Research atMiller Creek shows that “fire is the most dramatic ecologi-cal force in western larch forests.”

The 11 study sites on the tours show different com-binations of silvicultural and fire treatments. Theoriginal research plan was to study the effect of clear-cutting and prescribed fire. However, before all the treat-ments were completed, a wildfire on August 23, 1967, cre-ated a great natural experiment. Some of the units burnedin the wildfire had been cut but not broadcast burned, oth-ers had been cut and burned, while still others had not yetbeen clearcut. Now scientists could compare the effects ofwildfire on tree regeneration and subsequent vegetationdevelopment to those of prescribed fire.

This free-standingdisplay describes theeffect of disturbancetreatments on stand

development as aresult of research at

Miller Creek.Developed by the

University ofMontana’s School of

Forestry and theRocky Mountain

Research Station inMissoula, MT, this

display is available foruse by community

and governmentgroups (see inside

front cover).


discusses only those studies pertaining to treeregeneration, changes in stand structure, andthe development of understory vegetation fol-lowing disturbance. Regeneration and under-story development studies continued for 30years, and the stand structure and vegetationsuccession research will continue indefinitely.

All 60 of the original study sites are in a 200to 250 year old forest, on similar sites withsimilar fuels, and were equally distributed onnorth-, south-, east-, and west-facing slopes.The selected 10 acre study sites were sched-uled for clearcutting and broadcast burningunder different conditions in 1967 and 1968.

Scientists counted new seedlings in smalltemporary plots systematically placedthroughout burned study areas. They mea-sured the heights of the tallest seedlings ofeach species, and later measured the stem di-ameters when the trees were large enough.These researchers also collected data relatedto fire intensity and the effectiveness of thetreatments in preparing the site for tree re-generation. Tally Lake Ranger Districtcrews—sometimes with students from nearbytowns—planted western larch, Douglas-fir,

Range map of western larch.

Research simultaneously began in many disciplines to study theeffects of the treatments. For example, scientists studied changesin small mammal populations and smoke dispersal. This book


and Englemann spruce on 13 clearcuts (three of the dem-onstration areas) to compare height growth of planted ver-sus naturally regenerating conifers. Fifty seedlings of eachspecies were planted in May of four consecutive years,1970 through 1973.

Researchers measured the vegetation development on fiveof the demonstration areas along two adjoining transects,which were subdivided into blocks of different sizes. Heightof trees, shrubs, and herbs within each block was recorded.

No treatment other than the initial harvest-fire treatmentwas allowed on these transects.

In 1990, the researchers established permanent plots tostudy stand development and its effect on species composi-tion and abundance of the understory plant community.These plots are on five of the demonstration areas (seetable). The plots were thinned to six trees per plot, keepingthe best trees of each species. Shrubs were removed on halfof the plots (weeding) in a 20 foot radius around the plot

Descriptive information and permanent study plots located on selected units, by tour, Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.

Permanent plotsPhase of subalpine Treatments Kind of Stand

Tour/unit fir/beadlily Harvest Fire regeneration Soil water Succession development

Prescribed Fire TourEast-2 Fool’s huckleberry Clearcut, slash None Advance, natural No Yes Yes

East-3 Fool’s huckleberry Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural, planted No Yes No

South-1 Beargrass Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural Yes Yes Yes

West-1 Beadlily Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn Natural, planted No No No

Wildfire TourSouth-8 Beargrass Clearcut, slash Prescribed burn, Natural Yes No No

wildfire

South-13 Beargrass Uncut Wildfire Natural No Yes Yes

South-14 Beargrass Uncut, salvage, Wildfire, burn Natural, aerial No No Nowindrow windrows seeding

West-4 Beargrass Clearcut, Slash Prescribed burn Natural Yes No No

West-5 Beargrass Uncut, salvage Wildfire Natural No No No

West-6 Beargrass Uncut Wildfire Natural No Yes Yes

West-7 Beargrass Clearcut, Slash Wildfire Natural, planted No No Yes


center; weeding will continue at each 5 year measurement.An unthinned 1 acre plot was established within each studysite to compare differences between vegetation developmenton thinned and unthinned plots. Researchers monitor co-nifer regeneration, development of shrubs and herbs,growth of natural and planted trees, and soil moisture.

How the Forest Develops __________________

After disturbance—such as fire or harvesting—forests gothrough a series of changes. Early ecologists thought thatone or a few species became established on a newly dis-turbed area and then dominated that site until conditionswere sufficiently changed by their presence so they could nolonger reproduce. These “pioneer” species were then re-placed by other species until a self-sustaining “climax”plant community developed. Disturbance was regarded asan event that interrupts this orderly progression or succes-sion of species. The climax plant community is similar toall other undisturbed, old forests on like sites with similarclimates.

Since ecologists became aware that disturbancesare a vital part of naturally functioning ecosystems,they now embrace a broader view of “succession” orstand development. In this view, the species present ona newly disturbed site are the result of the disturbance.Further vegetation change then depends upon the uniquecharacteristics of each species present and the advantage

each has at different times. Chance events such as de-structive storms, droughts, bad seed years, and se-vere wildlife browsing affect developing vegetation.This gives an advantage to some plant species overothers. Long-lived trees such as western larch, ponderosapine, and white pine persist in old forests. These trees weretraditionally labelled “early successional species” and werethought to be replaced at climax.

While ecologists generally agree that long-term and short-term vegetation change can occur in forest ecosystems, theyalso now increasingly accept forest development based onindividual characteristics of plants. As overstory trees in-teract with each other and their environment, they gothrough periods of development defined by ecological pro-cesses, such as germination, establishment, and competi-tion. Processes change as the stand develops, as does thestand’s structure—that is, the physical size and distribu-tion of trees.

Science—and scientists—keep progressing by seek-ing information on larger, more complex systemscalled ecosystems. Now, scientists study forests overlarger landscapes such as entire National Forests, water-sheds, and river basins. And in these studies, they look atfour broad stages or classes of development—all of whichare common on the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest.Follow along with us by studying the computer ren-dering of the four classes in our mini-poster.


Tours of the Demonstration Areas __________

You can see the Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in twotours. One tour illustrates the effects of clearcutting and as-sociated activities with and without prescribed fire. Theother tour emphasizes effects of wildfire. Trails provideaccess to both areas, and signs give additional ecologicalinformation.

We selected the demonstration areas to compare the de-velopment of vegetation on similar sites after differenttypes of disturbance. Harsh site conditions (as seen onsouth and west aspects) and severe plant competition some-times combine to favor some species over others. Plant com-munities in the south and west units, however, are morethe result of different development patterns of species thatstarted growing after the disturbance. While the distur-bance helped determine which species would grow first,once the initial vegetation was established, most changeswere limited to species abundance and height and crowndevelopment.

Prescribed Fire Tour _______________________

The three stops on the prescribed fire tour demonstratedifferences in forest development on four clearcuts thatwere either broadcast burned or left unburned. Be sure totake with you a separate that describes what you will seeon these trails.

South-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned May 18,1968—In the three decades after clearcutting, much of thearea within unit South-1 is still in the stand initiationstage. Following clearcutting, the prescribed fire left a con-tinuous layer of duff on the soil surface and killed only theaboveground portions of herbs and shrubs. Duff is decom-posing organic matter lying over mineral soil on the forestfloor. As most conifers need mineral soil for germination,this surface layer encouraged the development of survivingvegetation, mostly herbs. The dominant shrub before dis-turbance was blue huckleberry, which is slow growing andthus unable to regrow quickly enough to dominate the newvegetation.

Stocking on South-1 is low but slowly increasing. Regeneration densityis greatest on the north and east sides nearest to the seed source.


As the burned duff disintegrated with time, more growingspace became available, and conifer seed dispersed fromnearby seed sources then germinated. This process will con-tinue as long as growing space is available. Delaying coniferestablishment prolongs the period that valuable wildlifeshrubs such as Scouler’s willow, serviceberry, and buffalo-berry remain in the stand.

West-1: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned July 27,1967—Moose Pond and Old Forest—This area demon-strates the contrasts in vegetation and structural diversitythat can occur within a limited area in mountainous terrain.

Diverse habitat such as this riparian forest complex surrounding Moose Pond isideal for the large moose population at Miller Creek. Smaller species limited intheir mobility may be restricted to a small portion of Miller Creek.

The vertical and horizontal patterns produced due to thespecies diversity of a forest stand are important for a vari-ety of wildlife species and are part of what makes forestsfascinating to humans. Disturbances such as fire, wind, orinsect epidemics can cause similar contrasts in habitats un-disturbed by humans.

Research at Miller Creek helped define the processes thatallow different vegetation types to develop. Future researchwill address thesequestions:

• Can desirable oldforest attributes be ob-tained sooner by silvi-cultural practices thatencourage large trees,or move a forest standthrough the stages ofdevelopment morequickly?

• What species com-position and spacingwill lead to structuresbeneficial for biologicaldiversity, wood pro-duction, and aestheticappeal? This decomposing snag is a structural legacy

from the previous forest. Such features allowwildlife use to continue while stands regenerate.


• How can a landscape approach to forest managementhelp sustain healthy forest ecosystems?

East-2: Clearcut and Slashed, Unburned—Since theharvest and slash treatments in East-2 were completed in1968, new conifer establishment has been slow because ofthe absence of fire. The soil was covered with a nearly con-tinuous thick layer of litter and duff. The surface wasshaded by an increasing cover of fast-growing shrubs andother vegetation. Unlike the hot and dry conditions foundon unit South-1 that limits conifer establishment, East-2 is

cool and moist, but the intense competition for light limitstree survival. Both units receive abundant seedfall fromadjacent mature forests. Seedling subalpine fir and Engel-mann spruce that were not slashed were released and nowform the major tree component on the area. Because shrubswere abundant in the forest before disturbance, and burn-ing did not occur, shrubs dominated immediately afterclearcutting. The age range of regenerating conifer treeswill be wide. Competition in the developing stand is amongall vegetation rather than only between trees. Only a fewwestern larch and lodgepole pine trees regenerated. As aresult, the structure of East-2 differs from stands that re-generate following stand-replacing fire.

Monitoring of the vegetation development plot will allowscientists to determine the effect of this pattern of overstorydevelopment on the structure and diversity of the under-story plant community.

East-3: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned August 7,1968—East-3, in contrast to East-2 or South-1, has abun-dant tree regeneration. Yet all received similar seedfall.Burning in mid-summer reduced shrub competition andduff on the forest floor allowing herbs, quickly followed byconifer seedlings, to establish. The surrounding forestabundantly produced spruce seed, so when East-3 wasclearcut and burned, that nearby forest contributed the

Larger spruce and subalpine fir have primarily grown from advanceregeneration too small to slash after harvest. Open-grown larch andsome spruce and fir may also have initiated after clearcutting.


large number of spruce in the natural regeneration. Standdevelopment has been rapid but not uniform within the unit.

Portions of the stand have been artificially thinned andcan be contrasted with the unthinned control. Light thin-ning during the stem exclusion stage may prolong the timea stand is in that stage as vigorous trees may reclaim growingspace. Heavier thinning may accelerate the stand into a

At Council Rock in East-3you will have a good placeto view the Miller Creeklandscape, have lunch, anddiscuss the implications ofresearch results forecosystem management.

prolonged or temporary understory reinitiation stage withdevelopment of more complex overstory structures.

Stands in this stage provide habitat for many animal species.

Wildfire Tours

The two stops on this tour show differences in forest devel-opment on clearcut and uncut units affected by the August1967 wildfire. One series of units occurs on a south-facingslope while the other series is on a west-facing slope. Oneof the west-facing units, West-4, was broadcast burned anddid not burn in the wildfire.

The south-facing units are connected by a trail at the topof South-8 (on Road 2876), which extends to Road 9807 be-low unit South-14. Be sure to take with you the separate thatdescribes what you will see on this trail. You will need toarrange for shuttle transportation back to the top of South-8once you are through or simply return along the same trail.

The trail through the west-facing units is a loop that be-gins near the bottom of the units and returns along theroad at the top of the units to the parking area. There isnot a separate for this trail.

South-8: Clearcut and Slashed, Broadcast Burnedon August 8, 1967; Later Reburned by Wildfire onAugust 23, 1967—The broadcast burn under dry summerconditions reduced most of the forest floor layer to ash andkilled or set back the existing understory vegetation.


Water-can analogs such asthis unused one allowed

researchers to measure fireintensity on sites receiving

prescribed burns.

Two weeks after treatment, this stand was reburned by awildfire that burned the residual duff and all of the sur-rounding area killing most trees and dramatically reducingthe available seed source from offsite trees. Yet regenera-tion on South 8 is no better than on South-1.

Today, most of the unit remains in the stand initiationstage of development. At distances greater than 300 ft froma conifer seed source, only a small proportion of sound seedis dispersed. The hot and dry south-facing aspect confinedthe limited conifer regeneration to shaded microsites pro-ducing individual or groups of trees. A small patch of west-ern larch regeneration developed at the top of this unitadjacent to a group of larch trees that survived the wildfire.Finally, the presence of fast-growing ceanothus shrubs hasprovided strong competition for existing and subsequenttree seedlings years after the disturbance.

Three decades later, the continued dominance of shrubson South-8 confirms the importance of an onsite or nearbyseed source for conifer regeneration.

South-13: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire August 23,1967—In contrast to South-8, which is located immediatelyabove South-13, conifer regeneration is abundant becausemature seed was present in the crowns of trees killed bythe wildfire. The seed fell from the cones into the soil soonafter the fire. Shade provided by the standing dead trees,called snags, further aided germination and survival of treeseedlings. Fast-growing lodgepole pine and western larch

Western larch, while requiring fullsunlight, often regenerates in the

shade provided by standing snags,by down wood from the previous

forest, and by rocks. Temporalshade is particularly important on

hot, south-facing slopes.


were able to grow above the ceanothus shrubs that ap-peared following wildfire, thus avoiding overtopping by theshrubs.

Three decades after disturbance this stand is dense andgrowth is slowing in many areas and, like East-3, has beenthinned. The area immediately surrounding the vegetationdevelopment transects (near the amphitheater) has notbeen thinned and provides a contrast with the thinningtreatment. In this early period of stem exclusion, most treecanopies are at the same height, giving a uniform structureto the stand. Competition thrives, tree growth is reduced,and some trees are dying because this stand was notthinned.

South-14: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, SalvageLogged, Windrowed and Burned, and HelicopterSeeded With Western Larch— South-14, like South-13,was uncut at the time of the wildfire, but the fire-killedtrees were subsequently salvaged. Bulldozers piled theslash into windrows, and then the slash was burned. In-tense heating of the soil occurred under heavy concentra-tions of woody debris along the burned windrows, steriliz-ing the soil and delaying colonization of these areas foryears. Nitrogen-fixing shrubs and herbs still predominatethese strips. Helicopter seeding with western larch pro-duced a dense larch stand that is now slowing in growth.Mortality of understory species is beginning. While westernlarch predominates, Englemann spruce and other species

grow in large enough percentages to begin forming a morecomplex, stratified, mixed-species stand.

West-4: Clearcut and Slashed, Prescribed BurnedSeptember 5, 1968—West-4 is the only site on the wildfiretour that escaped the wildfire on August 23, 1967. Afterclearcutting, it was broadcast burned in late-summer 1968when the site was wet. The outcome of harvest and firetreatment on West-4 was similar to South-1, which receiveda spring prescribed burn. Moist conditions during the burnresulted in a patchy fire and little duff reduction. Coniferseedlings occurred on less than 25 percent of the area.

Plants are slowly revegetating windrows caused by slash pilingand intense burning following salvage logging.


Larger subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, and spruce have devel-oped from trees too small to cut during clearcutting (ad-vanced regeneration) and that survived the fire treatment.Diameter growth of these conifers has been good after re-lease from competition by the overstory trees, but heightgrowth is slow.

West-4 remains open and it continues in the stand initia-tion stage. A large local moose population heavily browsethe study site. Several more years will pass before this in-duced edge provides thermal or hiding cover for large mam-mals in addition to browse the stand now provides.

West-5: Old Forest, Burned by Wildfire, August 23,1967, Salvage Logged—Less is known about West-5 thanthe other study sites. The intensity of the wildfire was re-duced by the time it reached this unit in the early evening.Because conditions were not monitored on West-5, interpre-tation of its development is speculative. We do know thatbecause lodgepole pine were the primary source of matureseed in crowns of the trees at the time of the wildfire, it be-came a major regeneration species.

Growth of trees on West-5 is beginning to decrease. Thin-ning would prevent stagnation and accelerate the stand

Ecosystem “edges” are created by differences between twoecosystems. Forest harvesting, wildfire, avalanches, and strongwinds change the amount of edge. While increased edge may favorspecies such as moose or white-tailed deer, some species that livenear edges are more susceptible to predation.

Lodgepole pine canopies develop quite uniformly and decreasevertical foliage diversity in a stand. Mature seed in the crowns ofsuch pine will eventually help regenerate the forest, even after fire.


through the strongly competitive stem exclusion period. Alow-intensity ground fire would have a similar beneficialeffect within the stand.

West-6: Old Forest Burned by Wildfire, August 23,1967—Both West-6 and South-13 were uncut and burnedby the summer wildfire. The afternoon crown fire in South-13 killed all the trees in the surrounding area, whereas the

evening ground fire in West-6 left much of the surroundingarea unburned or lightly burned. Not all of the trees inWest-6 were killed, which left a seed source. In contrast, onSouth-13, in the first year after fire, most conifers estab-lished from surviving seeds in the fire-killed tree crowns. Inaddition to seed from the fire-killed and surviving trees,West-6 received seed from nearby offsite seed sources andis developing a more complex overstory structure thanSouth-13. By 1989, western larch density was 20 timesgreater on West-6 than on South-13, and total tree densitywas four times greater.

West-7: Clearcut and Slashed, Burned by Wildfire,August 23, 1967—West-7 experienced more intense wild-fire than the other west units. Unthinned areas are densewith western larch. A planting trial in this unit (as well asWest-1 and East-3) helped scientists study the heightgrowth of planted trees of three species versus heightgrowth of natural regeneration. Natural regeneration onthis warmer site is outgrowing planted trees, in contrast toEast-3 where the natural regeneration is not doing as well.Crews installed permanent growth plots in 1990. The plotsare adjacent to the trail. Most of the species in the originalstand reappeared soon after the disturbance; however, Pa-cific yew, a shade-tolerant species present in the originalstand, has not reappeared in the subsequent three decades.

Vertical forest structure—thelayering of herbs, shrubs, andtree canopies—contributes tothe diversity of a forest.Variable tree canopies permitdiversification of life forms inthe understory.


The Future at Miller Creek__________________

• Integration of research and management• Education• Public Information

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest offers an unusual op-portunity to apply research results in ecosystem manage-ment. Study sites such as Miller Creek provide long-terminformation about the cause and effect relationships of for-est development. Most studies of vegetation change usestudy sites in the same vegetation type but at different ages

Thinning left the best of each species on the permanent plots. Removing shrubsreduced competition.

Researcher Peter Stickney andvolunteer Mary Sloan collect

data on a vegetationdevelopment transect.

in different places, and differences in forest structure andcomposition are assumed to be due to time. But long-termstudies at Miller Creek show that vegetation developmentdiffers in many ways as a result of stand history alone.

An imposing task: Managing our forests to preserveecological integrity, diversity, and productivity forfuture generations. Information from research at MillerCreek will assist foresters here—and worldwide—in mak-ing more informed decisions to meet the objectives of eco-system management.


Glossary _________________________________

Advanced regeneration—Inconspicuous, pre-existing butsuppressed understory tree regeneration with the po-tential to release and grow when suppression factorsare removed

Aspect—The direction a slope faces, such as north or east

Broadcast burn—A silvicultural treatment where theslash is scattered over the area, and then burned to re-duce the fuel load and prepare the site for regeneration

Clearcutting—A method of regenerating a stand with asingle age class, or cohort of trees develops in a fullyexposed microclimate after removal of all trees in theprevious stand in a single cutting

Climax plant community—The culminating stage intheory of plant or forest succession. This communitytheoretically develops and perpetuates itself in the ab-sence of disturbance

Cohort—A group of trees arising after a single disturbance

Colonizer—A seedling plant germinating after disturbance

Duff—Decomposing organic matter on top of mineral soil

Forest structure—Abundance and distribution of speciesin addition to horizontal location and vertical layering

Fuels—Plant material on a site capable of carrying a fire

Germination—The initial growth and development of aplant from a seed, bud, or spore

Growing space—All the resources needed by a tree orother plant to exist on a site

Herb—An understory plant such as wildflowers or grasseswithout a woody stem

Induced edge—Transition zone between two ecosystems,artificially produced; such as the boundary between aclearcut and mature forest

Off-site seed source—Seed from plants outside the areaof disturbance. May imply seed from plants not geneti-cally adapted to site

Old growth, old forest—A structural condition or stage ofstand development that is usually characterized bylarge, old trees, and structural diversity. May also becharacterized by the absence of disturbance. However,for many forest types (such as ponderosa pine or west-ern larch), disturbance is prerequisite to maintainingold forest features

On-site seed source—Seed within the area of disturbanceand present at the time of disturbance

Pioneer species—Rapidly growing species adapted to in-vade open environments


Prescribed fire (burn)—The application of human-controlled fire to wildland fuels in a predeterminedarea to achieve resource management objectives

Regeneration—Seedlings or saplings in stand; or the actof establishing young trees naturally or artificially

Seedfall—Seed deposited naturally on a site either fromexisting trees or surrounding trees

Silviculture—The art and science of controlling the estab-lishment, growth, composition, health, and quality offorests and woodlands to meet the diverse needs andvalues of landowners and society on a sustainable basis

Slash(ing)—Removal of noncommercial trees on a site,generally within some diameter limit

Stand—A spatially continuous group of trees similar inspecies composition and structure

Stand initiation—A stage or process during stand devel-opment when trees and shrubs invade a site followinga disturbance and reoccupy the growing space

Stand structure—The distribution of trees and theircrowns in a stand

Stem—A tree trunk (supporting tissue for a plant)

Stem exclusion—A stage or process during stand develop-ment when new seedlings are excluded from develop-ment by a pre-existing cohort of trees or shrubs

Survivor—A plant subjected to but not killed by adisturbance

Understory reinitiation—A stage or process duringstand development

Weeding—Shrub and small tree removal to reducecompetition

Windrowing—The movement of logging slash into longrows that are usually burned; slash burning with be-havior fuel concentrations usually creates hotter moresevere fires than prescribed burns

Background Reading ______________________Arno, S. F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of For-

estry. 78(8): 460-465.Davis, K. M.; Clayton B. D.; Fischer, W. C. 1980. Fire ecology of Lolo National

Forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-79. Ogden, UT: U.S. Departmentof Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation: 77 p.

DeByle, N. V. 1981. Clearcutting and fire in the larch/Douglas-fir forests ofwestern Montana - a multifaceted research summary. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-99. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermoun-tain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 73 p.

Habeck, J. R.; Mutch, R. W. 1973. Fire-dependent forests in the Northern RockyMountains. Journal of Quarternary Research. 3(3): 408-424.

Hunter, M. L. 1990. Wildlife, forests, and forestry: principles of managing for-ests for biological diversity. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 370 p.

Johnson, C. G., Jr.; Clausnitzer, R. R.; Mehringer, P. J.; Oliver, C. D. 1994. Bi-otic and abiotic processes of eastside ecosystems: the effects of managementon plant and community ecology, and on stand and landscape vegetation dy-namics. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-322. Portland, OR: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 66 p.

Kay, C. E. 1995. Aboriginal overkill and native burning: implications for mod-ern ecosystem management. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(4):121-126.

Knudsen, G. M.; Arno, S. F.; Habeck, J. R.; Blake, G. M. 1968. Natural distribu-tion of western larch and subalpine larch. Res. Note 7. Missoula, MT: Mon-tana Forest and Conservation Experiment Station. 2 p.


Noble, I. R.; Slatyer, R. O. 1977. Post-fire succession of plants in Mediterraneanecosystems. In: Proceedings of the symposium on environmental conse-quences of fire and fuel management in Mediterranean ecosystems; 1977August 1-5; Palo Alto, CA: 27-36.

O’Hara, K. L.; Oliver, C. D. 1992. Silviculture: achieving new objectives throughstand and landscape management. Western Wildlands. Winter: 28-33.

O’Hara, K. L.; Latham, P. A.; Hessburg, P.; Smith, B. G. 1996. A structuralclassification for inland northwest forest vegetation. Western Journal of Ap-plied Forestry. 11(3): 97-102.

Oliver, C. D.; Larson, B. C. 1990. Forest stand dynamics. McGraw-Hill, Inc.467 p.

Robinson, E. A. 1942. “Tristram”, the collected poems of Edwin ArlingtonRobinson. New York, NY: The MacMillan Company. 1498 p.

Schmidt, W. C.; Shearer, R. C.; Roe, A. L. 1976. Ecology and silviculture ofwestern larch forests. Tech. Bull. 1520. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range ExperimentStation. 96 p.

Shearer, R. C. 1976. Early establishment of conifers following prescribed broad-cast burning in western larch/Douglas-fir forests. Proceedings, tall timbersfire ecology conference. 4: 481-500.

Shearer, R. C. 1984. Effects of prescribed burning and wildfire on regenerationin a larch forest in northwest Montana. In: New forests for a changing world:Proceedings of the 1983 convention of the Society of American Foresters;1983 October 16-20; Portland, OR: 266-270.

Shearer, R. C.; Stickney, P. F. 1991. Natural revegetation of burned and un-burned clearcuts in western larch forests of northwest Montana. In: Nodvin,S. C.; Waldrop, T. A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and culturalperspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24;Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U. S. Department ofAgriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 429 p.

Shearer, R. C.; Stickney, P. F.; VanDenburg, J. H.; Wirt, R. S. 1994. A long-term management and research partnership facilitates ecosystem manage-ment opportunities in a Montana western larch forest. In: Foley, L. H., comp.Silviculture: from the cradle of forestry to ecosystem management: Proceed-ings of the national silviculture workshop; 1993 November 1-4; Hendersonville,NC. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-88. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 258 p.

Stickney, P. F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to 9 years, inMontana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden, UT: U.S. Depart-ment of Agriculture, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 133 p.

On July 16, 1987, current and retiredpersonnel of the IntermountainResearch Station (now called theRocky Mountain Research Station)associated with the Miller Creek studyarea conducted a field workshop.They are shown on Council Rock,from left to right: Norbert V. DeByle,Paul E. Packer, Robert G. Hammer,William R. Beaufait, Peter F. Stickney,Curtis H. Halvorson, Rodney A. Norum,Raymond C. Shearer, Carter B. Gibbs,Wyman C. Schmidt, Alan E. Harvey,L. Jack Lyon, and Charles E. Hardey.

You may order additional copies of this publication by sending your mailing information in label formthrough one of the following media. Please specify the publication title and General Technical Reportnumber.

Ogden Service Center Fort Collins Service Center

Telephone (801) 625-5437 (970) 498-1719

FAX (801) 625-5129, Attn: Publications (970) 498-1660

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Mailing Address Publications Distribution Publications DistributionRocky Mountain Research Station Rocky Mountain Research Station324 25th Street 3825 E. Mulberry StreetOgden, UT 84401 Fort Collins, CO 80524

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Latham, Penelope A.; Shearer, Raymond C.; O’Hara, Kevin L. 1998. Miller Creek Dem-onstration Forest—a forest born of fire: a field guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-7.Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain ResearchStation. 68 p. (book + 2 supplements and 2 posters).

Miller Creek, on the Flathead National Forest in northwest Montana, is a demonstrationforest, showing up to 30 years of forest change after clearcutting and a wide range of firetreatments in 1967 and 1968. Differences in tree regeneration and vegetation develop-ment are explained for units that were clearcut and prescribed burned, clearcut andburned by wildfire, clearcut and unburned, and uncut and burned by wildfire. This guidediscusses these changes, and visitors can see them as they walk the trails within theMiller Creek Demonstration Forest.

Keywords: clearcut, prescribed fire, wildfire, natural regeneration, vegetation succession,habitat type, stand structure, western larch, lodgepole pine

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities on the basis of race,color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or familial status. (Notall prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication ofprogram information (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’s TARGET Center at 202-720-2600 (voiceand TDD).

To file a complaint of discrimination, write USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room 326-W, Whitten Building, 14th andIndependence Avenue, SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410 or call 202-720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunityprovider and employer.

ROCKY MOUNTAIN RESEARCH STATIONRMRS

The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information and technology to improve man-agement, protection, and use of the forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs ofNational Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and private organizations, academic institu-tions, industry, and individuals.

Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, range, forests, water, recreation, fire,resource inventory, land reclamation, community sustainability, forest engineering technology, multipleuse economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects and diseases. Studies are conducted coop-eratively, and applications may be found worldwide.

Research LocationsFlagstaff, Arizona Reno, NevadaFort Collins, Colorado* Albuquerque, New MexicoBoise, Idaho Rapid City, South DakotaMoscow, Idaho Logan, UtahBozeman, Montana Ogden, UtahMissoula, Montana Provo, UtahLincoln, Nebraska Laramie, Wyoming

*Station Headquarters, 240 West Prospect Road, Fort Collins, CO 80526

Advice to a Knight of the Round Table

Whether you will or notYou are a King, Tristram, for you are one

Of the time-tested few that leave the world,When they are gone, not the same place it was.

Mark what you leave.

-Robinson 1942, Tristram

Documents

Miller Creek Demonstration Forest—a forest born of fire: a ...Welcome to Miller Creek Demonstration Forest in the Northern Rocky Mountains. The Demonstration Forest is part of the