M I L L , SPENCER

AND V I C T O R I A N L I B E R A L I S M

L e o R i c h a r d F e r n i g

B . A . , C a m b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 4

A T H E S I S SUBMITTED I N P A R T I A L

FULFILLMENT O F THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF

MASTER O F ARTS

i n t h e D e p a r t m e n t

of

H i s t o r y

@ L e o R i c h a r d F e r n i g 1 9 8 0

SIMON FRASER U N I V E R S I T Y

N o v e m b e r 1 9 8 0

~ l l r i g h t s reserved. T h i s w o r k m a y n o t be reproduced i n w h o l e o r i n p a r t , by photocopy

or o t h e r m e a n s , w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n of t h e a u t h o r . *

APPROVAL

Name : Leo R i c h a r d F e r n i g

Degree : Master o f A r t s

T i t l e o f T h e s i s : M i l l , Spencer and V i c t o r i a n L i b e r a l i s m

Examin ing Committee:

Cha i rpe rson : C.R. Day

M i chae i Fe l lman S e n i o r S u p e r v i s o r

Maf'y Lynn ~ c ~ o u ~ a ( L ' 1

J e h 9 K o n e y E x t e r n a l ~ x a h i n e r P ro fesso r . Department of H i s t o r y U n i v e r s i t y o f V i c t o r i a

Da te Approved : 4- 2 6 , / W J

P A R T I A L COPYRY GHT ZJCEhSE

I hereby g r a n t t o Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o lend

my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e of which i s shown below) t o u s e r s

of t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e

c o p i e s o n l y f o r such u s e r s o r i n r e sponse t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y

of any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s own

b e h a l f o r fo r one of i t s u s e r s . I f u r t h e r a g r e e t h a t permiss ion f o r

m u l t i p l e copying of t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d

by me or t h e Dean of Graduate S t u d i e s . It i s unders tood t h a t copying

o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l lowed

w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n pe rmiss ion .

T i t l e of ~ h e s i s / ~ i s s e r t a t i o n :

# S 3~ 2 i , 2 / ! 'SiRAL\:fl ,

Author :

( s i g n a t u r e )

(name )

( d a t e )

ABSTRACT

T h i s t h e s i s i s an a n a l y s i s o f On L i b e r t y (1859) by John

S t u a r t M i l l and The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e (1884) by H e r b e r t

Spencer . On t h e whole, h i s t o r i a n s and p h i l o s o p h e r s have a s -

sumed t h a t t h e s e two works were e x p o s i t i o n s o f V i c t o r i a n " l i b -

e r a l i n d i v i d u a l i s m " and t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e unders tood a s

a t t e m p t s t o p r e s c r i b e " l i b e r t y " and " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " a s t h e

h i g h e s t s o c i a l v a l u e s . The o b j e c t o f t h i s t h e s i s i s t o a r a u e

t h a t M i l l and Spencer were n o t concerned w i t h l i b e r t y and i n -

d i v i d u a l i t y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t most s c h o l a r s have commonly

assumed.

The t h e s i s i s an a t t e n p t t o a r g u e a r e v i s e d and , hope-

f u l l y , more h i s t o r i c a l l y a c c u r a t e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f V i c t o r i a n

l i b e r a l i s m . The works o f M i l l and Spencer have been s u b j e c t

t o c e r t a i n k i n d s o f d i s t o r t i o n o r i q i n a t i n g i n contemporary

p o l i t i c a l p r e o c c u p a t i o n s and needs . R e a p p r a i s a l o f t h e i r

works i s j u s t i f i e d i n t h a t t h e predominant rrodern view o f

M i l l and Spencer s h o u l d be unders tood p r i m a r i l y a s a r e s p o n s e

t o t h e needs o f contemporary l i b e r a l i s m r a t h e r t h a n a s an a t -

tempt t o p r o v i d e a h i s t o r i c a l l y s a t i s f a c t o r y a n a l y s i s o f t h e i r

works.

The f i r s t two c h a p t e r s a r e e x p o s i t i o n s o f t h e t e . x t s , - On

iii

L i b e r t y and The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e . I a r q u e t h a t t h e manner - i n which M i l l and Spencer t r e a t e d t h e s u b j e c t o f i n d i v i d u a l

l i b e r t y i s p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e thorough ly d e t e r ~ i n i s t

a c c o u n t s of p o l i t i c s and s o c i o l o g y t o b e found i n t h e i r o t h e r

works. What t h e y were r e a l l y concerned abou t i n t h e s e works

was t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f " s c i e n t i f i c " p o l i t i c a l conduc t based

on " s c i e n t i f i c " knowledge o f " laws" o f s o c i a l deveLopment.. +

.__-I-- ---

Given t h i s e s s e n t i a l l y d e t e r m i n i s t o u t l o o k , On L i b e r t y and The - Yan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e c a n n o t b e r e g a r d e d a s s imple and unambi-

guous p l e a s f o r l i b e r t y and i n d i v i d u a l i t y a s s u c h , b u t r a t h e r

a s means o f l e a d i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o a p r o p e r r e c o g n i t i o n o f

t h e " laws" of s o c i a l development .

The f i n a l c h a p t e r p l a c e s t h e w r i t i n g s o f M i l l and Spencer

w i t h i n t h e more g e n e r a l c o n t e x t o f V i c t o r i a n p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t .

I a r g u e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between M i l l and Spencer and

t h e i r i n t e l l e c t u a l con tempora r i e s and p e e r s were t o o complex

and i n v o l v e d t o o many common assumpt ions t o w a r r a n t t h e view

t h a t t h e i r p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t may b e e a s i l y and s h a r p l y c o n t r a s t -

ed w i t h t h a t of t h i n k e r s such a s C a r l y l e and Newvan who a r e

g e n e r a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t o have been i l l i b e r a l . They were n o t

p r e c u r s o r s o f t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y l i b e r t a r i a n i s m and t h e y were

n o t f r e e from t h e dogmatic modes o f thouqh t of t h e i r t i n e .

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Special thanks are due to my thesis supervisor,

Mike Fellman. His patience, encouragement and constructive

criticisms made this work possible.

CONTENTS

Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A b s t r a c t iii

Acknowledgerrents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

I n t r o d u c t i o n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

I On L i b e r t y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

I1 The Pan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e . . . . . . . . . 5 1

I11 M i l l , Spencer and t h e V i c t o r i a n I n t e l l e c t u a l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cormuni t y 8 4

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I V C o n c l u s i o n . 120

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B i b l i o g r a p h y 1 2 4

I N T R O D U C T I O N

On one o c c a s i o n John S t u a r t M i l l d e s c r i b e d H e r b e r t Spen-

c e r as "a c o n s i d e r a b l e t h i n k e r though a n y t h i n g b u t a s a f e

one--& i s on t h e whole a n a l l y . Spencer had s i m i l a r misgiv-

L i n g s a b o u t M i l l . Y e t , i n a number o f i m p o r t a n t ways M i l l and

Spencer were " a l l i e s " . They were among t h e n o s t s u c c e s s f u l

p r o s e l y t i z e r s o f t h e r e s u l t s o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y s c i e n c e i n

t h a t t h e y b o t h developed thorough ly n a t u r a l i s t i c a c c o u n t s o f

human c o n d u c t . They were a l s o l i b e r a l s and r e g a r d e d t h e m e l v e s

a s a p o s t l e s o f human l i b e r t y . When he r e c e i v e d a copy o f On -

L i b e r t y Spencer wro te t o M i l l : "I r e j o i c e t h a t it t h e sub-

j e c t o f l i b e r t y h a s been t a k e n up by one whose name w i l l b e g e t

f o r it r e s p e c t f u l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . " 3 However he f e l t t h a t P i l l ' s

t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y r a d i c a l and he

added: "You do n o t c a r r y t h e a s s e r t i o n o f p r i v a t e a g a i n s t

p u b l i c c l a i m a s f a r a s I do. " 4 W i l l had a s i ~ i l a r l y h igh op-

i n i o n o f s o r e o f S p e n c e r ' s p o l i t i c a l v iews. "There a r e none

'p i l l t o Bain , 22 Nov. 1863, The L a t e r L e t t e r s of John S t u a r t M i l l , 4 Vols . , e d . F r a n c i s E . Mineka and Dwight N . L i n d l e y . C o l l e c t e d Works o f John S t u a r t P i l l , Vols . X I V - X V I I ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and K e ~ a n P a u l , 19721, 2:901.

2 ~ p o n g o t h e r t h i n q s Spehcer f e l t t h a t P i l l I s knowledge o f ' s c i e n c e was i n a d e q u a t e . H e r b e r t Spencer , An Autobiography, 2 ,

Vols . (London: W i l l i a m and Norgate , 1 9 0 4 ) , 2:90. 2 J Spencer t o M i l l , 17 Feb. 1859, avid Duncan, The ~ i f e and

L e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t Spencer , p .93.

o f your w r i t i n g s " he w r o t e "which I admire Gore t h a n your

' O v e r - L e g i s l a t i o n ' . "' I n ' O v e r - L e g i s l a t i o n ' Spencer had pro-

s c r i b e d a l l f o r r r s o f s t a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e and i n t h a t r e s p e c t t h e

e s s a y foreshadowed h i s d e f i n i t i v e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t o f

' l i b e r t y ' in The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e ( 1 8 8 4 ) . G e n e r a l l y speak-

i n g , t h e n , M i l l and Spencer were b o t h exponents of an o s t e n s i -

b l y s c i e n t i f i c view o f t h e wor ld and s e l f - p r o c l a i m e d l i b e r a l s .

The t e r m " l i b e r a l " , however, i s p r o b l e r . a t i c a 1 . I t i s

used i n a v a r i e t y o f ways and n o t a l l o f t h e s e n e c e s s a r i l y

co r respond t o what M i l l and Spencer meant by it. This i s es -

p e c i a l l y t r u e o f some o f t h e more obv ious c u r r e n t u s e s o f t h e

t e r m , which , t a k e n t o g e t h e r , e x p r e s s a p o l i t i c a l temperament

f a r removed from t h e s p i r i t t h a t animated M i l l and Spencer . 2

W e commonly u s e t h e word l i b e r a l t o d e s c r i b e a p a r t i c u l a r

k i n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l d i s p o s i t i o n . W e t a l k o f " l ibe ra l -minded-

n e s s " o r " a l i b e r a l c a s t o f mind". I n e f f e c t we u s e such

t e rms a s t h e antonyms of words l i k e "dogmatic" and " d o c t r i n -

a i r e " . Libera l -mindedness i m p l i e s a n unusua l d e g r e e o f s e n s i -

t i v i t y and r e c e p t i v i t y t o d i f f e r e n t , i f n o t oppos ing , i n t e l l e c -

t u a l p o s i t i o n s .

'ni l1 t o Spencer 4 March 1859. M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2 : 6 0 3 .

2 I do n o t i n t e n d t o d i s c u s s some o f t h e more c o n t r o v e r -

s i a l u s e s of t h e t e r m l i b e r a l . Thus I w i l l n o t d i s c u s s t h e d i f f e r e n t , and o f t e n i n c o n s i s t e n t , ways i n which wri ters u s e t h e t e r m economic l i b e r a l i s p . R a t h e r , I w i l l mere ly a t t empt - - ,

a t t h e r i s k o f somewhat o v e r s i ~ p l i f y i n g t h e i s s u e s - - t o s u g g e s t some o f t h e g e n e r a l i n t e l l e c t u a l and p o l i t i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s connoted by t h e word l i b e r a l . My r e a s o n f o r d o i n g t h i s i s t h a t I t h i n k t h a t some o f t h e s e more obv ious and n o n - h i s t o r i c a l u s e s o f t h e t e r m have u n f o r t u n a t e l y i n s i n u a t e d themse lves i n t o var- i o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f M i l l ' s and S p e n c e r ' s l i b e r a l i s m .

We a l s o u s e t h e word l i b e r a l i s m t o d e s c r i b e what a p p e a r s I

t o be a k i n d o f "middle ground" i n p o l i t i c s . When w e speak o f

a l i b e r a l i n t h i s s e n s e w e mean someone who eschews t h e a l l e g e d

ext remes o f " l e f t " and " r i g h t " . On t h i s view t h e l i b e r a l i s

n o t wedded t o any p a r t i c u l a r p o l i t i c a l dogma o r c r e e d . Th i s

might b e d e s c r i b e d a s p o l i t i c a l l i b e r a l - m i n d e d n e s s .

The i d e a o f l i b e r a l - m i n d e d n e s s h a s o f t e n been j u s t i f i e d

on t h e grounds t h a t no p o l i t i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l o r moral c r e e d

can p o s s i b l y c o n s t i t u t e t h e whole t r u t h on any s u b j e c t and

t h a t c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e r e c a n n o t b e any w a r r a n t f o r a t t e m p t i n g

t o e n f o r c e any e x c l u s i v e c r e e d o r dogma. The c o r o l l a r y o f

t h i s i s t h e view t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s v u s t be l e f t f r e e t o f o r r

t h e i r own o p i n i o n s and , w i t h i n c e r t a i n l i m i t s , engage i n var-

i o u s a c t i v i t i e s o f t h e i r own choosing. ' Thus we a l s o u s e t h e

word l i b e r a l t o d e s c r i b e t h o s e who a l l e g e d l y p l a c e a premium

on such q u a l i t i e s a s "freedom" and " i n d i v i d u a l i t y u - - f o r t h i s

i s , i n e f f e c t , mora l and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r a l - m i n d e d n e s s .

L a s t l y , w e may use t h e word l i b e r a l t o d e s c r i b e t h e a t -

t empts o f c e r t a i n p o l i t i c a l t h i n k e r s t o c o n f u t e what t h e y re-

g a r d a s d e t e r m i n i s t p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h i e s . On t h i s view de-

t e rmin i sm i s s e e n a s a k i n d o f i n t e l l e c t u a l t o t a l i t a r i a n i s m

which it behoves t h e l i b e r a l - m i n d e d t h i n k e r t o c o n t e s t . Fur-

t h e r n o r e , a d e t e r m i n i s t view o f human n a t u r e may appear t o

' e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f p u r s u i n g l i b e r t y and i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

Thus, f o r i n s t a n c e , K a r l Popper h a s urged t h a t t h e work o f a

' ~ a n ~ w r i t e r s have f e l t t h a t t h i s is p r e c i s e l y what F i l l a s s e r t e d i n On L i b e r t y . I w i l l b e a r g u i n g t h a t t h i s i s n o t q u i t e t h e c a s e .

number o f p h i l o s o p h e r s , i n c l u d i n g Hegel and P a r x , s h o u l d b e

unders tood a s comprehensive d e t e m i n i s t sys tems (which he r e -

f e r s t o a s " h i s t o r i c i s m " ) ; and t h a t , such sys tems a r e a t va r -

i a n c e w i t h t h e i n t e r e s t s o f l i b e r a l democracy, o r , t o u s e

P o p p e r ' s p h r a s e , " o p e n - s o c i e t i e s w . l B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l and

I s a i a h B e r l i n have proposed s i m i l a r a rguFen t s . I n s h o r t ,

o p p o s i t i o n t o p h i l o s o p h i e s t h a t a r e a l l e g e d t o b e d e t e r m i n i s t

may be d e s c r i b e d a s a k i n d o f p h i l o s o p h i c a l l i b e r a l - ~ i n d e d n e s s .

There h a s been a narked tendency among h i s t o r i a n s and

ph i losophers - -and , p o s s i b l y , more e s p e c i a l l y among t h o s e w r i t -

i n g i n t h e modern " l i b e r a l " t r a d i t i o n - - t o a n a l y s e On L i b e r t y

and The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e i n s u c h a way a s t o make i t a p p e a r

t h a t t h e s t y l e and c o n t e n t o f t h e s e works sornehow c o r r e s p o n d s

t o t h e v a r i o u s u s e s o f t h e word l i b e r a l I have j u s t o u t l i n e d .

Although no one h a s v e n t u r e d t o s u g g e s t t h a t Spencer was l i b -

e ra l -minded, F i l l h a s o f t e n been d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s manner. 3

Some w r i t e r s have a l s o c la imed t h a t M i l l eschewed de te rmin i sm

( t h o u g h , a g a i n , no such c l a i m s have been made on S p e n c e r ' s

h a r l Popper , The Open S o c i e t y and i t s Enemies ( P r i n c e - t o n , N . J . , P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 3 ) .

I s a i a h B e r l i n , Four Essays on L i b e r t y (Oxford: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19691 . B e r t r a n d R u s s e l l , A H i s t o r y o f W e s - - t e r n Ph i losophy ( N e w York: Simon and S c h u s t e r , 1 9 4 5 ) . See e s p e c i a l l y h i s c h a p t e r on Hegel .

3 ~ u r r i n V. S h i e l d s h a s . w r i t t e n : " P i l l ' s b i o g r a p h e r s a g r e e t h a t he was u n u s u a l l y r e c e p t i v e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o t h e r minds. T h i s a c u r i o u s and i n q u i r i n g i n t e l l e c t i s p e r h a p s p rone t o b e . " 1 n . t r o d u c t i o n t o On L i b e r t y ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : Bobbs-Merr i l l , 19751, p . i x .

b e h a l f ) .' Most i m p o r t a n t l y , however, a lmos t a l l w r i t e r s have

urged t h a t M i l l and Spencer w e r e p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h a s -

s e r t i n g t h e freedom o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l from b o t h governmenta l

and s o c i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e . Thus On L i b e r t y h a s been d e s c r i b e d

a s " t h e c l a s s i c s t a t e m e n t f o r i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y n ; * a n d , on

a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n , a s a p l e a f o r l i b e r t y a s a " q u a l i t y o f l i f e

... a good i n i t s e l f . " 3 Likewise it h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t

i n The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e Spencer e x p r e s s e d a b e l i e f " i n

t h e v a l u e o f i n d i v i d u a l i t y and d i s s e n t a s a good i n i t s e l f " ; 4

and a l s o , t h a t he was concerned w i t h i n d i v i d u a l i z i n g t h e i n -

d i v i d u a l . "5 Perhaps--and it i s n o t rpy purpose t o p u r s u e o r

s u b s t a n t i a t e t h i s p o i n t i n any d e t a i l - - t h e s e , and s i m i l a r i n -

t e r p r e t a t i o n s , s h o u l d b e unders tood p r i m a r i l y a s a t t e m p t s t o

c r e a t e a r e s p e c t a b l e i n t e l l e c t u a l genealogy f o r contemporary

l i b e r a l i s p .

-

' 1sa iah B e r l i n c l a imed t h a t ; " M i l l . . . o b s e r v e s t h a t t h e human ( t h a t i s t h e s o c i a l ) s c i e n c e s a r e t o o confused and un- c e r t a i n t o be p r o p e r l y c a l l e d s c i e n c e s a t a l l - - t h e r e a r e i n them no v a l i d g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s , no l aws , and t h e r e f o r e no p re - d i c t i o n s o r r u l e s o f a c t i o n t h a t can p r o p e r l y be deduced from them." Four Essays On L i b e r t y , p.188.

2 ~ s a i a h B e r l i n , Four Essays on L i b e r t y , p .174.

'owen Chadwick, The S e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e European Mind i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h Century: The ~ r i f f o r d L e c t u r e s i n t h e Univer- s i t y o f Edinburgh f o r 1973-4 (Cambridge : Canbridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1975) , p. 2 9 .

' ~ o n a l d Macrae, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o , The Pan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e by H e r b e r t Spencer ( B a l t i m o r e : Penguin Books, 1 9 6 9 ) , p .32.

' ~ u b e r o n H e r b e r t , The R i g h t and Wrong o f Compulsion by t h e S t a t e and O t h e r Essays ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : L i b e r t y C l a s s i c s , 1 9 7 8 ) , p. 271.

6

My purpose, r a t h e r , i s t o argue t h a t M i l l ' s and Spence r ' s

thought was more obviously d e t e r m i n i s t and doqmatic than t h e s e

w r i t e r s have been w i l l i n g t o a l low; and t h a t , fu r thermore , On - L i b e r t y and The Pan versus t h e S t a t e a r e l e s s concerned wi th

l i b e r t y and i n d i v i d u a l i t y than may a t f i r s t s i g h t appear t o be

t h e ca se . I n do ing s o I am n o t a t t empt ing t o d i spa rage M i l l

and Spencer. I simply wish t o show t h a t t h e i r " l i b e r a l i s m "

was, i n many r e s p e c t s , s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from some of

t h e va r ious p o l i t i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral p o s i t i o n s t h a t

go by t h a t name i n t h e middle of t h e twen t i e th cen tu ry .

The arguments proposed i n t h e fo l lowing c h a p t e r s may be

b r i e f l y o u t l i n e d a s fo l lows :

F i r s t : Although t h e r h e t o r i c of i n d i v i d u a l l i b e r t y un-

doubtedly f i g u r e s prominent ly i n On L ibe r ty and The Man ve r sus

t h e S t a t e , t h e s e works do n o t , by themselves , adequa te ly ex-

p r e s s t h e i r a u t h o r s ' i n t e n t i o n s . I n both works many assump-

t i o n s a r e l e f t unexplained and t h e s e cannot be p rope r ly e l u c i -

da ted wi thout r e f e r e n c e t o o t h e r works by M i l l and Spencer. I n

t h e s e o t h e r works they were p r i m a r i l y concerned wi th arguing

t h a t human n a t u r e and s o c i e t y could be expla ined s c i e n t i f i -

ca l ly--and, t h e paradigm o f s c i e n t i f i c exp lana t ion wi th which

they were conversan t was s t r i c t l y d e t e r w i n i s t . I t r e s t e d on t h e

assumption t h a t a l l phenomena were governed by laws of n a t u r e .

T h a t i s n o t t o say t h a t t h e p re suppos i t i ons of n ine t een th cen-

t u r y sciencewere n e c e s s a r i l y t h a t monol i th ic o r c l e a r c u t ; o r ,

t h a t developments i n s c i e n c e n e c e s s a r i l y w a r r a n t e d t h e k i n d s

o f c o n c l u s i o n s drawn by M i l l and Spencer . The p o i n t i s , r a t h e r ,

t h a t they i n t e r p r e t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f s c i e n c e i n a p a r t i c u l a r l y

d e t e r m i n i s t manner and c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e y developed a view o f

t h e wor ld which e x c l u d e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f r e e w i l l . I t

even exc luded t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f mere ly c o n t i n g e n t a c t i o n s .

I n o t h e r words t h e y w e r e n o t concerned w i t h freedom and i n d i -

v i d u a l i t y i n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e s e words a r e conmonly under-

s t o o d . What I wish t o s u g g e s t i s n o t s o much t h a t S p e n c e r ' s

and M i l l ' s u se o f t h e word " l i b e r t y " was i n c o r r e c t o r i n c o n s i s -

t e n t , b u t r a t h e r , t h a t t h e y used it i n a n e g a t i v e and res t r ic t -

ed s e n s e which was--at l e a s t w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i r own

way o f th ink ing- -compat ib le w i t h a d e t e r m i n i s t v i s i o n o f hu-

man n a t u r e . C h a p t e r s one and two a r e devo ted t o a d i s c u s s i o n

o f t h i s problem.

Secondly: Any c l a i m a b o u t M i l l ' s and S p e n c e r ' s p o l i t i c a l

t h o u g h t i s c o n d i t i o n a l i n t h a t i t s v a l i d i t y i s c o n t i n g e n t

upon, among o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e manner i n which t h e works o f

o t h e r V i c t o r i a n t h i n k e r s a r e viewed. I n t h i s s e n s e t h e i r

p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t must b e unders tood w i t h i n t h e more g e n e r a l

c o n t e x t o f V i c t o r i a n l i b e r a l i s m . Chap te r t h r e e i s devo ted t o

t h i s problem. I w i l l a r g u e t h a t on c e r t a i n key i s s u e s t h e d i f -

f e r e n c e s among V i c t o r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s w e r e t o o complex t o

w a r r a n t t h e v iew t h a t t h e r e was a c l e a r c u t d i s t i n c t i o n be-

tween " l i b e r a l " t h i n k e r s such a s Y i l l and Spencer and " i l l i b e r -

a l " t h i n k e r s such a s James S tephen , Maine, C a r l y l e and Newrnan.

CHAPTER I

ON LIBERTY

,/ M i l l wrote On L ibe r ty between 1855 and 1859. Ever s i n c e

i t s p u b l i c a t i o n t h e work has been t h e s u b j e c t of numerous d i f -

f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . I n p a r t t h i s has been t h e r e s u l t of

c e r t a i n a l l e g e d ambigu i t i e s a t t e n d i n g t h e r a i n t h e s i s of - On

L ibe r ty . M i l l a s s e r t e d t h a t human conduct should be d iv ided

i n t o s e l f - r e g a r d i n g and o the r - r ega rd ing a c t i v i t i e s and t h a t

government and s o c i e t y could n o t l e g i t i m a t e l y i n t e r f e r e w i t h

two d i f f e r e n t realms of conduct e i t h e r ambiguous o r u n c l e a r .

D i f f e r ences o f op in ion have a l s o a r i s e n over t h e q u e s t i o n o f -

t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between On L ibe r ty and W i l l ' s o t h e r works.

This q u e s t i o n i s e s p e c i a l l y p rob lema t i ca l because i n rany o f ,

h i s o t h e r w r i t i n g s , M i l l developed i d e a s t h a t were n o t compat-

i b l e w i th h i s o s t e n s i b l e p r e s c r i p t i o n of f reedon and i n d i v i -

d u a l i t y i n O n L i b e r t y .

I n a s e r i e s o f e s says e n t i t l e d "The S p i r i t of t h e Age"

(1830-31) M i l l s t r o n g l y condemned i n d i v i d u a l " p r i v a t e judgment"

and he i n s i s t e d upon t h e need f o r moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l de-

f e r ence t o an e l i t e of i n s t r u c t e d persons . S imi l a r a r g w e n t s

were proposed i n " C i v i l i z a t i o n " C1836L and "Coler idge" (1840) .

Furthermore i n A System of Logic (1843) he r e j e c t e d t h e n o t i o n ---.- -+.-.--*- * IIXLIL--

o f f r e e w i l l and a rgued t h a t b o t h mind and s o c i e t y w e r e govern- / +=---------- - ____-+__.- ---" -*--- -- .*.* r rrV-s- * * -. " -- * .' -" - - ' , .

e d a l l y s p e a k i n g t h e s e w r i t - { . --.-- i n g s e x p r

Pl* - --x - ,,A _ Y

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i d e a o f p i n d i v i d u a l i t y and freedom. -*w *,"*.W** * * A .- -..- -**---.

some w r i t e r s have f e l t t h a t M i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n may

have changed o v e r t h e y e a r s . 1

On t h e f a c e o f it t h e s u g g e s t i o n seems p l a u s i b l e enough--

On L i b e r t y was p u b l i s h e d o v e r f i f t e e n y e a r s a f t e r t h e s e e a r l i e r

works. The problem i s , however, T f l i l l k e p t on i n s i s t i n 9 upon

h i s e a r l i e r i d e a s i n a number o f h i s mature works. I n 1862

he added a c h a p t e r t o Book V I o f t h e Logic i n which h e f u r t h e r

h o m e o f M i l l ' s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s f e l t t h a t he had changed i n t h i s r e s p e c t . Thus, f o r i n s t a n c e , James S tephen , who admired t h e Logic and P o l i t i c a l Econony, was o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e t h e s i s o f On L i b e r t y was n o t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e i d e a s ex- p r e s s e d in Pil l ' s e a r l i e r works. He w r o t e : " I am f a l l i n g f o u l o f John W i l l i n h i s modern - o r , r a t h e r , I shou ld s a y , i n h i s s e n t i m e n t a l mood - which a lways makes m e f e e l t h a t he i s a d e s e r t e r o f t h e p r o p e r p r i n c i p l e s o f r i g i d i t y and f e r o c i t y i n which he was b r o u g h t up [ t h a t i s t o s a y t h e p r i n c i p l e s of James M i l l and Jeremy Bentham]." L e s l i e S tephen , The L i f e o f James F i t z j a m e s Stephen (London: Smith E l d e r & Co., 1895; r e p r i n t e d . , Farnborough,Eng.: Gregg I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s , 19711, p . 308.

Recent w r i t e r s have s e e n s i m i l a r changes i n M i l l ' s t h o u g h t . G e r t r u d e Himmelfarb h a s c l a imed t h a t On L i b e r t y was w r i t t e n when M i l l had f a l l e n c o ~ . p l e t e l y under t h e sway o f t h e "doqma- t i c and mediocre mind" o f H a r r i e t T a y l o r ; and t h a t , a s a con- sequence o f t h i s , t h e i d e a s i n On L i b e r t y were a n t a g o n i s t i c " i n s u b s t a n c e and i n s p i r i t , t o t h e e a r l y e s s a y s o f M i l l . " Ger t rude H i m e l f a r b , I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Essays on P o l i t i c s and Cul- t u r e by J . S . M i l l ( N e w York: Doubleday, 1 9 6 3 ) , p p . x i x , xx. I n a somewhat d i f f e r e n t v e i n Richard Anschutz h a s a rgued t h a t t h e r e was a fundamental t e n s i o n between W i l l ' s adherence t o p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r a l i s m and h i s b e l i e f i n a n autonomous i n - d i v i d u a l i t y . According t o Anschutz, one o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s u n r e s o l v e d t e n s i o n i s t h a t On L i b e r t y i s " a ve ry muddled book." The Ph i losophy o f J . S . M i l l (Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 19631, p.59.

e l u c i d a t e d h i s d e t e r m i n i s t c o n c e p t i o n o f s o c i a l d e v e l o p v e n t .

AS t h e c h a p t e r d e a l s w i t h B u c k l e ' s H i s t o r y o f C i v i l i z a t i o n t h e

i d e a s c o n t a i n e d i n it must have been developed between 1857

and 1862 ( t h a t i s t o s a y , d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d i n which On L i b e r t y

was p u b l i s h e d ) . H e a l s o c a r e f u l l y r e v i s e d t h e Logic i n 1846,

1851, 1856, 1862, 1868, and 1872 and t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e

t h a t i n any of h i s r e v i s i o n s he a t t e m p t e d t o modify h i s d e t e r -

m i n i s t a c c o u n t o f psychology, s o c i o l o g y and p o l i t i c s . I f

a n y t h i n g he was mainly concerned w i t h r e f i n i n g and e x t e n d i n g

it. Fur the rmore , i n h i s two major works on democracy, Thoughts

I on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform (1859) and R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government (1861)

he c l e a r l y p r e s c r i b e d d e f e r e n c e t o a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e . A l l

i n a l l , t h e n , t h e r e does n o t appear t o have been any s u b s t a n t i a l

' change i n M i l l ' s way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t p o l i t i c s and s o c i e t y --

a l t h o u g h t h e r e w r e undoubtedly a number of minor changes .

I w i l l p r e s e n t l y a r g u e t h a t On L i b e r t y does n o t r e p r e s e n t

any new o r r a d i c a l d e p a r t u r e i n M i l l ' s t h o u g h t and t h a t conse-

q u e n t l y i t i s p e r f e c t l y c o m p a t i b l e w i t h h i s o t h e r works. I n

o t h e r words I w i l l a r g u e t h a t i n On L i b e r t y he was n o t pr imar-

i l y concerned w i t h "freedom" and " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " . However, I

do n o t r e a n t o s u g g e s t t h a t M i l l d i d n o t r e a l l y i n t e n d t o s e t

s p e c i f i c and a s s i g n a b l e l i m i t s t o t h e c o e r c i v e powers o f s o c i e t y

and government. H e undoubtedly i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e s e l i n i t s

s h o u l d "govern a b s o l u t e l y t h e d e a l i n g s o f s o c i e t y w i t h t h e i n -

d i v i d u a l " ; and t h i s , among o t h e r t h i n g s , i s what s e p a r a t e d P i l l

from o t h e r p o l i t i c a l t h i n k e r s such a s F i t z j a m e s Stephen and

c a r l y l e . The purpose of t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e n , i s no t t o b e l i t -

t l e M i l l ' s a s s e r t i o n o f t h e s e l i m i t s . I t i s r a t h e r , t o a rgue

t h a t t h i s , a s it were, nega t ive concept ion of l i b e r t y and in -

d i v i d u a l i t y , was compat ible w i th o t h e r i d e a s and assumptions

t h a t were n e i t h e r " l i b e r a l " nor " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c " -- namely

h i s d e t e r m i n i s t and e l i t i s t accounts of p o l i t i c s and s o c i e t y .

I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n t o On L ibe r ty M i l l wrote :

The o b j e c t of t h i s Essay i s t o a s s e r t one very s i m - p l e p r i n c i p l e , a s e n t i t l e d t o govern a b s o l u t e l y t h e d e a l - i n g s of s o c i e t y wi th t h e i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e way of compul- s i o n and c o n t r o l , whether t h e means used by p h y s i c a l f o r c e i n t h e form of l e g a l p e n a l t i e s , o r t h e moral coerc ion of p u b l i c opinion. That p r i n c i p l e i s , t h a t t h e s o l e end f o r which mankind a r e war ran ted , i n d i v i d u a l l y o r c o l l e c t i v e l y , i n i n t e r f e r i n g wi th t h e l i b e r t y of a c t i o n of any of t h e i r number, i s s e l f - p r o t e c t i o n . 1

I n o t h e r words, t h e use of oral o r l e g a l coerc ion i s

j u s t i f i a b l e only i f an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i o n produces some ob-

v ious s o c i a l harm. Only t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s "o ther - regard ing"

a c t i o n s may be regarded a s t h e o b j e c t o f l e g i t i m a t e i n t e r f e r -

ence. On t h e o t h e r hand, a l l t h o s e a c t i o n s t h a t cannot be de-

f i n e d a s "o ther - regard ing" f a l l beyond t h e scope of l e g i t i -

mate s o c i a l i n t e r f e r e n c e o r compulsion:

- - - t h e r e i s a sphere of a c t i o n i'n which s o c i k t y , a s

J .S . M i l l , On L ibe r ty . Co l l ec t ed Works of John S t u a r t M i l l Vol. X V I I I , ed. J.M. Robson (Un ive r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Routledge and Kegan Pau l , 1 9 7 7 L , p.223.

a r e

d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e i n d i v i d u a l , h a s , i f any, o n l y a n i n d i r e c t i n t e r e s t ; comprehending a l l t h a t p o r t i o n of a p e r s o n ' s l i f e and conduc t .which a f f e c t s o n l y h i m s e l f , o r i f i t a l s o a f f e c t s o t h e r s , o n l y w i t h t h e i r f r e e , volun- t a r y and undeceived c o n s e n t and p a r t i c i p a t i o n ... This ... i s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e r e g i o n o f human l i b e r t y . 1

I n s h o r t , s o c i e t y i s n o t j u s t i f i e d i n i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h t h e i n -

d i v i d u a l ' s " s e l f - r e g a r d i n g " a c t i v i t i e s .

A t f i r s t s i g h t n o t h i n g c o u l d a p p e a r more s imply " l i b e r a l "

and " i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c " t h a n t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between " s e l f -

r e g a r d i n g " and " o t h e r - r e g a r d i n g " a c t i v i t i e s . However t h e

p r i n c i p l e , t h u s s t a t e d , does n o t e x p r e s s t h e whole r a n g e o f

M i l l ' s i n t e n t i o n s . The p r i n c i p l e i s a t t e n d e d by a number o f

c o n d i t i o n s and q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , and i t s p r e c i s e s i g n i f i c a n c e

c a n n o t b e p r o p e r l y g r a s p e d i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e s e . When t h e y

t a k e n i n t o accoun t a p p e a r s t h a t M i l l i n t e n d e d r a t h e r

Pore i n p r o p o s i n g a d i s t i n c t i o n between s e l f and o t h e r - r e g a r d -

i n g a c t i v i t i e s t h a n s i n p l y p r o v i d i n g a l i b e r t a r i a n " r u l e of

thumb" f o r judg ing conduc t .

M i l l d i d n o t c o n s i d e r l i b e r t y a s a n " a p r i o r i " o r " t r a n s - - /---- c e n d e n t a l " r i g h t . Throughout h i s l i f e h e was opposed t o " a

p r i o r i " and " t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " sys tems o f n e t a p h y s i c s and e t h i c s . 2

Thus a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f On L i b e r t y he w r o t e : " I t i s p r o p e r

t o s t a t e t h a t I f o r e g o any advan tage which c o u l d be d e r i v e d

t o my argument from t h e i d e a . o f a b s t r a c t r i g h t a s a t h i n g

independen t o f u t i l i t y . I r e g a r d u t i l i t y a s t h e u l t i m a t e

see below pp . 20-23.

a p p e a l on a l l e t h i c a l q u e s t i o n s ; b u t it n u s t be u t i l i t y i n

t h e l a r g e s t s e n s e , ?rounded on t h e permanent i n t e r e s t s o f man

a s a p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g . "I A c o n n e c t i o n between l i b e r t y and - -- ---" -

u t i l i t y i s assumed, o r i m p l i e d , i n 0 t h

e i n Chag-IV h e w r '.-

o f a l l arguments a g a i n s t t h e i n t e r f e r e n c e o f t h e p u b l i c w i t h

p u r e l y p e r s o n a l conduc t i s t h a t , when it does i n t e r f e r e , t h e

odds a r e t h a t it i n t e r f e r e s wrongly and i n t h e wrong p l a c e " . 2

I n o t h e r words , i n a p p r o p r i a t e i n t e r f e r e n c e w i l l c a u s e unneces-

s a r y d a r a g e t o s o c i e t y ( o r , a t l e a s t , c e r t a i n p a r t s o f i t ) .

S o c i a l u t i l i t y w i l l b e harrred. Without s t r e s s i n g t h e connec- L--- -_ - _-_ *-- I----

t i o n between l i b e r t y and u t i l i t y t o o s t r o n g l y , i t seems t o be

a s s u r e d i n F i l l ' s arguments t h a t t h e r o r a l v a l i d i t y of t h e -\_-- -XI

p r i n c i p l e s o f l i b c o n s i d e r e d p r i o r t o , o r i n - -- -- - * - *

_/---- -

s n o t t o s a y t h a t M i l l was as -

s e r t i n g t h a t t h e s o l e o b j e c t o f l i b e r t y was t o promote u t i l -

i t y . L i b e r t y c o u l d b e pursued f o r r e a s o n s t h a t might n o t be

i ~ m e d i a t e l y o r d i r e c t l y subsunab le under t h e n o t i o n o f u t i l i t y .

However, u n l e s s u t i l i t y " i n t h e l a r g e s t s e n s e , grounded on t h e

permanent i n t e r e s t s o f man a s a p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g " was among

t h e o b j e c t s p r o r o t e d , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , l i b e r t y

c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d t o have any r o r a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n . I n

s h o r t , t h e p r o n o t i o n o f u t i l i t y was an i n d i s p e n s i b l e ( a l t h o u g h

n o t n e c e s s a r i l y s u f f i c i e n t ) c o n d i t i o n f o r t h e a s s e r t i o n o f t h e

'~ i l l , On L i b e r t y , p.224.

bid., p.283.

p r i n c i p l e s o f l i b e r t y . 1

The c o n n e c t i o n between l i b e r t y and u t i l i t y u n d e r l i e s _- _/- _ - - - --".. - .

ill's q u a l i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s c o p e o f t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l i b e r t y

( a q u a l i f i c a t i o n t h a t a r i s e s p r e c i s e l y because he d i d n o t re-

g a r d l i b e r t y a s a n a p r i o r i o r t r a n s c e n d e n t a l " r i g h t " ) . He -\--r

argued t h a t under c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s L

t h e p r i n c i p l e o f l i b e r t y would h i n d e r , r a t h e r t h a n promote, util-

i t y . For C L - -

i n s t a n c e , l i b e r t y s h o u l d n o t b e

backward s t a t e s o f s o c i e t y i n which t h e r a c e i t s e l f may be

i n t h e way o f spontaneous p r o g r e s s a r e s o g r e a t t h a t t h e r e

i s se ldom any c h o i c e of means f o r overcoming t h e n ; and a ru-

l e r f u l l o f t h e s p i r i t o f i r p r o v e v e n t i s w a r r a n t e d i n t h e u s e

o f any e x p e d i e n t s t h a t w i l l a t t a i n a n end pe rhaps o t h e r w i s e

u n a t t a i n a b l e " . I n o t h e r words "improvement" o r " p r o g r e s s "

( t h a t i s t o s a y u t i l i t y "grounded on t h e p e r ~ a n e n t i n t e r e s t s

o f van a s a p r o g r e s s i v e b e i n g " ) t a k e p recedence o v e r " l i b e r t y " * .*.-

l ~ l a n Ryan h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t i n On L i b e r t y M i l l was con- c e r n e d w i t h "what l i e s beyond r a t i o n a l i t y , i n t h e s p h e r e o f i m a g i n a t i o n , s e l f - c u l t u r e , ( and) p e r s o n a l a e s t h e t i c s " . Alan Ryan, John S t u a r t M i l l (London: ~ b u t l e d ~ e and Keqan P a u l , 1974) , p.233. Ryan's a r g u n e n t rests on t h e a s s e r t i o n t h a t M i l l was concerned w i t h t h o s e a c t i o n s t h a t l i e beyond t h e s p h e r e o f m o r a l i t y and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t , p r o p e r l y speaking, be c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r moral o r immoral. F i l l undoubtedly does r a k e t h i s d i s - t i n c t i o n . However, F i l l j u s t i f i e s t h e d i s t i n c t i o n on r o r a l ( u t i l i t a r i a n ) grounds and i n t h a t s e n s e t h e rea lm o f l i b e r t y i s n o t a u t o n o ~ o u s i n t h e way. t h a t Ryan seems t o s u g g e s t .

2~ i l l , On L i b e r t y , p .224.

3 ~ b i d .

i n t h a t , on occas ions , i t is p e r f e c t l y l e g i t i r a t e t o s e c u r e ----- -

t h e s e ends through coerc ion . Thus M i l l argued t h a t : "Despo- ._ _ - - -- - - .

t i s n i s a l e g i t i m a t e rode of government i n d e a l i n g wi th bar-

b a r i a n s , provided t h e end be t h e i r improvement and t h e n-eans

j u s t i f i e d by a c t u a l l y e f f e c t i n g t h a t end ... [in such s o c i e t i e s

t h e r e i s no th ing f o r men] b u t i m p l i c i t obedience t o an Akbar o r

a Charlemagne, if they a r e s o f o r t u n a t e a s t o f i n d one. !I I

Under o t h e r c o n d i t i o n s , however, t h e a s s e r t i o n of l i b e r t y

i s p e r f e c t l y compatible w i th ( i f n o t , conducive t o ) t h e improve-

ment of pankind. Thus t h e p r i n c i p l e s of l i b e r t y a r e t o be as -

s e r t e d " a s soon a s mankind have a t t a i n e d t h e capac i ty of being

guided t o t h e i r own improve-ment by conv ic t ion o r pe r suas ion" .

A s f a r a s M i l l was concerned t h i s s t a g e had been "reached i n

a l l n a t i o n s w i th whom we need h e r e concern ou r se lves by

which he p r e s u ~ a b l y meant n i n e t e e n t h cen tury western c i v i l i -

z a t i o n .

Whatever e l s e P i l l may have n e a n t by l i b e r t y , i t ----.- i s --A ---. c l e g r

t h a t he d i d n o t mean something t h a t could be e n t i r e l y d ivorced I

from u t i l i t y and i r ~ ~ r o v e m e n t . ~ I f he had meant something e l s e I

' ~ e r t r u d e H i m e l f a r b has argued t h a t i n On L i b e r t y E n i l l was advoca t ing " t h e a b s o l u t e va lue of a b s o l u t e freedom of d i scus - s i o n " and t h a t he was "committed t o i n d i v i d u a l i t y a s a good i n i t s e l f , indeed t h e h i g h e s t good" on t h e grounds t h a t P i l l ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f l i b e r t y were " too r r in iva l" t o c a r r y any o t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n . Ger t rude H i m e l f a r b , On L i b e r t y and L ibe ra l i sm (New York: A.A. Knopf, 19741 , pp. 5 5 , 71, 2 1 . I n one sense M i l l ' s q u a l i f i c a t i o n s of l i b e r t y a r e

it i s ha rd t o s e e why he should have a s s e r t e d t h a t coerc ion

was a l s o a p e r f e c t l y admissable way o f s e c u r i n g p rog res s .

I n t h i s s ense , M i l l ' s p r i n c i p l e of l i b e r t y was c l o s e l y con- \- -

nec ted ( a t l e a s t i n h i s own mind) w i t h h i s no t ion of u t i l i t y /_-. - "grounded on t h e permanent i n t e r e s t s of man a s a p rog res s ive ----. _X

being. " I- -

The i d e a of l i b e r t y of thought was s i m i l a r l y connected

w i e a of p rogress i n t h a t P i l l argued t h a t t h e a s s e r -

t i o n o f l i b e r t y o f thought would f a c i l i t a t e t h e emergence of

" t r u t h " . He summarized h i s reasons f o r recommending l i b e r t y

of thought i n t h e fol lowing manner:

F i r s t , if any op in ion i s compelled t o s i l e n c e , t h a t op in ion may, f o r aught we can c e r t a i n l y know, be t r u e . To deny t h i s i s t o assume o u r own i n f a l l i b i l i t y .

Secondly, though t h e s i l e n c e d op in ion be an e r r o r , i t may, and very commonly does , c o n t a i n a p o r t i o n of t r u t h ; and s i n c e t h e gene ra l o r p r e v a i l i n g o ~ i n i o n on any sub- j e c t i s r a r e l y o r never t h e whole t r u t h , it is only by t h e c o l l i s i o n o f adverse op in ions t h a t t h e remainder of t h e t r u t h has any chance o f be ing supp l i ed .

Th i rd ly , even i f t h e r ece ived op in ion be n o t t r u e , b u t t h e whole t r u t h ; un l e s s it i s s u f f e r e d t o be , and ac- t u a l l y i s , v igorous ly and e r n e s t l y c o n t e s t e d , it w i l l , by most o f t hose who r e c e i v e i t , be he ld i n a manner o f a p r e j u d i c e , w i th l i t t l e comprehension o r f e e l i n g of i t s r a t i o n a l grounds. And no t on ly t h i s , b u t f o u r t h l y , t h e meaning of t h e d o c t r i n e i t s e l f w i l l be i n danger of being l o s t o r en feeb led , and depr ived o f i t s v i t a l e f f e c t on t h e c h a r a c t e r and conduct: t h e dogma becoming a more for - mal p r o f e s s i o n , i n e f f i c a c i o u s f o r good, b u t cumbering t h e ground and p reven t ing t h e growth of any r e a l and hea r t - f e l t conv ic t ion from reason o r pe r sona l exper ience. 1

"minimal". However, t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s a r e based on h i s con- c e p t i o n s o f " u t i l i t y " and "p rog res s " - and a s u t i l i t y and pro- g r e s s p l a y such an important p a r t i n F i l l ' s philosophy h i s q u a ' l i f i c a t i o n s o f l i b e r t y on t h e s e grounds cannot be dismissed t h a t e a s i l y .

l ~ i l l , On L i b e r t y , p. 258.

1.7

I n o t h e r words , freedonl of d i s c u s s i o n i s an e s s e n t i a l condi-

t i o n o f t r u t h . Without freedom of d i s c u s s i o n c e r t a i n t r u t h s

might be s u p p r e s s e d . Fur the rmore , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o e n s u r e

t h a t t r u t h s a r e h e l d w i t h c o n v i c t i o n , and t h a t can o n l y hap-

pen i f t h e y a r e c o n t i n u a l l y c o n t e s t e d . However, M i l l was n o t

recommending a n open ended and p e r p e t u a l d i a l o g u e between

t r u t h and f a l s e h o o d :

But what! ( i t may be asked) , i s t h e absence o f unan- $ i m i t y an i n d i s p e n s i b l e c o n d i t i o n o f t r u e knowledge?. . .

I a f f i r m no such t h i n g . A s mankind improve, t h e num-- b e r of d o c t r i n e s w h i c h - z e - n o l o n q e r d i s p u t e d o r dou

p--

b t e d - w i l l b e c o n s t a n t l y -o_n_theincreas~---&_thewe&-&.e_l3g o f m ; ; i i r ( i ~ ~ - T E ~ a l m o s t be measured by t h e number and g r a v i t y of-the-truths whi c h h a v e r e a c ~ e ~ ~ - ~ ~ f - " ? j ~ - ~ e - E i i ~ - u n ~ - - ~ - _ -__ _ _ -.---- -I__ _- contes t$_ /&an..KiL.L a d d s - t h a t w h e n - this EQ~JL~- has- t reea reagk&cpertain a r t i f i c i a l rPeans o-f c o n t e s t i n o t h e " Lrut-Ls w i l l - h a v e t o b e e m p l o y e d _ ~ o t h a t t h e

n] - L i b e r t y o f o p i n i o n , t h e n , w i l l n o t h i n d e r t h e emergence o f A _ ---- - - - - _ l__l_ _- -_ ---a ----

u n q u e s t i o n a b l e " t r u t h s " . On t h e c o n t r a r y , a s l i b e r t y o f opin- -- .- - - -- - " - A"-

i o n i s an e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n o f t h e ve ry e x i s t e n c e o f t r u t h ,

s o , t h e a s s e r t i o n o f l i b e r t y w i l l , i f a n y t h i n g , f a c i l i t a t e t h e

emergence o f u n q u e s t i o n a b l e t r u t h s . Fur the rmore , t h e emergence

o f u n q u e s t i o n a b l e t r u t h s w i l l n o t r e s t r i c t t h e scope o f l i b -

e r t y a s i t w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o s u s t a i n t h e c o n v i c t i o n w i t h

which such t r u t h s a r e h e l d th rough a p r o c e s s o f c o n t i n u a l

a rgumenta t ion .

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e n , M i l l was a r g u i n g t h a t t h e v e r y ,

e x i s t e n c e o f t r u t h was dependent upon l i b e r t y o f t h o u g h t .

l ~ b i d . , p .250.

~ u r t h e r m o r e , he cons ide red t h a t t r u t h and u t i l i t y were i n - /--

sepa rab l e . ' I n t h i s s ense t h e g r a d u a l emergence o f t r u t h

t h a t would a t t e n d l i b e r t y of thought may be regarded a s an-

o t h e r f a c e t o f t h e u t i l i t y o f l i b e r t y . I n s h o r t , t h e i d e a o f \-.- _

l i b e r t y appea r s t o have been i n t i m a t e l y connec ted , a t l e a s t

i n M i l l ' s mind, w i t h " u t i l i t y " , " t r u t h " and "p rog re s s " . Th is -- -*- - i s n o t t o say t h a t M i l l r egarded l i b e r t y simply a s a means,

o r i n s t r u m e n t , des igned t o s e c u r e t h e s e o t h e r ends . There i s

no e x p l i c i t s u g g e s t i o n i n M i l l ' s argument t h a t " u t i l i t y " ,

' ' t r u t h " and "p rog re s s " shou ld t a k e p r i o r i t y ove r " l i b e r t y " -

n e i t h e r , however, does he sugges t t h a t t h e r e v e r s e shou ld be

t h e c a s e . A l l t h a t can be s a i d , t h e r e f o r e , a t t h i s p o i n t ,

i s t h a t t h e s e v a r i o u s i d e a s appear t o have been i n e x t r i c a b l y

compounded i n M i l l ' s mind. Whatever else F i l l may have i n - #/

tended by h i s advocacy o f l i b e r t y i t i s c l e a r t h a t he d i d n o t

mean t h a t l i b e r t y shou ld be cons ide red a "good i n i t s e l f " ; i..

t h a t i s t o s a y , an end independent o f a l l o t h e r mora l , s o c i a l .<

and p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . Consequent ly , t h e r e appears -. -.

bid., p.233.

20wen Chadwick has claimed t h a t M i l l r egarded l i b e r t y a s "a q u a l i t y o f l i f e ; n o t an i n s t r u m e n t , b u t a good i n i t s e l f , a q u a l i t y o f man and o f s o c i e t y which enab led moral p e r s o n a l i t y , moral d e v e l o p ~ e n t , s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n . " (The S e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e European Mind i n t h e Nine teen th Century , p . 2 9 ) . Th is c l a i m makes it s e e m a s though M i l l was an exponent o f t r a n s c e n d e n t a l e t h i c s . However, a p a r t f r o m - t h i s i m p l i c i t d i s t o r t i o n o f M i l l ' s i n t e n t i o n s , Chadwick's a s s e r t i o n appea r s t o rest on a d i s t i n c - t i o n between means and ends t h a t i s n o t e n t i r e l y a p p r o p r i a t e . M i l l may indeed have been of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t l i b e r t y shou ld n o t be regarded a s an i n s t rumen t . However, t h a t does n o t mean t h a t he n e c e s s a r i l y regarded it a s a "good i n i t s e l f " - t h a t i s t o s a y , an end independent o f a l l o t h e r p o s s i b l e ends .

t o be a c l e a r war ran t f o r t r e a t i n g On L i b e r t y w i t h i n t h e con-

t e x t of M i l l ' s o t h e r p o l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s .

M i l l was &he exponent of a p a r t i c u l a r l y thorough kind o f

empiricism (which he r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e Philosophy of Exper-

i ence ) and h i s concept ions of u t i l i t y and p rog res s r e s t e d on

t h i s empiricism. For a number o f reasons h i s p o l i t i c s and h i s

ve r s ion of empir ic ism a r e i n s e p a r a b l e . To begin wi th M i l l

was n o t a s c e p t i c . Unlike Hume he be l i eved t h a t i nduc t ions

could l e a d t o complete c e r t a i n t y . He argued, i n e f f e c t , t h a t

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f "laws of n a t u r e " , which could themselves be

d i scovered i n d u c t i v e l y , provided t h e u l t i m a t e war ran t f o r t h i s

c e r t a i n t y . One o f t h e main o b j e c t s of t h i s argument was t o

show t h a t t h e phenomena o f mind and s o c i e t y were a l s o govern-

ed by laws, and i n t h i s sense M i l l was a d e t e r m i n i s t . Fur ther -

more he f e l t t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t between empir ic ism and a p r i o r i

metaphysics was a p o l i t i c a l i s s u e of g r e a t importance f o r he

r epea t ed ly c l a i v e d t h a t a p r i o r i s m was no th ing more than a

p h i l o s o p h i c a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l

i s m . I n g e n e r a l , t hen , some of t h e more

M i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l thought a r e t o be found

One o f t h e c e n t r a l arguments o f t h e

r e a l i n f e r e n c e s a r e , i n t h e l a s t r e s o r t ,

and moral obscurant-

g e n e r a l premises of

i n h i s account of em-

Logic i s t h a t a l l

i nduc t ions . Whatever

is n o t a n i n d u c t i o n i s s imply a s p e c i e s o f v e r b a l t r a n s f o r -

m a t i o n which c a n n o t , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , be c o n s i d e r e d a s

knowledge.' T h i s i s t h e b a s i s o f M i l l ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between

" v e r b a l p r o p o s i t i o n s " and " r e a l p r o p o s i t i o n s " . A v e r b a l pro-

p o s i t i o n i s one "which a s s e r t s of a t h i n g under a p a r t i c u l a r

name, o n l y what i s a s s e r t e d of it i n t h e f a c t o f c a l l i n g i t

by t h a t nane" . A r e a l p r o p o s i t i o n , by c o n t r a s t , p r e d i c a t e s

"of a t h i n g some f a c t n o t i n v o l v e d i n t h e s i g n i f i c a t i o n o f t h e

name by which t h e p r o p o s i t i o n speaks o f i t " . 3 M i l l adds t h a t

t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between r e a l and v e r b a l p r o p o s i t i o n s c o r r e s -

ponds t o t h e K a n t i a n d i s t i n c t i o n between s y n t h e t i c and a n a l y t i c

judgments.4 The f u n c t i o n and l o g i c a l v a l u e o f t h e s y l l o g i s m

i s analogous t o t h a t o f v e r b a l p r o p o s i t i o n s i n t h a t , "no r e a -

s o n i n g from g e n e r a l s t o p a r t i c u l a r s c a n , a s s u c h , prove any-

t h i n g : s i n c e from a g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e w e c a n n o t i n f e r any

p a r t i c u l a r s , b u t t h o s e which t h e P r i n c i p l e i t s e l f assumes a s

known". The s y l l o g i s ~ c a n n o t add t o o u r knowledge; it can

o n l y , under c e r t a i n c i r c u m s t a n c e s , r e f i n e i t . The p remises

of a s y l l o g i s m , however, a r e i n d u c t i o n s and t h u s , whatever

t r u t h i s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e s y l l o q i s m i s con-

t i n g e n t upon t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h o s e i n d u c t i o n s .

2 vo s o n 1 9 7 3

S . M i l l , A System o f Logic R a t i o c i n a t i v e and I n d u c t i v e , The C o l l e c t e d Works o f John S t u a r t M i l l , e d . J . M . Rob

v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , : 288.

4 ~ b i d . , f o o t n o t e , p .116.

M i l l a l s o a t t e m p t e d t o show t h a t mathemat ics and geometry

res t on i n d u c t i o n s and i t i s e s p e c i a l l y i n t h i s r e s p e c t t h a t

h i s empi r i c i sm was p a r t i c u l a r l y thorough and r a d i c a l . ' H e

a rgued t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and axioms o f g e o v e t r y a r e excep-

t i o n a l i n t h a t t h e y a r e , s t r i c t l y s p e a k i n g , f i c t i t i ~ u s . ~ Never-

t h e l e s s h e c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e s e " f i c t i o n s " a r e among " o u r

f i r s t and n o s t obv ious g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s concern ing n a t u r a l ob-

j e c t s . " Likewise , numbers a r e mere ly d e s c r i p t i o n s of t h i n g s :

" A l l numbers must b e numbers of something: t h e r e axe no such

t h i n g s a s numbers i n t h e a b s t r a c t . Ten must mean t e n b o d i e s ... o r t e n b e a t i n g s o f t i e p u l s e . "4 The o n l y p e c u l i a r i t y of t h e

language o f mathemat ics i s i t s u n i v e r s a l i t y . A s a l l t h i n g s

may be e q u a l l y d e s c r i b e d i n t e rms of numbers, s o t h e r e i s no

need t o keep i n mind a p a r t i c u l a r g roup o f t h i n g s when engag-

i n g i n a ma themat ica l c a l c u l a t i o n . I n o t h e r words t h e r e a l

i n d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r o f mathemat ics i s mere ly d i s g u i s e d by t h e

"ext reme g e n e r a l i t y o f t h e language. " 5 M i l l concluded t h a t

a s t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e i n e x p e r i e n c e f o r b o t h mathemat ics a n d ,

t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and axioms o f geometry , s o t h e r e i s no need

t o c o n s t r u c t , o r i n v e n t , a n a d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e o f t e s t imony

independen t o f e x p e r i e n c e . Thus, i n g e n e r a l he a rgued t h a t

' p h i l o s o p h e r s , i n c l u d i n g Frege and Ayer, have g e n e r a l l y found t h i s one o f t h e l e a s t s a t i s f a c t o r y p a r t s o f M i l l ' s a r - gument.

2 ~ i l l f A System o f Log ic , 1:224.

3 ~ b i d . , p. 225.

bid., p. 254.

'1bid.

a l l v a l i d reasoning (and t h a t i nc ludes s y l l o g i s t i c l o g i c ,

mathematics and geometry] e i t h e r r e s t s on i n d u c t i o n s , o r

is i t s e l f i n d u c t i v e , and t h a t consequent ly t h e r e a r e no pro-

c e s s e s of reasoning independent of exper ience . 1

A s a l l knowledge i s i n d u c t i v e , it fol lows t h a t t h e r e i s

no r e a l d i s t i n c t i o n ktweenan inductive s c i e n c e and a deduc t ive

s c i ence . Those branches of knowledge t h a t appear t o e x h i b i t

an e x c l u s i v e l y deduc t ive c h a r a c t e r a r e themselves based on

i n d u c t i o n s . However, n o t a l l i nduc t ions a r e t h e sane . I f

t h e i nduc t ions of a s c i e n c e a r e of a s u f f i c i e n t l y comprehen-

s i v e c h a r a c t e r t h e 4 i n d i v i d u a l p r o p o s i t i o n s of t h e s c i e n c e

may be deduced from them. I n such cases t h e r e i s no longe r

any need f o r each i n d i v i d u a l p r o p o s i t i o n of t h e s c i e n c e t o

r e s t on i t s own s p e c i a l i nduc t ion . A s c i e n c e which e x h i b i t s

t h i s c h a r a c t e r has become a deduc t ive s c i e n c e . On t h e o t h e r

hand, i f t h i s l e v e l o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n has n o t been a t t a i n e d ,

then a l l t h e i n d i v i d u a l p r o p o s i t i o n s of t h e s c i e n c e must r e s t

on s p e c i a l i n d i v i d u a l i nduc t ions . A s c i ence which e x h i b i t s

t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s an e m p i r i c a l s c i ence . I n t h i s way M i l l

l ~ i l l was a s s e r t i n g t h e fo l lowing wi th r e s p e c t t o t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p r i o r i knowledge.

F i r s t : Ana ly t i c judgments (which M i l l c a l l s v e r b a l pro- p o s i t i o n s ) do n o t c o n s t i t u t e knowledge i n t h e s ense t h a t they cannot add t o e x i s t i n g knowledge. Therefore a n a l y t i c judg- ments cannot be used t o suppor t t h e c l a im t h a t t h e r e can be a p r i o r i knowledge.

Second: I f t h e d e f i n i t i o n s and some o f t h e axioms of geometry a r e t o be cons idered a s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s from exper ience then geometry i s a p o s t e r i o r i knowledge. The same holds t r u e o f mathematics. I n o t h e r words a p r i o r i s y n t h e t i c judgments a r e imposs ib le .

Therefore , t h e r e can be n e i t h e r a n a l y t i c nor s y n t h e t i c a p r i o r i knowledge.

f o r r u l a t e d an i m p o r t a n t d i s t i n c t i o n between e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e s

and d e d u c t i v e s c i e n c e s ( a l t h o u g h b o t h u l t i m a t e l y res t on i n -

d u c t i o n s ) . An e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e , however, may assume a de-

d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r , and i t i s t h i s p r o c e s s o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n

t h a t h a s c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e n a t u r a l s c i e n c e s :

From b e i n g s c i e n c e s o f p u r e exper iment , a s t h e p h r a s e i s , o r , t o speak more c o r r e c t l y , s c i e n c e s i n which t h e r e a s o n i n g s mos t ly c o n s i s t o f no more t h a n one s t e p , and a r e e x p r e s s e d by s i n g l e s y l l o g i s m s , a l l t h e s e s c i e n c e s have become t o some e x t e n t , and some o f them i n n e a r l y w d l e o f t h e i r e x t e n t , s c i e n c e s o f p u r e r e a s o n i n g ; whereby m u l t i t u d e s o f t r u t h s , a l r e a d y known by i n d u c t i o n from a s many d i f f e r e n t s e t s of e x p e r i m e n t s , have come t o be ex- h i b i t e d a s d e d u c t i o n s o r c o r o l l a r i e s from i n d u c t i v e p r o p o s i t i o n s o f a s i m p l e r and more u n i v e r s a l c h a r a c t e r . 1

P i l l ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e and deduc-

t i v e s c i e n c e i s f u r t h e r c l a r i f i e d by h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f laws o f

n a t u r e . He a r g u e s t h a t e v e r y i n d u c t i o n i s based on t h e assurrp-

t i o n t h a t " t h e c o u r s e o f n a t u r e i s uni form" i n t h a t an i n -

d u c t i o n " c o n s i s t s o f i n f e r r i n g from some i n d i v i d u a l i n s t a n c e s

i n which a phenomenon i s obse rved t o o c c u r , t h a t i t o c c u r s

i n a l l i n s t a n c e s o f a c e r t a i n c l a s s . " * This assumpt ion i s

i t s e l f a p r o d u c t o f e x p e r i e n c e . Moreover, t h e g e n e r a l uni -

f o r m i t y o f n a t u r e i s t h e r e s u l t o f t h e laws o f n a t u r e . These

laws may b e r e g a r d e d a s " s e p a r a t e t h r e a d s o f connexion between

p a r t s o f t h e g r e a t whole which we t e r m n a t u r e ...[ and from which]

a g r e a t t i s s u e o f connexion unavoidably weaves i t s e l f , by

A System o f Logic ,

24

which t h e whole i s h e l d t o g e t h e r . "' A law o f n a t u r e i s t h u s

t h e h i g h e s t level o f g e n e r a l i z a t i o n a t t a i n a b l e by a n induc-

t i o n . Once a s c i e n c e i s i n p o s s e s s i o n o f t h e laws o f n a t u r e

govern ing t h e p a r t i c u l a r phenomena w i t h which i t i s conver-

s a n t , t h e n a l l f u r t h e r phenomena o f t h e same d e s c r i p t i o n may

be deduced from t h o s e laws o f n a t u r e . I n o t h e r words t h e

d i s c o v e r y of laws of n a t u r e e n a b l e s a s c i e n c e t o assume a

d e d u c t i v e c h a r a c t e r . An e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e , by c o n t r a s t , i s

/' one whlch i s c o n v e r s a n t w i t h c e r t a i n p a r t i a l r e q u l a r i t i e s

which c a n n o t be subsumed under a law o f n a t u r e . Only when

t h e laws o f n a t u r e have been a s c e r t a i n e d c a n t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s

o f a s c i e n c e be r e g a r d e d a s d e d u c t i v e and n e c e s s a r y t r u t h s .

M i l l ' s r e j e c t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a p r i o r i ( o r t r a n s -

c e n d e n t a l ) knowledge, and h i s d i s t i n c t i o n between e m p i r i c a l

and d e d u c t i v e s c i e n c e s , form t h e b a s i s o f h i s a n a l y s i s o f t h e

l o g i c of t h e moral s c i e n c e s . H i s o b j e c t i n Book V I o f t h e

Logic i s t o r e s u c e t h e oral s c i e n c e s from mere empi r i c i sm:

... i f what h a s been pronounced " t h e p r o p e r s t u d y o f mankind" i s n o t d e s t i n e d t o remain t h e o n l y s u b j e c t which Ph i losophy c a n n o t succeed i n r e s c u i n g from Empiricism; t h e s a n e p r o c e s s th rough which t h e laws o f rrany s i m p l e r pheno- mena have by g e n e r a l acknowledgement been p l a c e d beyond d i s p u t e , must b e c o n s c i o u s l y and d e l i b e r a t e l y a p p l i e d t o t h o s e more d i f f i c u l t i n q u i r i e s Ehe mora l s c i e n c e s l . 3

A Sys tem o f Logic ,

2 5

I n o t h e r words t h e p u r p o s e of t h e e n q u i r y i s t o show t h e man-

n e r i n which t h e u n i v e r s a l laws o f human conduc t may be as -

c e r t a i n e d s o t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s o c i a l phenomena may b e e x h i b i t -

ed a s d e d u c t i v e and n e c e s s a r y t r u t h s . ' M i l l hoped t o do f o r

t h e mcra l s c i e n c e s what Bacon had done f o r t h e p h y s i c a l

2 s c i e n c e s .

Fol lowing Comte, M i l l a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e S c i e n c e o f So-

c i e t y d e a l s w i t h two k i n d s o f s o c i a l u n i f o r ~ i t i e s : t h e uni -

/ f o r n i t l e s of c o - e x i s t e n c e , o f S o c i a l S t a t i c s ( t h a t i s t o s a y ,

'1t a p p e a r s t h a t M i l l ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between e m p i r i c a l s c i e n c e and d e d u c t i v e s c i e n c e was i t s e l f t h e r e s u l t o f c e r t a i n r e f l e c t i o n s on t h e n a t u r e o f p o l i t i c s . I n h i s au tob iography he c la imed t h a t h i s i d e a s on t h e s u b j e c t w e r e s p a r k e d o f f by a d i s p u t e between h i s f a t h e r and Macaulay o v e r t h e n a t u r e o f p o l i t i c s . H e w r o t e : " A t t h i s j u n c t u r e appeared i n t h e Edin- burgh Review, M a c a u l a y , ' ~ famous a t t a c k on ny f a t h e r ' s Essay on Government. T h i s gave m e much t o t h i n k a b o u t . I saw t h a t Macaulay ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e l o g i c o f p o l i t i c s was e r r o n e o u s ; t h a t he s t o o d up f o r t h e e n p i r i c a l mode o f t r e a t i n g p o l i t i c a l phenomena, a g a i n s t t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l ; t h a t even i n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e h i s not ionof p h i l o s o p h i z i n g might have recogn ized Kep- l e r , b u t would have exc luded Newton and L a p l a c e . But I c o u l d n o t h e l p f e e l i n g ... t h e r e was t r u t h i n s e v e r a l o f h i s s t r i c - t u r e s o f my f a t h e r ' s t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s u b j e c t ; t h a t my f a t h e r ' s p remises were r e a l l y t o o narrow, and i n c l u d e d b u t a s m a l l number o f t h e g e n e r a l t r u t h s , on which , i n p o l i t i c s , t h e in- p o r t a n t consequences depend ... I now saw t h a t a s c i e n c e i s e i t h e r d e d u c t i v e o r e x p e r i m e n t a l [ernpi r ica l j , a c c o r d i n g a s , i n t h e p r o v i n c e it d e a l s w i t h , t h e e f f e c t s o f c a u s e s when c o n j o i n e d , a r e o r a r e n o t t h e sms o f t h e e f f e c t s which t h e same c a u s e s produce when s e p a r a t e . I t fo l lowed t h a t p o l i t i c s must b e a d e d u c t i v e s c i e n c e . I t t h u s a p p e a r e d , t h a t b o t h Macaulay and ny f a t h e r w e r e wrong; t h a t one i n a s s i m i l a t i n g t h e method o f p h i l o s o p h i z i n g i n p o l i t i c s t o t h e p u r e l y e x p e r i - menta l ne thod o f c h e m i s t r y ; w h i l e t h e o t h e r , though r i g h t i n a d o p t i n g a d e d u c t i v e method , .had made a wrong s e l e c t i o n o f o n e , hav ing t a k e n a s t h e t y p e o f d e d u c t i o n , n o t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r o c e s s , t h a t o f t h e d e d u c t i v e b r a n c h e s o f n a t u r a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t - t h e i n a p p r o p r i a t e one o f p u r e geometry , which, n o t b e i n g a s c i e n c e o f c a u s a t i o n a t a l l , does n o t r e q u i r e o r a d n i t of any summing up o f e f f e c t s . " J .S . M i l l , Autobiography (London: Longmans, 18751, pp.157-61.

L M i l l , A System o f Logic ,

t h e connect ions s u b s i s t i n g between t h e v a r i o u s phenomena with-

i n a given s o c i e t y ) ; and, t h e u n i f o r n i t i e s of succes s ion , o r

s o c i a l Dynamics Cthat i s t o s a y , t h e manner i n which one kind

of s o c i e t y succeeds a n o t h e r ) . The u n i f o r m i t i e s of co-exis-

t ence a r e t h e produc t of s o c i a l d y n a r i c s a s " t h e u n i f o r m i t i e s

o f co-ex is tence o b t a i n i n g among phenomena which a r e t h e laws

of causa t ion by which t h e s e phenomena a r e r e a l l y d e t e m i n e d . I! 1

I t fo l lows t h a t t h e "mutual c o r r e l a t i o n between t h e d i f f e r e n t

elements of each s t a t e of s o c i e t y , i s t h e r e f o r e a d e r i v a t i v e

law, r e s u l t i n g from t h e laws which r e g u l a t e t h e success ion be-

tween one s t a t e of s o c i e t y and ano the r . " * I n o t h e r words t h e

fundamental p rob len o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s i s t o d i scove r t h e

laws of s o c i a l dynamics.

These laws o f succes s ion a r e t o be found i n h i s t o r y , i n

t h a t h i s t o r y a f f o r d s evidence of t h e laws of p rog res s . How-

e v e r , t h e law o f p rog res s found i n h i s t o r y "can only be an

empi r i ca l law".3 I t can never "amount t o a law of na tu re"

because t h e "success ion of s t a t e s o f t h e human mind and o f

human s o c i e t y cannot have an independent law o f i t s own; it

must depend on t h e psychologica l and e t h o l o g i c a l laws which

govern t h e a c t i o n o f c i rcumstances on men and of men on c i r -

cumstances " . Thus M i l l argued t h a t :

The laws o f ~ i n d ... conpose t h e u n i v e r s a l o r a b s t r a c t p o r t i o n o f t h e ph i losophy o f human n a t u r e ; and a l l t h e t r u t h s of common e x p e r i e n c e , c o n s t i t u t i n g a p r a c t i c a l know- ].edge o f mankind, must , t o t h e e x t e n t t o which they a r e t r u t h s , be r e s u l t s o r consequences of t h e s e . 1

The laws o f psycho loo^ a r e t h e u l t i r r a t e laws o f n a t u r e upon

which t h e e m p i r i c a l r e g u l a r i t i e s found i n h i s t o r y a r e , u l t i -

m a t e l y , dependen t . Whatever i s deduced from t h e laws o f psy-

chology rrust , t h e r e f o r e , be c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e e m p i r i c a l laws

o f h i p o r y . I n psychology he was an exponent o f t h e t h e o r y of a s s o c i a -

t i o n . H e a s s e r t e d t h a t i d e a s " a r e a s s o c i a t i o n s n a t u r a l l y and

even n e c e s s a r i l y g e n e r a t e d by t h e o r d e r of o u r s e n s a t i o n s and

L o f o u r r e m i n i s e n c e s of s e n s a t i o n " , and t h a t t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s

fo l lowed f i x e d l a w s . H e was a p s y c h o l o g i c a l d e t e r m i n i s t and

a l t h o u g h he couched h i s e x p o s i t i o n o f t h e d o c t r i n e o f n e c e s s i t y

i n sopewhat a p b i v a l e n t language h i s p r i v a t e f e e l i n g s on t h e

p a t t e r were c l e a r enough.3 On one o c c a s i o n he w r o t e t o h i s

w i f e : "I had a v i s i t l a t e l y from a r a t h e r e l d e r l y American,

a r e t i r e d judge o f t h e Supreme Cour t , C a r l e t o n by name.. . [who,;

seemed c h i e f l y i n t e r e s t e d i n t h e d o c t r i n e of l i b e r t y and nec-

e s s i t y , t h i n k i n g I had conceded t o o much t o t h e f r e e w i l l s i d e ,

and I had t o e x p l a i n t o him though I o b j e c t t o t h e word nec-

*J.s. P i l l , An ~ x a m i n a t i o n o f S i r W i l l i a r Har r i l ton ' s P h i l - ,

osophy (London: Longpans, 1 8 6 5 ) , p .192. '

3 ~ e d i s c u s s e d t h e d o c t r i n e o f n e c e s s i t y i n A Systerr o f L o a i c Book V I , Ch. 2 . A,

e s s i t y I am e n t i r e l y w i t h t h e d o c t r i n e meant by i t " . 1

To sum up: P i l l was a n avowed d e t e r ~ i n i s t . He was n o t

a r g u i n g t h a t s o c i a l phenomena were s u s c e p t i b l e o f p iecemeal

e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n . R a t h e r , he was a s s e r t i n g t h a t a l l

s o c i a l phenomena w e r e s u b j e c t t o i n v a r i a b l e laws and t h a t t h e

o b j e c t o f t h e s o c i a l s c i e n c e s was t o d i s c o v e r t h e s e l aws .

One o f t h e main p u r p o s e s of h i s l o g i c and epis temology was t o

s u p p o r t t h i s c l a i m . /

M i l l c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t between a p r i o r i p h i l -

o s o p h i e s and t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f e x p e r i e n c e was f r a u g h t w i t h

p o l i t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . "The n o t i o n t h a t t r u t h s e x t e r n a l t o

t h e mind." he w r o t e "may be known by i n t u i t i o n o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s ,

independen t ly o f o b s e r v a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e , i s , I am persuad-

e d , i n t h e s e t i m e s , t h e g r e a t i n t e l l e c t u a l s u p p o r t o f f a l s e

d o c t r i n e s and bad i n s t i t u t i o n s . " L A p r i o r i s m was " t h e g r e a t -

e s t s p e c u l a t i v e h i n d e r a n c e t o t h e r e g e n e r a t i o n s o . u r g e n t l y r e -

q u i r e d , o f man and s o c i e t y " . 3

I n p u r e l y a b s t r a c t t e r m s t h e c h i e f s t r e n g t h o f a

metaphysics l a y " i n t h e a p p e a l which it i s a c c u s t o ~ e d

t o t h e e v i d e n c e o f ma themat ics , geometry, and c o g n a t e

p r i o r i

t o make

b ranches

' ~ i l l t o H a r r i e t M i l l , 3 A p r i l 1954, M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 1:193.

2 ~ i l l , Autobiography, p .225.

3 ~ i l l t o Theodor Gorrperz, 19 Aup. 1854, m i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s 1:238.

1. o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e " . One o f t h e o b j e c t s o f h i s a t t a c k

on t h e n o t i o n t h a t mathemat ics , geometry, and n a t u r a l s c i e n c e

r e s t on t r u t h s known a p r i o r i was " t o d r i v e ... a p r i o r i meta- r p h y s i c s ] from i t s s t r o n g h o l d ; " 2 and i n t h i s s e n s e even t h e

more academic p o r t i o n s o f t h e Logic s e r v e d a p o l i t i c a l pur-

p o s e . I n e t h i c s t h e c o n f l i c t between t h e ph i losophy o f ex-

p e r i e n c e and a p r i o r i s m was n o t h i n g less t h a n a c o n f l i c t be-

tween p s o g r e s s and r e a c t i o n : "The c o n t e s t between t h e moral-

i t y which a p p e a l s t o a n e x t e r n a l s t a n d a r d , and t h a t which

grounds i t s e l f on i n t e r n a l c o n v i c t i o n , i s t h e c o n t e s t o f pro-

g r e s s i v e m o r a l i t y a g a i n s t s t a t i o n a r y . I! 3

M i l l a rgued t h a t a p r i o r i e t h i c a l t h e o r i e s , by a p p e a l i n g

t o some s t a n d a r d t h a t was n o t s u s c e p t i b l e o f e m p i r i c a l v e r i -

f i c a t i o n , were , i n r e a l i t y , a t t e m p t s t o persuede men t o s u s -

pend t h e use o f t h e i r c r i t i c a l f a c u l t i e s . The o b j e c t o f

t h u s p e r s u a d i n g men t o suspend t h e u s e o f t h e i r r e a s o n was

s imply t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f some dominant i n t e r e s t

i n s o c i e t y s h o u l d be a c q u i e s c e d i n u n t h i n k i n g l y . A p r i o r i s n -

i n e t h i c s s u p p o r t e d t h e " d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e e x i s t i n g o r d e r o f

t h i n g s i s t h e n a t u r a l o r d e r , and t h a t , b e i n g n a t u r a l a l l i n -

n o v a t i o n upon i t i s c r i m i n a l . " 4 T h i s amounted t o n o t h i n g

' P l i l l , Autobioqraphy, p . 2 2 6 .

2 ~ b i d .

'J .S. M i l l , "Whewell on Moral Ph i losophy" , The C o l l e c t e d Wofks of John S t u a r t M i l l , Vol . X I e d . J . V . Robson ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , 19691, p.179.

more t h a n t h e " d e i f i c a t i o n o f m e r e o p i n i o n and h a b i t . II 1

However, t h e a t t e m p t t o v a l i d a t e custom and p r e j u d i c e i n

t h i s manner was o f t e n s e l f d e f e a t i n g , a s a p r i o r i s m a l s o l e d

t o moral c o n f u s i o n . These moral r u l e s " c l a i m i n g independen t

a u t h o r i t y [ i n t u i t i o n ] " cou ld n o t admi t of any " c o m o n umpire

e n t i t l e d t o i n t e r f e r e between t h e n " and , a s a r e s u l t , such

r u l e s " a f f o r d a f r e e scope f o r t h e a c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l d e s i r e s

and p a r f i a l i t i e s " . Consequent ly rpen's o p i n i o n s "on what i s

l a u d a b l e o r b lamable a r e a f f e c t e d by a l l t h e m u l t i f a r i o u s c a u s e s

which i n f l u e n c e t h e i r wishes i n r e g a r d t o t h e conduct o f

o t h e r s ... Sometimes t h e i r r e a s o n ; a t o t h e r t imes t h e i r p r e -

j u d i c e s o r s u p e r s t i t i o n s ; o f t e n t h e i r s o c i a l a f f e c t i o n s , n o t

seldom t h e i r a n t i s o c i a l o n e s , t h e i r envy o r j e a l o u s y , t h e i r

a r r o g a n c e o r contemptuousness" . The a p p e a l t o i n t u i t i o n l e d

t o m-oral c o n f u s i o n i n t h a t t h e i n t u i t i v e v o i c e o f mankind " s o

o f t e n a p p e a l e d t o i s u n i v e r s a l o n l y i n i t s d i s c o r d a n c e " . 4

M i l l a l s o r e g a r d e d a p r i o r i s m a s t h e c h i e f p h i l o s o p h i c a l

s u p p o r t o f r e l i g i o n . "The whole o f t h e p r e v a l e n t n e t a p h y s i c s

o f t h e p r e s e n t c e n t u r y " he complained " i s one t i s s u e o f sub-

o r n e d e v i d e n c e i n f a v o u r o f r e l i g i o n . " 5 Phi losophy was harned

'J .s . M i l l , U t i l i t a r i a n i s m , i n C o l l e c t e d Works o f John S t u a r t M i l l , Vol . X , e d . J . M . Robson ( U n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , 1 9 6 9 ) , p .226.

3~ i l l , On L i b e r t y , p . 221.

4 " ~ h e w e l l " , p .194.

5 ~ . ~ . M i l l , U t i l i t y o f R e l i g i o n , i n C o l l e c t e d Works of - John S t u a r t M i l l , V o l . ~ , e d . J . M . Robson ( u n i v e r s i t y of Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , 19691, p.404.

by t h i s c o l l u s i o n and t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s , t h u s s u p p o r t e d ,

o f t e n l e f t much t o be d e s i r e d . " I n t h i s age ..." he wro te

" r e a l b e l i e f i n any r e l i g i o u s d o c t r i n e i s f e e b l e and p r e c a r i -

ous . "I Much o f what p a s s e d f o r r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f was, i n e f f e c t ,

n o t h i n g more t h a n mere p r e j u d i c e :

What i s b o a s t e d o f a t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e a s t h e r e v i v a l o f r e l i g i o n i s a lways , i n narrow and u n c u l t i v a t e d v i n d s , a t l e a s t a s much t h e r e v i v a l o f b i q o t r y . -

Fur the rmore , he f e l t t h a t some o f t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s c o l l u -

s i o n between ph i losophy and r e l i a i o n were n o r a l l y danuerous .

The d o c t r i n e , propounded by some a p r i o r i m e t a p h y s i c i a n s ,

t h a t t h e moral a t t r i b u t e s of t h e d e i t y l i e beyond t h e r e a l p

o f human u n d e r s t a n d i n g and t h a t t h e r e f o r e t h e y need n o t con-

form t o t h e r u l e s of human m o r a l i t y was;

... t h e p o s t mora l ly p e r n i c i o u s now c u r r e n t ; and . . . t h e q u e s t i o n i t i n v o l v e s i s beyond a l l o t h e r s which now engage s p e c u l a t i v e minds, t h e d e c i s i v e one between moral good and e v i l f o r t h e C h r i s t i a n wor ld . 3

I n s h o r t , a p r i o r i s m r e s u l t e d i n b l i n d acqu iescence t o a u t h -

o r i t y , moral c o n f u s i o n , and, i n some c a s e s , immoral d o c t r i n e s .

The r e a s o n t h a t t h i s way o f t h i n k i n g e x h i b i t e d s o nany d i v e r s e ,

' w i l l , Autobiography, p . 70.

M i l l , On L i b e r t y , p .240. -

' ~ a m i l t o n , p .90 . The d o c t r i n e M i l l was a t t a c k i n g was t h a t expounded by Manse1 i n The L i m i t s o f R e l i g i o u s Thouqht. Yansel w a s ' a n i d e a l i s t and d i s c i p l e o f S i r Wil l iam Hamil ton. V i l l ' s h o s t i l i t y towards i d e a l i s m , o r a p r i o r i s m was o f t e n v i r u l e n t and dogmat ic . On one o c c a s i o n he r e f e r r e d t o "Mansel 's d e t e s t - a b l e , t o me a b s o l u t e l y loa thsome book". ( M i l l t o Ba in , 7 Jan- u a r y L a t e r ~ e t t e r s , Vol .

and n o t e n t i r e l y compat ib le t e n d e n c i e s , was t h a t it belonged

t o a s t a g e o f man's development t h a t was i n t h e p r o c e s s o f

b e i n g superceded . I n Comtean l anguage t h e s e t e n d e n c i e s belong-

ed t o t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l s t a g e o f man 's p r o g r e s s .

I n t h i s c o n t e x t t h e ph i losophy of e x p e r i e n c e r e p r e s e n t e d

p r o g r e s s . I n e t h i c s t h i s i n v o l v e d t h e ascendency o f u t i l i t a r -

i a n i s m - t h a t i s t o s a y a sys tem i n which t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e

r u l e s ~f moral conduct c o u l d be a s c e r t a i n e d by r e f e r r i n g t o

e x p e r i e n c e - and i n p o l i t i c s i t meant t h e a d o p t i o n o f s c i e n -

t i f i c methods. The main advan tage o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m l a y i n

i t s a p p e a l t o a v e r i f i a b l e e x t e r n a l s t a n d a r d : "Though t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d nay be d i f f i c u l t , i t i s b e t t e r t h a n

none a t a l l : w h i l e i n o t h e r s y s t e r r s , t h e moral laws a l l c la im-

i n g independen t a u t h o r i t y [ i n t u i t i o n b e i n g anong t h e s e i n -

dependent a u t h o r i t i e s 1, t h e r e i s no corrmon umpire e n t i t l e d t o

i n t e r f e r e between them. "' utilitarian is^ t h u s o b v i a t e d t h e

moral c o n f u s i o n a t t e n d i n g a p r i o r i s m . Th i s s e c u l a r rnora l i ty

a l s o avo ided some o f t h e more f l a g r a n t i m m o r a l i t i e s o f c e r -

t a i n r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s ( s u c h a s t h e b e l i e f i n a d e i t y t h a t need

n o t conform t o t h e o r d i n a r y r u l e s o f human c o n d u c t ) . The o n l y

advan tage o f r e l i g i o n and i n t u i t i o n i s m l a y i n t h e i r monopoly

o f t h e means whereby moral s t a n d a r d s a r e e n f o r c e d - namely

p u b l i c o p i n i o n and e d u c a t i o n . 2 P i l l , however, f e l t t h a t t h e s e

means c o u l d e a s i l y be a p p r o p r i a t e d by u t i l i t a r i a n i s m : "There

i s e v i d e n t l y no r e a s o n why a l l t h e s e n o t i v e s f o r obse rvance

L U t i l i t y o f R e l i g i o n ,

3 3

s h o u l d n o t a t t a c h themse lves t o t h e u t i l i t a r i a n r o r a l i t y a s

c o m p l e t e l y and a s p o w e r f u l l y a s t o any o t h e r " .' H e s u g g e s t e d

t h a t i f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m "be t a u g h t a s a r e l i g i o n , and t h e whole

f o r c e o f e d u c a t i o n , o f i n s t i t u t i o n s , and o f o p i n i o n , d i r e c t e d ,

a s i t once was i n t h e c a s e o f r e l i g i o n , t o make every p e r s o n

grow up frorr i n f a n c y su r rounded on a l l s i d e s by t h e p r o f e s -

s i o n and t h e p r a c t i c e o f i t , I t h i n k t h a t no one who can r e a l -

i z e this c o n c e p t i o n w i l l f e e l any m i s g i v i n g a b o u t [ i tq . . . s u f f i ~ i e n c y " . ~ I n t h i s way M i l l hoped t o s e e u t i l i t a r i a n i s n -

e s t a b l i s h e d a s a new s e c u l a r moral consensus ; and i n s o f a r a s

t h e r u l e s o f u t i l i t a r i a n i s m c o u l d b e c o n s i d e r e d s u s c e p t i b l e o f

v e r i f i c a t i o n , t h i s i n v o l v e d t h e a d o p t i o n o f i n d u c t i v e rrethods

i n e t h i c s . 3

H e a l s o hoped t o s e e s i m i l a r p r o g r e s s i n p o l i t i c s . The

aim o f p o l i t i c s , he w r o t e ;

. . . i s t o s u r r o u n d any g i v e n s o c i e t y w i t h t h e g r e a t e s t p o s s i b l e number of c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f which t h e t e n d e n c i e s a r e b e n e f i c i a l , and t o remove o r c o u n t e r a c t , a s f a r a s p r a c t i c a b l e , t h o s e o f which t h e t e n d e n c i e s a r e i n j u r i o u s . 4

bid., p .232 . .

3 ~ n Chap te r 4 o f c i p l e o f u t i l i t y was

U t i l i t a r i a n i s m , W i l l a rgued t h a t t h e p r i n - n o t i t s e l f s u s c e p t i b l e o f p r o o f . "To

be i n c a p a b l e ~ f - ~ r o o f by r e a s o n i n g " he w r o t e "is corrmon t o a l l f i r s t p r i n c i p l e s " . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e p r i n c i p l e , i f a c c e p t - ed (and M i l l c l a imed r e a s o n s c o u l d be g i v e n f o r a c c e p t i n g i t) c o n s t i t u t e d a n o b j e c t i v e s t a n d a r d a c c o r d i n g t o which p a r t i c u l a r moral r u l e s c o u l d be judged.

4 ~ i l l , A System o f L o g i c , 2:878.

3 4

Th i s i n v o l v e d , among o t h e r t h i n g s , a knowledge o f t h e s c i e n c e

o f s o c i e t y . Consequently on ly e x p e r t s s h o u l d frame laws.

"There i s h a r d l y any k ind o f i n t e l l e c t u a l work" he wro te "which

s o much needs t o be done, n o t o n l y by e x p e r i e n c e d and e x e r -

c i s e d minds , b u t by minds t r a i n e d t o t h e t a s k th rough l o n g

and l a b o r i o u s s t u d y , a s t h e b u s i n e s s o f making l aws . I' 1

M i l l t h u s conceived o f p r o g r e s s a s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f

s c i e z t i f i c i n d u c t i v e methods t o b o t h p o l i t i c s and e t h i c s . He

f e l t t h a t t h i s p o s i t i v i s t r e v o l u t i o n would augur t h e f i n a l

s t a g e o f man 's p r o g r e s s . I n h i s au tob iography he w r o t e :

I looked forward th rough t h e p r e s e n t age of loud d i s p u t e s b u t g e n e r a l l y weak c o n v i c t i o n s t o a f u t u r e ...[ i n which t h e r e would b e j c o n v i c t i o n s a s t o what i s r i g h t and wrong, u s e f u l and p e r n i c i o u s , d e e p l y engraven on t h e f e e l i n g s by e a r l y e d u c a t i o n and g e n e r a l unanimi ty o f s e n t i m e n t , and s o f i r m l y grounded i n r e a s o n and i n t h e t r u e e x i g e n c i e s o f l i f e , t h a t they s h a l l n o t , l i k e a l l former and p r e s e n t c r e e d s , r e l i g i o u s , e t h i c a l , and p o l i t i c a l , r e q u i r e t o be p e r i o d i c a l l y thrown o f f and r e p l a c e d by o t h e r s .

Th i s presumably , was t h e g o a l o f M i l l ' s d e t e m i n i s t v i s i o n

o f p o l i t i c s .

M i l l , however, was n o t a c r u d e d e t e r m i n i s t and t h e i d e a

o f i n d i v i d u a l human agency p l a c e d a n i m p o r t a n t ( i f n o t e n t i r e l y

'J .S . M i l l , ~ o n s i d e r a t i b n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governu-ent. C o l l e c t e d Works' o f John S t u a r t M i l l , b o l . X I X ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , 1977) , p . 4 2 8 .

L ~ i l l , Autobiography, p . 1 6 6 .

35

c o n s i s t e n t ) p a r t i n h i s p o l i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . Before examining

t h i s a s p e c t o f P i l l ' s though t i n g r e a t e r d e t a i l , h i s a r q u n e n t s

on t h e s u b j e c t may be b r i e f l y s u m a r i z e d a s f o l l o w s :

F i r s t : A s t h e t r u t h s of e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s canno t b e

known i n t u i t i v e l y ( o r a p r i o r i ) , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e y c a n n o t

be t h e corn-on p r o p e r t y of a l l mankind. Only t h e more h i g h l y

i n s t r u c t e d menbers of s o c i e t y a r e c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h e s e t r u t h s .

Consequen t ly , on such m a t t e r s , t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d mass o f man- - k i n d s h o u l d d e f e r t o t h e s u p e r i o r judgment o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d .

Secondly: The r a t e of p r o g r e s s mankind i s c o n t i n g e n t

upon t h e amount o f i n f l u e n c e e x e r c i s e d by t h e i n s t r u c t e d . I t

f o l l o w s t h a t a n y t h i n g t h a t might t e n d t o l i m i t o r trammel t h e

a u t h o r i t y o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d would a l s o r e t a r d hurran p r o g r e s s .

To r e t u r n t o t h e f i r s t p o i n t : The r a i n t h e s i s o f t h e

Logic i s t h a t t h e p r o p e r method o f a s c e r t a i n i n g any t r u t h i s

t h e s c i e n t i f i c p r o c e s s o f i n d u c t i o n . The c o r o l l a r y of t h i s

t h e s i s t h a t no t r u t h s can be known i n t u i t i v e l y . I t f o l l o w s

t h a t t h o s e who a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y i n s t r u c t e d ( i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t t h e y a r e n o t c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h e methods o f i n d u c t i o n )

a r e n o t i n a p o s i t i o n t o a s c e r t a i n t r u t h s :

The o b s e r v a t i o n o f n a t u r e , by u n c u l t i v a t e d i n t e l l e c t s , i s p u r e l y p a s s i v e : they a c c e p t t h e f a c t s which p r e s e n t t h e m s e l v e s , w i t h o u t t a k i n g t h e t r o u b l e o f s e a r c h i n g f o r more: it i s a s u p e r i o r mind on ly which a s k s i t s e l f what f a c t s a r e needed t o e n a b l e it t o come t o a s a f e c o n c l u s i o n , and t h e n l o o k s o u t f o r t h e s e .

i l l A System o f Log ic , 1: 3 1 2 .

I n o t h e r words t h e d i s c o v e r y o f t r u t h i s t h e e x c l u s i v e p r e -

r o g a t i v e o f s u p e r i o r minds. One o f t h e most s e r i o u s handi-

caps a f f e c t i n g t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d i s t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o over -

come h a b i t u a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . Thus t h e i n a b i l i t y

t o p e r c e i v e new t r u t h s " i s most o f a l l conspicuous i n un-

e d u c a t e d p e r s o n s , who a r e i n g e n e r a l u t t e r l y unab le t o s e p a r a t e

any two i d e a s which have once become f i r m l y a s s o c i a t e d i n t h e i r

C u l t i v a t e d p e r s o n s a r e a t a n advantage i n t h i s r e s -

p e c t "because , hav ing s e e n and h e a r d more, and b e i n g more

accustomed t o e x e r c i s e t h e i r i n a q i n a t i o n , t h e y have e x p e r i e n c e d

t h e i r s e n s a t i o n s and t h o u g h t s i n more v a r i e d combina t ions ,

and have been p r e v e n t e d f r o n forming any o f t h e s e i n s e p a r a b l e

a s s o c i a t i o n s " . 2

A t f i r s t s i g h t it might seem t h a t M i l l was a r g u i n g t h a t

t h e s e p a r a t i o n between t h e i n s t r u c t e d and t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d

was s imply a m a t t e r o f e d u c a t i o n ; and t h a t t h e r e f o r e i t was

a problem t h a t c o u l d be remedied by e x t e n d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l

f a c i l i t i e s . However, a l t h o u g h Y i l l undoubtedly f e l t t h a t

e d u c a t i o n was v e r y i n p o r t a n t , he does n o t appear t o have be-

l i e v e d t h a t e d u c a t i o n a l o n e c o u l d b r i d g e t h e gap between t h e

u n i n s t r u c t e d and s u p e r i o r minds. On t h e whole he seems t o

have b e l i e v e d t h a t , d u r i n g any y i v e n p e r i o d , t h e average pe r -

son c o u l d never r i s e beyond a c e r t a i n l e v e l o f i n t e l l e c t u a l

37

development . " I t would b e a g r e a t e r r o r " he w r o t e , "and one

ve ry l i k e l y t o be committed, t o a s s e r t t h e s p e c u l a t i o n , i n -

t e l l e c t u a l a c t i v i t y , t h e p u r s u i t o f t r u t h , i s among t h e m.ore

powerful p r o p e n s i t i e s o f human n a t u r e , o r h o l d s a predonin-

a t i n g p l a c e i n t h e l i v e s o f any, s a v e d e c i d e d l y e x c e p t i o n a l

i n d i v i d u a l s . On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n he wro te :

I do n o t b e l i e v e t h a t . . .[ t h e mass o f mankind] w i l l -ever have s u f f i c i e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f s t u d y and exper-

i e n c e t o become themselves f a m i l i a r l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h a l l t h e e n q u i r i e s which l e a d t o t h e t r u t h s by which i t i s good t h a t t h e y s h o u l d r e g u l a t e t h e i r conduc t , and r e c e i v e i n t o t h e i r own minds t h e whole o f t h e e v i d e n c e from which t h o s e t r u t h s have been c o l l e c t e d , and which i s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i r e s t a b l i s h v e n t ... A s l o n g a s t h e day c o n s i s t s b u t o f twen ty - four h o u r s , and t h e age o f r a n e x t e n d s b u t t o t h r e e s c o r e and t e n , s o l o n g ... t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y o f man- k i n d w i l l need t h e f a r g r e a t e r p a r t o f t h e i r t ime and e x e r t i o n s f o r p r o c u r i n g t h e i r d a i l y b r e a d . 2

I t t h u s a p p e a r s t h a t M i l l f e l t t h a t t h o s e who a r e engaged i n

t h e o r d i n a r y b u s i n e s s o f l i f e , a r e i p s o f a c t o , d i s q u a l i f i e d

from a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e g r e a t t r u t h s o f e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s .

Only t h e i n s t r u c t e d a r e i n a p o s i t i o n t o a s c e r t a i n such

t r u t h s :

Those p e r s o n s whom t h e c i rcum.s tances o f s o c i e t y , and t h e i r own p o s i t i o n i n it, p e r m i t t o d e d i c a t e t h e r w e l v e s , t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n and s t u d y o f p h y s i c a l , n o r a l , and s o c i a l t r u t h s , a s t h e i r p e c u l i a r c a l l i n g , can a l o n e be e x p e c t e d t o make t h e e v i d e n c e s o f such t r u t h s a s u b j e c t o f profound m e d i t a t i o n , and t o make themse lves thorough r a s t e r s o f t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l grounds o f t h o s e o p i n i o n s

L ~ i l l , "The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", i n Essays on P o l i t i c s and C u l t u r e . D . 1 2

o f which it i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t a l l s h o u l d be f i r m l y p e r - suaded , b u t whi h t h e y a l o n e can e n t i r e l y and p h i l o s o - p h i c a l l y know. f:

A s a r e s u l t o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e between t h e i n s t r u c t e d and t h e

u n i n s t r u c t e d it fo l lowed t h a t t h e i n s t r u c t e d s h o u l d a c q u i e s c e

t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d . "The r e v a i n d e r o f mankind"

he w r o t e "must ... t a k e t h e f a r g r e a t e r p a r t of t h e i r o p i n i o n s

on a l l e x t e n s i v e s u b j e c t s upon t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h o s e who have

s t u d i e d them. " * Under n a t u r a l s o c i a l c o n d i t i o n s ' t h e o p i n i o n s

and f e e l i n g s o f t h e p e o p l e a r e , w i t h t h e i r v o l u n t a r y a c q u i e s -

c e n c e , formed f o r them, by t h e most c u l t i v a t e d minds which t h e

i n t e l l i g e n c e and m o r a l i t y o f t h e t imes c a l l i n t o e x i s t e n c e .

Th i s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n -

s t r u c t e d i s undoubtedly most e x p l i c i t i n M i l l ' s e a r l y w r i t i n g s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e i d e a formed, a s i t were , a p e r n a n e n t d e p o s i t

i n h i s t h i n k i n g and i n t h a t way it become t h e f o u n d a t i o n of

many o f h i s arguments on e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s i n h i s mature

works. I n U t i l i t a r i a n i s m he argued t h a t on ly i n s t r u c t e d p e r -

sons c o u l d d e c i d e what c o n s t i t u t e d genuine p l e a s u r e . I n h i s

two works on democracy, Thoughts on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform and

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government he advoca ted p o l i t i c a l d e f e r e n c e

t o t h e e d u c a t e d s e c t i o n s o f t h e c o n ~ u n i t y . 4

I b i d . , p .12

2 ~ b i d . , pp . 12-13.

3 1 b i d . , p . 36.

4 ~ e e below lap-95-98

3 9

To r e t u r n t o t h e second p o i n t : M i l l a rgued t h a t s o c i a l

p r o g r e s s was a l n o s t e x c l u s i v e l y dependent upon i n t e l l e c t u a l

p r o g r e s s :

Now, t h e e v i d e n c e o f h i s t o r y and t h a t o f huxran n a t u r e c o n k i n e , by a s t r i k i n g i n s t a n c e of c o n c i l i e n c e , t o show t h a t t h e r e r e a l l y i s one s o c i a l e l e v e n t which i s t h u s p r e - dominant , and a l m o s t paramount , anon9 t h e a g e n t s o f t h e s o c i a l p r o g r e s s i o n . This i s , t h e s t a t e o f t h e s p e c u l a t i v e f a c u l t i e s o f mankind; i n c l u d i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e b e l i e f s which by any means t h e y have a r r i v e d a t , c o n c e r n i n g them- s e l v e s and t h e wor ld by which they a r e su r rounded . 1

This p r o g r e s s depends p a r t l y on i n v a r i a b l e p s y c h o l o g i c a l laws

a s " t h e human mind h a s a c e r t a i n o r d e r o f p o s s i b l e p r o g r e s s

i n which some t h i n g s must p r e c e d e o t h e r s " .2 However. t h e

r a t e a t which t h i s p r o g r e s s o c c u r s depends upon t h e r o l e p l a y e d

by t h e i n s t r u c t e d . While t h e " o r d e r o f human p r o g r e s s ... may

t o a c e r t a i n e x t e n t have d e f i n i t e laws a s s i g n e d t o i t ... i t s

c e l l e r i t y . . .[*is de te rmined by] eminent pen" . 3

The impor tance o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d i n de te rx r in ing t h e r a t e

o f p r o g r e s s was a s s e r t e d more e x p l i c i t l y i n "The S p i r i t of

t h e Age".

... b e s i d e s g e t t i n g r i d o f e r r o r , w e a r e a l s o c o n t i n - u a l l y e n l a r g i n g t h e s t o c k o f p o s i t i v e t r u t h . I n p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e and a r t , t h i s i s t o o m a n i f e s t t o be c a l l e d i n ques- t i o n ; and i n t h e moral and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s , I b e l i e v e it t o b e a s unden iab ly t r u e . The w i s e s t men i n every age gen-

l ~ i l l , A System o f Log ic ; 2:929.

ill, Autobiography, p . 162.

3~ i l l , A S y s t e n o f Log ic , 2:938.

e r a l l y s u r p a s s i n wisdom t h e w i s e s t o f any p r e c e d i n g a g e , because t h e w i s e s t men p o s s e s s and p r o f i t by t h e c o n s t a n t - l y i n c r e a s i n g accumula t ion o f t h e i d e a s o f a l l a g e s : b u t t h e m u l t i t u d e (by which I mean t h e n a j o r i t y o f a l l r a n k s ) have t h e i d e a s o f t h e i r own a g e , and no o t h e r s : and i f t h e m u l t i t u d e o f one age a r e n e a r e r t o t h e t r u t h t h a n t h e m u l t i t u d e o f a n o t h e r , i t i s o n l y i n s o f a r a s t h e y a r e gu ided and i n f l u e n c e d by t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e w i s e s t among t h e s .

The g e n e r a l p r o g r e s s o f mankind i s t h u s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e

e x t e n t t o which t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d d e f e r t o t h e i n s t r u c t e d .

Again , t h i s c o n n e c t i o n between p r o g r e s s and t h e r o l e o f

t h e i n s t r u c t e d was n o t a p e c u l i a r i t y of M i l l ' s e a r l y w r i t i n g s .

S i m i l a r a s s e r t i o n s a r e t o be found i n h i s n a t u r e works. Thus,

f o r i n s t a n c e , i n "Auguste Comte and P o s i t i v i s n " he a rgued t h a t

t h e r i s e o f C h r i s t i a n i t y was, i n p a r t , dependent upon t h e i n -

t e l l e c t u a l c l i m a t e o f o p i n i o n c r e a t e d by t h e i n s t r u c t e d o f

t h e a n c i e n t wor ld :

The f a c t was, t h a t Monotheism had becone c o n g e n i a l t o t h e c u l t i v a t e d mind: and a b e l i e f which h a s ga ined t h e c u l t i v a t e d minds o f any s o c i e t y , u n l e s s p u t down by f o r c e , i s c e r t a i n , s o o n e r o r l a t e r , t o r e a c h t h e m u l t i t u d e .

A s i m i l a r argument i s made i n C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e

Government:

One p e r s o n w i t h a b e l i e f i s a s o c i a l power e q u a l t o n i n e t y - n i n e who have on ly i n t e r e s t s . They who can succeed i n c r e a t i n g a g e n e r a l p e r s u a s i o n t h a t a c e r t a i n form o f government, o r s o c i a l f a c t o f any k i n d , d e s e r v e s t o be p r e - f e r r e d , have made n e a r l y t h e v o s t i m p o r t a n t s t e p which can

f ill, ' S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p . 8 .

*J .S . M i l l , "Auguste Comte and P o s i t i v i s m " , C o l l e c t e d Works o f John S t u a r t P i l l , Vol . X ( U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge and Kegan P a u l , 19691, p.275.

p o s s i b l y be t a k e n towards r a n g i n g t h e power o f s o c i e t y on i t s s i d e ... When t h e r e f o r e , t h e i n s t r u c t e d i n g e n e r a l c a n be b r o u g h t t o r e c o g n i z e one s o c i a l a r rangement ... very much h a s been done towards g i v i n g t o t h e one ... t h a t p r e onder- ance o f s o c i a l f o r c e which e n a b l e s i t t o s u b s i s t . !?

t h i s s e n s e t h e i n s t r u c t e d nay be r e g a r d e d a s one o f t h e

e f f i c i e n t c a u s e s o f p r o g r e s s ; w h i l e t h e f i n a l c a u s e o f p r o g r e s s

must be sough t i n t h e laws o f t h e mind.

The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f M i l l ' s i d e a s proposed t h u s f a r may

be b r i e f l y summed up a s f o l l o w s :

F i r s t : M i l l ' s a s s e r t i o n o f l i p i t s t o t h e c o e r c i v e pow-

e r s o f s o c i e t y was i n t i ~ a t e l y connected w i t h h i s n o t i o n s of

" u t i l i t y " , " t r u t h " and " p r o g r e s s " ; and, i n t h a t s e n s e a t l e a s t ,

he does n o t appear t o have been making a c l e a r and unambiguous

p l e a f o r " l i b e r t y " .

Secondly: He was a n avowed d e t e r m i n i s t . He b e l i e v e d i n

human p r o g r e s s a c c o r d i n g t o f i x e d i n v a r i a b l e l aws , and t h a t

t h e s e laws c o u l d be reduced t o Fore e lementa ry laws o f psy-

cho logy .

T h i r d l y : H e f e l t t h a t p r o g r e s s i t s e l f i n v o l v e d t h e e s t a b -

l i s h m e n t o f p o s i t i v i s t methods i n p o l i t i c s and e t h i c s .

L a s t l y : H e a l lowed f o r i n d i v i d u a l human agency i n t h e form

o f a c l a s s o f i n s t r u c t e d p e r s o n s upon whov t h e r a t e o f p r o g r e s s ,

ill, C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government, pp . 281- 282.

depended. He a l s o i n s i s t e d upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e t o

t h i s c l a s s .

I n On L i b e r t y M i l l was a l s o concerned w i t h t h e need f o r

d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n s t r u c t e d and t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p o s i t i v e

t r u t h s ; and t h a t , i t i s i n t h i s s e n s e t h a t t h e assuned con-

n e c t i o n s between " l i b e r t y " , " u t i l i t y " , " t r u t h " and " p r o g r e s s "

must be' unders tood .

M i l l a rgued t h a t it was n e c e s s a r y t o a s s e r t l i m i t s t o t h e

c o e r c i v e powers o f s o c i e t y i n o r d e r t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e "hos-

t i l e and dreaded c e n s o r s h i p " o f p u b l i c op in ion . ' He charac -

t e r i z e d t h e e f f e c t s of t h i s c e n s o r s h i p t h u s :

. - . o u r merely s o c i a l i n t o l e r a n c e k i l l s no one , r o o t s o u t no o p i n i o n s , b u t i n d u c e s men t o d i s g u i s e them o r t o ab- s t a i n fro^ any a c t i v e e f f o r t f o r t h e i r d i f f u s i o n ... And t h u s i s k e p t up a s t a t e o f t h i n g s ve ry s a t i s f a c t o r y t o s o r e minds, b e c a u s e , w i t h o u t t h e u n p l e a s a n t p r o c e s s o f f i n i n g o r i m p r i s o n i n g anybody, i t m a i n t a i n s a l l t h e p r e - v a i i i n g o p i n i o n s u n d i s t u r b e d .

I n o t h e r words , w h i l e t h e ty ranny o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n d i d n o t

i n c u r any o f t h e c o s t s o f o v e r t o p p r e s s i o n , i t was n e v e r t h e -

l e s s j u s t a s e f f e c t i v e .

However, t h i s ty ranny d i d n o t d i r e c t l y a f f e c t t h e i n t e l -

l e c t u a l powers o f t h e m a j o r i t y o f men. P u b l i c o p i n i o n i t s e l f

simply e x p r e s s e d t h e combined " o p i n i o n s o f masses o f mere ly

average men". Moreover, t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l a b i l i t i e s o f a v e r -

a g e men were n e g l i g i b l e : "on any m a t t e r n o t s e l f e v i d e n t

* ~ 1 1 , On L i b e r t y , p . 264.

t h e r e a r e n i n e t y - n i n e p e r s o n s t o t a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f judg ing

o f i t f o r one who i s c a p a b l e . " ' I n c r e a s i n g t h e f r e e f low o f

i d e a s would n o t d i r e c t l y s t i m u l a t e t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a p a c i t i e s

o f p e o p l e i n t h i s c o n d i t i o n .

Although t h e ty ranny of p u b l i c o p i n i o n c o u l d n o t d i r -

e c t l y harm a v e r a g e men, it d i d pose a g r a v e t h r e a t t o t h e i n -

s t r u c t e d :

Who can compute what t h e wor ld l o s e s i n t h e m u l t i t u d e o f p romis ing i n t e l l e c t s conbined w i t h t i m i d c h a r a c t e r s , who d a r e n o t f o l l o w o u t any b o l d , v i g o r o u s , independen t t r a i n o f t h o u ~ h t , l e s t i t s h o u l d l a n d them i n something which would adreit o f b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d i r r e l i g i o u s o r i v - rroral? Among t h e s e we may o c c a s i o n a l l y s e e soFe r a n o f deep c o n s c i e n t i o u s n e s s and s u b t l e and r e f i n e d unders tand- i n g , who spends a l i f e s o p h i s t i c a t i n g w i t h an i n t e l l e c t which he canno t s i l e n c e , and e x h a u s t s t h e r e s o u r c e s o f i n g e n u i t y i n a t t e m p t i n g t o r e c o n c i l e t h e promptings of h i s c o n s c i e n c e and r e a s o n w i t h o r thodoxy , which y e t he does n o t , p e r h a p s , t o t h e end succeed i n d o i n g . 2

The yoke o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h r e a t e n e d t o s t u n t t h e i n t e l l e c -

t u a l deve loppen t o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d . Consequent ly : " t h e coun-

t e r p o i s e and c o r r e c t i v e t o t h a t tendency would b e t h e more and

more pronounced i n d i v i d u a l i t y o f t h o s e who s t a n d on t h e h i g h e r

eminences o f t h o u g h t . I t i s i n t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s most es-

p e c i a l l y t h a t e x c e p t i o n a l i n d i v i d u a l s , i n s t e a d o f b e i n g de-

t e r e d , s h o u l d b e encouraged i n a c t i n g d i f f e r e n t l y from t h e

mass. " 3 The a s s e r t i o n o f l i m i t s t o t h e c o e r c i v e powers o f

s o c i e t y was t h u s n e c e s s a r y t o e n s u r e t h e freedom and inde-

pendence o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d .

The a s s e r t i o n of l i b e r t y would a l s o c r e a t e a c l i r r a t e o f

o p i n i o n f a v o u r a b l e t o t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l development o f t h e i n -

s t r u c t e d :

I n t h e c a s e o f any p e r s o n whose judgnent i s r e a l l y d e s e r v i n g o f c o n f i d e n c e , how h a s it become s o ? Because h e h a s k e p t h i s mind open t o c r i t i c i s m o f h i s o p i n i o n s and conduc t . N o wise van e v e r a c q u i r e d h i s wisdom i n any mode b u t t h i s ; nor i s i t i n t h e n a t u r e o f human i n t e l l e c t t o become w i s e i n any o t h e r manner. 1

And, on a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n :

Pe r sons o f g e n i u s , it i s t r u e , a r e , and a r e always l i k e l y t o b e , a s m a l l m i n o r i t y ; b u t i n o r d e r t o have the^, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e s e r v e t h e s o i l i n which they grow. Genius can o n l y b r e a t h e f r e e l y i n an atmosphere o f f r e e - dom. Persons o f g e n i u s a r e , e x v i t e r m i n i , more i n d i v i d u a l t h a n any o t h e r p e o p l e - less c a p a b l e c o n s e q u e n t l y , o f f i t t i n g themse lves , w i t h o u t h u r t f u l c o n p r e s s i o n , i n t o any o f t h e s m a l l number o f n o l d s which s o c i e t y p r o v i d e s i n o r d e r t o s a v e i t s embers t h e t r o u b l e o f forming t h e i r own c h a r a c t e r s . *

G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , t h e n , M i l l was concerned w i t h p r e s c r i b -

i n g t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l development

and freedom o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d would be most e f f e c t i v e l y se -

c u r e d .

However, M i l l was n o t e x c l u s i v e l y concerned w i t h t h e i n -

s t r u c t e d a s he f e l t t h a t t h e b e n e f i t s of s e c u r i n g t h e indepen-

dence and i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d would u l t i v a t e l y d e v o l v e

upon t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d :

Many have l e f t themse lves b e guided (which i n t h e i r b e s t t i ~ e s t h e y always have done) by t h e c o u n s e l s and i n - f l u e n c e o f a &re h i g h l y g i f t e d a n d - i n s t r u c t e d - one o r - few. The i n i t i a t i o n of a l l w i s e o r nob le t h i n g s cones and must come from i n d i v i d u a l s ; g e n e r a l l y a t f i r s t f r o r some- one i n d i v i d u a l . The honour and g l o r y o f t h e a v e r a a e r a n i s t h a t he i s c a p a b l e o f f o l l o w i n g t h a t i n i t i a t i v e ; t h a t he can respond i n t e r n a l l y t o w i s e apd nob le t h i n g s , and b e l e d t o them w i t h h i s e y e s open. 1.

Under t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s a s s e r t e d i n On L i b e r t v t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d

would b e aware o f t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h e i r d e f e r e n c e t o t h e

i n s t r u c t e d - t h a t i s t o s a y t h e y would be a b l e t o a c q u i e s c e

i n t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e i r "eyes open" .

M i l l , t h u s b e l i e v e d t h a t l i b e r t y would, u l t i m a t e l y , b e n e f i t

t h e whole community.

J?il l ls f r i e n d Alexander Bain f e l t t h a t On L i b e r t y was

e x c l u s i v e l y concerned w i t h t h e i d e a o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l a r i s -

t o c r a c y . M i l l disavowed t h i s o v e r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n o f h i s pur-

p o s e . However, i t i s worth n o t i n g t h a t he d i d n o t deny t h a t

he was concerned w i t h t h e n o t i o n o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y .

He was s imply a t p a i n s t o p o i n t o u t t h a t t h i s was n o t h i s ex-

c l u s i v e concern . He w r o t e t o Bain:

The " L i b e r t y " has produced an e f f e c t on you which i t was never i n t e n d e d t o produce i f i t h a s r a d e you t h i n k t h a t we ough t n o t t o a t t e m p t t o c o n v e r t t h e wor ld . I meant n o t h i n g o f t h e k i n d , and h o l d t h a t we ough t t o con- v e r t a l l we c a n . We v u s t b e s a t i s f i e d w i t h keep ing a l i v e t h e s a c r e d f i r e i n a few minds i f w e a r e unab le t o do more - b u t t h e n o t i o n o f an i n t e l l e c t u a l a r i s t o c r a c y o f l u m i s r e s w h i l e t h e r e s t o f t h e wor ld remains i n d a r k n e s s f u l f i l l s none o f my a s p i r a t i o n s - and t h e e f f e c t I aim a t

bid., (my i t a l i c s ) , p . 2 6 9 .

by t h e book i s , on t h e c o n t r a r y , t o ~ a k e t h e many acces- s i b l e t o a l l t r u t h by making them more open minded. 1

When h e w r o t e t h a t h i s i n t e n t i o n was " t o r a k e t h e rrany acces -

s i b l e t o a l l t r u t h " he was presumably r e f e r r i n g t o t h e a b i l i t y

o f t h e a v e r a g e man t o " respond i n t e r n a l l y t o w i s e and nob le

t h i n g s " . I n o t h e r words he f e l t t h a t w h i l e o n l y t h e i n s t r u c t -

ed c o u l d b e f u l l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t r u t h , t h e m-asses s h o u l d

n e v e r t h e l e s s have a c c e s s t o t h a t t r u t h .

The u n i n s t r u c t e d would, i n s h o r t , p r o f i t by t h e a s s e r t i o n

o f l i b e r t y f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s : f i r s t , because l i b e r t y ,

by s e c u r i n g t h e ascendency o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d , g u a r a n t e e d t h e

means whereby mankind cou ld b e c o r e c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h e t r u t h s

upon which p r o g r e s s depended; and second ly because l i b e r t y

p rov ided t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d w i t h t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r r a t i o n a l

and i n t e l l i g e n t d e f e r e n c e - t h a t i s t o s a y , t h e k ind of de-

f e r e n c e t h a t c o n s t i t u t e d " t h e honour and g l o r y o f t h e a v e r a g e

man" . P i l l a l s o i n t e n d e d On L i b e r t y a s an " i n f i d e l book" .3 I n

Chap te r one he r e p e a t e d l y c r i t i c i z e d c o n v e n t i o n a l r e l i a i o u s

b e l i e f s . He d e s c r i b e d r e l i g i o u s r e v i v a l s a s t h e " r e v i v a l o f

b i g ~ t r y ' ' . ~ On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n he a s s e r t e d t h a t " n o t one

I P i l l t o Ba in , August 6 , 1859, M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2:631.

Ger t rude H i m e l f a r b r e f e r s t o t h i s l e t t e r and c l a i m s t h a t i n i t P i l l s imply "disavowed 'such a n e l i t i s t i n t e n t i o n " . (On L i b e r t y and L i b e r a l i s m ) , p .52 . That i s n o t s o . M i l l was t r y - i n g t o q u a l i f y h i s e l i t i s t i n t e n t i o n .

3 ~ i l l t o Holyoake, Feb. 1859, P i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2: 593.

4 ~ i l l , On L i b e r t y , p . 2 4 0 .

C h r i s t i a n i n a thousand g u i d e s ... h i s i n d i v i d u a l conduc t"

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d o c t r i n e s o f ~ h r i s t i a n i t ~ . ' C h r i s t i a n moral-

i t y i t s e l f was c r i t i c i z e d a s " a d o c t r i n e o f p a s s i v e o b e d i e n c e . 11 2

M i l l undoubtedly hoped t h a t t h e a s s e r t i o n o f t h e s e " i n f i d e l "

n o t i o n s would undern ine customary r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f . P r i v a t e -

l y h e f e l t t h a t "good e t h i c s I u t i l i t a r i a n i s m 1 and good meta-

p h y s i c s [ p o s i t i v i s m l w i l l s a p X i a n i t y " .3 The c o r o l l a r y o f

t h e weakening of r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s would be t h e e s t a b l i s h -

ment o f " p o s i t i v e t r u t h s ~ ' . ~ i n t h i s s e n s e he presumably f e l t

t h a t t h e a s s e r t i o n o f l i b e r t y would f a c i l i t a t e t h e ascendency

o f t h o s e p o s i t i v i s t e t h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l t r u t h s t h a t he re-

garded a s a n e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n o f mankind 's p r o g r e s s .

He was consequen t ly p l e a s e d when t h e work angered re l i -

g i o u s o p i n i o n :

Peop le a r e b e g i n n i n g t o f i n d o u t t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e s o f t h e book a r e more opposed t o t h e i r own o p i n i o n s and f e e l i n g s t h e n t h e y a t f i r s t saw, and a r e t a k i n g a l a r m ac- c o r d i n g l y and r a l l y i n g f o r a f i g h t ... A s was t o be ex- p e c t e d they c l a i m f o r X i a n i t y m o r a l i t y a l l t h e t h i n g s which I s a y a r e n o t i n i t , which i s j u s t what I wanted t o pro- voke them t o do . 5

Fur the rmore , i n s o f a r a s C h r i s t i a n b e l i e v e r s w e r e concerned he

a d m i t t e d t h a t h i s i n t e n t i o n s were e x c l u s i v e l y e l i t i s t . He

3 ~ i l l t o Ba in , 1 4 Nov. 1859, M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2: 645.

4 ~ b i d . , p .645.

5 ~ i l l t o Ba in , 1 5 Oct . 1859, P i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2:640.

o n l y wanted t o woo t h e r e a l l y s u p e r i o r C h r i s t i a n r i n d s . I n

t h i s r e s p e c t h e f e l t t h a t B a i n s s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f On L i b e r t y

was c o r r e c t and h e w r o t e :

But pe rhaps you were o n l y t h i n k i n g o f t h e q u e s t i o n o f r e l i g i o n . On t h a t , c e r t a i n l y I an? n o t anx ious t o b r i n g o v e r any b u t r e a l l y s u p e r i o r i n t e l l e c t s and c h a r a c t e r s t o t h e whole o f my o p i n i o n s . 1

I n p r i v a t e M i l l c l e a r l y hoped t h a t On L i b e r t y would h e l p d i s -

l o c a t e e x i s t i n g r e l i g i o u s s e n t i m e n t .

I t t h u s a p p e a r s t h a t On L i b e r t y i s , i n a number o f ways,

p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e res t o f V i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l and

e t h i c a l w r i t i n g s . I t c o n t a i n s r e s t a t e m e n t s o f c e r t a i n i d e a s

t h a t r e c u r i n a l l h i s n a j o r works - namely, h i s i n s i s t e n c e

upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n s t r u c t e d and h i s b e l i e f

i n t h e p r o g r e s s i v e ascendency o f p o s i t i v i s m ( a l t h o u g h , admit-

t e d l y , t h i s l a t t e r b e l i e f o n l y emerges o b l i q u e l y i n On L i b e r t y ) .

I n h i s two works on p o l i t i c a l democracy, Thoughts on P a r l i a -

mentary Reform and C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governrrent,

he was concerned w i t h s u g g e s t i n g methods ( s u c h a s p r o p o r t i o n a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s ) whereby t h e

p o l i t i c a l i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d would be a s s u r e d . I n

On L i b e r t y he a t t e ~ p t e d t o app ly t h e s e i d e a s t o t h e rea lms o f

i n t e l l e c t u a l and moral conduc t . "The l i b e r t y it [on ~ i b e r t ~ ]

t r e a t s o f " he w r o t e " i s moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l r a t h e r t h a n

p o l i t i c a l . " 2 The r e p e a t e d i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e need f o r d e f e r -

' n i l1 t o B a i n , 6 Aug, 1859, L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2:631.

'nil1 t o Gornperz, 4 Dec. 1858, L a t e r L e t t e r s , 2: 581.

4 9

e n c e i n a l l t h e s e works no d o u b t e x p l a i n s why l i b e r t y a p p e a r s

t o have been i n t i m a t e l y connected w i t h " u t i l i t y " , " t r u t h " and

" p r o g r e s s " . I n s o f a r a s l i b e r t y s e c u r e d t h e independence and

i n f l u e n c e o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d (by p r o t e c t i n g t h e v from t h e t y -

ranny o f t h e m a j o r i t y and by c r e a t i n g t h e c o n d i t i o n s under

which r a t i o n a l and i n t e l l i g e n t d e f e r e n c e was p o s s i b l e ) s o l i b -

e r t y was a n e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n of t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of t r u t h

and p r o g r e s s . I n t h i s s e n s e " l i b e r t y " and " p r o g r e s s " were

i n s e p a r a b l e .

I n c o n c l u s i o n : P i l l ' s d i s t i n c t i o n between s e l f - r e g a r d i n g

and o t h e r - r e g a r d i n g a c t i v i t i e s may a t f i r s t s i ~ h t a p p e a r a s

p r i n c i p l e , and t h a t , no d o u b t , i s why vany h i s -

t o r i a n s and p h i l o s o p h e r s have tended t o t r e a t On L i b e r t y a s

a c l a s s i c e x p o s i t i o n o f " l i b e r a l i n d i v i d u a l i s m " . However, M i l l ,

i n a s s e r t i n g t h a t p r i n c i p l e , was n o t s imply recovmendinq t h e *-- - -

c o n d i t i o n s under which pen r i g h t p u r s u e v a r i o u s s u b s t a n t i v e

a c t i v i t i e s . R a t h e r , he was s i n u l t a n e o u s l y p r e s c r i b i n g c e r -

t a i n s u b s t a n t i v e e n d s . These i n c l u d e d h i s b e l i e f i n t h e es-

t a b l i s h n e n t o f p o s i t i v e t r u t h s i n e t h i c s and p o l i t i c s ( t h a t i s

t o s a y , t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a new consensus i n s o c i e t y ) and

h i s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e t o t h e i n s t r u c t e d .

I n s o f a r a s he was p r e s c r i b i n g s u b s t a n t i v e r o r a l and p o l i t i c a l

ends (and n o t t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e s e r i g h t be pur -

sued) On L i b e r t y c a n n o t be r e g a r d e d s imply a s a n e x p o s i t i o n

of l i b e r a l individual is^. Fur the rmore , a l t h o u g h t h e s e sub-

s t a n t i v e ends a r e n o t i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h t h e a s s e r t i o n o f l i b -

er t

50

.y - a t l e a s t i n s o f a r a s l i b e r t y i s d e f i n e d n e g a t i v e l y a s

t h e absence of c o e r c i v e power - t h e y c a n n o t themselves be

subsuned under t h e n o t i o n o f " l i b e r a l i n d i v i d u a l i s m " . M i l l ' s

i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e was n o t a n e x p r e s s i o n

o f " i n d i v i d u a l i s m " ; and h i s d e t e r m i n i s t and p o s i t i v i s t v i s i o n

o f p o l i t i c s was n o t e n t i r e l y " l i b e r a l " , i n t h e s e n s e t h a t

t h a t t e rm i s commonly unders tood .

CHAPTER I1

THE MAN VERSUS THE STATE

The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e c o n s i s t s of f o u r a r t i c l e s f i r s t

p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Contemporary Review i n 1884. Spencer i n t e n d -

ed t h e e s s a y s a s a "vehement p r o t e s t " a g a i n s t " t h e way i n

which t h i n g s a r e d r i f t i n g towards Communism w i t h i n c r e a s i n g

v e l o c i t y " .l I n Spencer ' s somewhat exaggera ted v iew, t h e " d r i f t

towards Comrnunis~" i n c l u d e d , amonu o t h e r t h i n g s , t h e L i b e r a l

p a r t y ' s growing r a d i c a l i s m d u r i n g t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s . I n t h e f o u r

e s s a y s he p r o s c r i b e d a l l forms o f s t a t e r e g u l a t i o n and wel-

f a r e . Unl ike On L i b e r t y which was o s t e n s i b l y concerned w i t h

moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l l i b e r t y , The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e d e a l t

e x c l u s i v e l y w i t h p o l i t i c a l l i b e r t y . I n s h o r t , t h e work was

a r a d i c a l e x p o s i t i o n o f " l a i s s e z - f a i r i s m " . 2

However, S p e n c e r ' s d o c t r i n e o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e i s ambiguous

i n s o f a r a s it b e a r s on q u e s t i o n s o f freedom and i n d i v i d u a l i t y ,

and i n t h i s r e s p e c t i t i s s u s c e p t i b l e o f two r a d i c a l l y d i f -

f e r e n t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s .

On t h e one hand t h e d o c t r i n e pay be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a form

' spencer t o E.L. Youmans, 1 3 November 1883. Duncan, The L i f e and Let ters o f H e r b e r t Spencer , p .238.

2 ~ e r t r u d e Himmelfarb h a s s u g g e s t e d t h a t Spencer was " t h e ,

most c o n s i s t e n t ... l a i s s e z - f a i r i s t o f t h e epoch." V i c t o r i a n Minds ( N e w York: A . A . Knopf, 1 9 6 8 ) , p .143.

o f l i b e r t a r i a n i s m . I f t h i s i s t h e c a s e t h e n i t Fay be un-

d e r s t o o d a s a p l e a f o r freedom and i n d i v i d u a l i t y . C e r t a i n

w r i t e r s have i n t e r p r e t e d Spencer i n t h i s manner. Auberon

H e r b e r t f e l t t h a t Spencer was a r g u i n g t h a t s o c i e t y c o u l d n o t

be reformed " u n t i l you r e s t o r e t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o h i m s e l f , un-

til you awaken i n h i n h i s own p e r c e p t i o n s , h i s own judgvent

of t h i n g s , h i s own s e n s e o f r i g h t n . ' He d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o c e s s

a s one o f " i n d i v i d u a l i z i n q t h e i n d i v i d u a l " . I n a s i m i l a r

v e i n a more r e c e n t w r i t e r h a s c l a imed t h a t i n The Wan v e r s u s

t h e S t a t e , Spencer e x p r e s s e d a b e l i e f " i n t h e v a l u e of i n -

d i v i d u a l i t y and d i s s e n t a s a good i n i t s e l f " . 2

On t h e o t h e r hand, a s I w i l l p r e s e n t l y a r g u e i n t h i s

c h a p t e r , t h e d o c t r i n e nay be unders tood i n a p u r e l y n e g a t i v e

and r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e - t h a t i s t o s a y , s i r p l y a s a n a s s e r t i o n

o f l i m i t s t o t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e s t a t e . That a s s e r t i o n need

n o t i n c l u d e any p l e a f o r freedom and i n d i v i d u a l i t y . I f t h e

d o c t r i n e i s unders tood i n t h i s s e n s e t h e n it may be p e r f e c t l y

compat ib le w i t h a s t r i c t l y d e t e r m i n i s t view o f human n a t u r e .

I n o t h e r words, t h e p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e of l a i s s e z - f a i r e r a y ,

w i t h o u t b e i n g i n c o n s i s t e n t , f o r r p a r t o f a l a r q e r ph i losophy

which e x c l u d e s v a r i o u s e t h i c a l n o t i o n s of f r e e d o r and i n d i v i d -

l ~ u b e r o n H e r b e r t , The R i g h t and Wrong o f Compulsion by t h e S t a t e , p .271. H e r b e r t was a l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y l i b - e r t a r i a n . He was a l s o s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by Spencer .

L Donald Macrae, I n t r o d u c t i o n t o The Nan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e ,

u a l i t y .

The a r g u ~ e n t s c o n t a i n e d i n The Xan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e had

been foreshadowed i n a number o f e a r l i e r e s s a y s p u b l i s h e d i n

t h e Westmins ter Review d u r i n g t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s . ' I n a l l t h e s e po-

l i t i c a l w r i t i n g s Spencer was p r i m a r i l y concerned w i t h pro-

s c r i b i n g governvent w e l f a r e , e d u c a t i o n and r e g u l a t i o n o f i n -

d u s t r y . Although h i s p o l i t i c a l ph i losophy i s i n p l i c i t th rouah-

o u t The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , t h a t work was n o t s o nuch i n -

t ended a s a c o h e r e n t e x p o s i t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , b u t

r a t h e r a s a c r i t i q u e o f a number o f s p e c i f i c i s s u e s .

A l a r g e p a r t o f t h e work was devo ted t o t h e s u b j e c t o f

w e l f a r e . Spencer a rgued t h a t t h e anomymity o f s t a t e w e l f a r e

sys tems enab led p e o p l e t o i g n o r e t h e moral shor tcomings o f

t h e r e c i p i e n t s . " I f t h e wre tched a r e unknown o r b u t vaguely

known" he w r o t e " a l l t h e d e n e r i t s they may have a r e i g n o r e d ;

and t h u s i t happens t h a t when t h e p i s e r i e s o f t h e poor a r e

d i l a t e d upon, t h e y a r e t h o u g h t o f a s t h e d e s e r v i n g p o o r , i n -

s t e a d o f b e i n g t h o u g h t o f a s t h e m i s e r i e s o f t h e u n d e s e r v i n g

p o o r , which i n l a r g e measure t h e y shou ld b e . V * Moreover, t h e

l ~ h e s e i n c l u d e " O v e r - l e g i s l a t i o n " (Westmins ter Review, 1853) , " R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governvent - What i s it good f o r ? " ( w e s t m i n s t e r Review, 1857) and " P a r l i a n . e n t a r y Reform: The d a n g e r s and s a f e g u a r d s " (Westmins ter Review, 1 8 6 0 ) .

2 ~ p e n c e r , The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , p . 82.

" u n d e s e r v i n g poor" would i n t h e l o n g r u n , be harmed b o t h

m o r a l l y and econoxrical ly by w e l f a r e r reasures . Wel fa re tended

t o d e m o r a l i z e t h e r e c i p i e n t s . ' A p a r t frorr t h e s e "moral c o s t s "

t h e r e c i p i e n t s a l s o payed p a r t o f t h e economic c o s t s a s t h e

t a x e s used t o s u p p o r t w e l f a r e measures would d e p r e s s t h e

economy and t h u s reduce employrent o p p o r t u n i t i e s and wages. 2

F u r t h e r n o r e , t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e p roponen t s o f w e l f a r e

w e r e m o r a l l y r e p r e h e n s i b l e . S t a t e w e l f a r e was n e c e s s a r i l y

i n d i r e c t and anonyrous and consequen t ly it c o u l d never b e

"mora l " i n t h e s e n s e t h a t p r i v a t e c h a r i t y might b e . "Were t h e

many who e x p r e s s t h e i r cheap p i t y by a d v o c a t i n g w e l f a r e nea- [ s u r e s ] " h e compla ined, " l i k e t h e f e w who d e v o t e a l a r g e p a r t o f

t h e i r t i m e t o a i d i n g ... t h o s e ... who a r e b rough t t o l i v e s o f

h a r d s h i p , t h e y would b e worthy o f u n q u a l i f i e d a d p i r a t i o n . ,, 3

What made t h e "cheap p i t y " o f t h e advoca tes of w e l f a r e pea-

s u r e s even more g a l l i n g was t h a t t h e y u s u a l l y proposed such

measures a t t h e expense o f o t h e r s : " t h e immense m a j o r i t y of

t h e p e r s o n s who wish t o m i t i g a t e by law t h e m i s e r i e s o f t h e

u n s u c c e s s f u l and t h e r e c k l e s s , p ropose t o do t h i s i n s m a l l

measure a t t h e i r own c o s t and mainly a t t h e c o s t of o t h e r s " . 4

A p a r t from t h e s e p a r t i c u l a r d e f e c t s , w e l f a r e p r o p o s a l s

i n g e n e r a l were based upon a misapprehens ion o f t h e n a t u r e of

t h e problem t o be s o l v e d . F i r s t l y , any a t t e r p t t o s i n p l y

a b o l i s h p o v e r t y was t an tamount t o a d m i t t i n g t h a t t h e p r o b l e r

c o u l d n o t be c u r e d . Thus t h e i d e a o f w e l f a r e " t a k e s f o r g r a n t -

e d , f i r s t , t h a t a l l s u f f e r i n g o u g h t t o be p r e v e n t e d , which

i s n o t t r u e : much o f t h e s u f f e r i n g i s c u r a t i v e , and p r e v e n t i o n

1 o f it i s p r e v e n t i o n o f a remedy". Secondly , w e l f a r e c o u l d

n e v e r e r a d i c a t e t h o s e d e f e c t s i n human n a t u r e which, i n t h e

l a s t r e s o r t , were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a l l human s u f f e r i n g . A t

p o s t t h e s e e v i l s c o u l d "on ly b e t h r u s t o u t o f one p l a c e o r

form i n t o a n o t h e r p l a c e o r form". 2

S t a t e - f u n d e d e d u c a t i o n was c r i t i c i z e d on s i m i l a r g rounds .

Spencer c o n p l a i n e d o f t h o s e l e g i s l a t o r s "who i n 1833 v o t e d

i 3 0 , 0 0 0 a y e a r t o a i d i n b u i l d i n g schoo lhouses" and who " n e v e r

supposed t h a t t h e s t e p they t h e n took would l e a d t o f o r c e d

c o n t r i b u t i o n s , l o c a l and g e n e r a l , now amounting t o 5 6.0 0 0,000". ' Unl ike M i l l who b e l i e v e d t h a t s t a t e funded e d u c a t i o n was need-

e d i n o r d e r t o c r e a t e a r e s p o n s i b l e e l e c t o r a t e , Spencer f e l t

t h a t such e d u c a t i o n would s imply demora l i ze t h e working c l a s s -

e s . "Popu la r e d u c a t i o n " he w r o t e " r e s u l t s i n e x t e n s i v e read-

i n g o f p u b l i c a t i o n s which f o s t e r p l e a s a n t i l l u s i o n s r a t h e r t h a n

L I b i d .

' spencer co r responded w i t h M i l l on t h i s i s s u e . A f t e r read- ' i n g M i l l ' s Thouqhts on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform he w r o t e : "The mass o f t h o s e who have t h e mere r u d i ~ e n t s o f e d u c a t i o n , a r e , I b e l i e v e , a s p ro found ly i g n o r a n t o f a l l p a t t e r s b e a r i n g on l e g i s l a t i o n a s t h o s e who c a n n o t r e a d and w r i t e . " (Spencer t o M i l l , 25 March 1859, Duncan, The L i f e and Letters o f H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , p . 9 4 ) .

t h o s e which i n s i s t on h a r d r e a l i t i e s . "I I n o t h e r words wide-

s p r e a d e d u c a t i o n would l e a d t h e workinq c l a s s e s t o de rand

p r e c i s e l y t h o s e w e l f a r e measures t h a t would i n e v i t a b l y l e a d

t o t h e i r f u r t h e r d e m o r a l i z a t i o n .

Spencer a l s o condemned a l l governmenta l a t t e m p t s t o r eg -

u l a t e v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f t h e econony. S e v e r a l s e c t i o n s o f

The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e were devo ted t o l e n g t h y d i s c u s s i o n s

o f t h e n i n u t a e o f governpent r e g u l a t i o n s o f h o u s i n q , r r ines ,

f a c t o r i e s and s h i p p i c g . H e a rgued t h a t i n t h e l o n g run a l l

such r e g u l a t i o n s l e a d t o economic i n e f f i c i e n c y . N a t i o r ~ a l i z a -

t i o n was c r i t i c i z e d on s i m i l a r grounds . The s t a t e , he cop-

p l a i n e d , was a l r e a d y " e x c l u s i v e l e t t e r - c a r r i e r , e x c l u s i v e t r a n s -

r i t t e r o f t e l e g r a m , and on t h e way t o become e x c l u s i v e c a r -

r i e r of p a r c e l s ; " and i f t h o s e who advoca ted n a t i o n a l i z a t i o n

o f r a i l w a y s were s u c c e s s f u l , t h e s t a t e would a l s o be " e x c l u s i v e

c a r r i e r o f p a s s e n g e r s , goods and n i n e r a l s " . ' F u r t h e r n a t i o n a l -

i z a t i o n c o u l d o n l y l e a d t o t h e k i n d o f economic i n e f f i c i e n c y

t h a t e x i s t e d on t h e c o n t i n e n t .

A l l t h e s e d i f f e r e n t forms o f governmenta l a c t i v i t y p r e -

saged t h e development o f a n u n c o n t r o l l a b l e and u b i q u i t o u s

bureaucracy . Once a bureaucracy grew beyond a c e r t a i n p o i n t

p e o p l e would want t o j o i n it i n i n c r e a s i n g numbers a s i t would

o f f e r more a t t r a c t i v e c a r e e r p r o s p e c t s t h a n t h e p r i v a t e s e c t o r .

Every t i r e someone j o i n e d t h e b u r e a u c r a c y , n o t o n l y would t h e .

' spencer , The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , p . 9 6 .

2 ~ b i d . , p .105.

b u r e a u c r a c y be s t r e n g t h e n e d by o n e , b u t t h e r e s t of t h e com-

unity would a l s o be weakened by one . F u r t h e r , a bureaucracy

t h a t developed beyond a c e r t a i n s i z e c o u l d e a s i l y become a

s e r i o u s t h r e a t t o t h e r e s t o f t h e community: "A compara t ive-

l y s m a l l body o f o f f i c i a l s , c o h e r e n t , h a v i n g common i n t e r e s t s ,

and a c t i n g under c e n t r a l a u t h o r i t y , h a s a n immense advan tage

o v e r an i n c o h e r e n t p u b l i c which h a s no s e t t l e d p o l i c y , and

can b e b r o u g h t t o a c t u n i t e d l y o n l y under s t r o n g p r o v o c a t i o n .

Hence an o r g a n i z a t i o n o f o f f i c i a l s , once p a s s i n g a c e r t a i n

s t a g e o f growth, becomes less and less r e s i s t a b l e . I t 1

Apar t from t h e s e d a n g e r s , a bureaucracy c o u l d never r e -

s o l v e t h e more fundamental problems b e s e t t i n g a s o c i e t y . To

b e g i n w i t h , a b u r e a u c r a t i c o r g a n i z a t i o n was u n u s u a l l y p rone

t o t h e c o r r u p t i o n and i n e f f i c i e n c y t h a t p l a a u e d a l l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n s , f o r w h i l e a p r i v a t e o r g a n i z a t i o n might be d e s t r o y e d by

t h e s e f a i l i n q s , a w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d bureaucracy c o u l d o n l y

c o n t i n u e t o grow more i n e f f i c i e n t and c o r r u p t . I'Joreover,

t h e most any bureaucracy c o u l d do was t o s imply r e d i s t r i b u t e

t h o s e goods and s e r v i c e s t h a t t h e s o c i e t y had a l r e a d y c r e a t e d :

"The o f f i c i a l s can never c r e a t e t h e n e e d f u l s u p p l i e s ; t h e y

c a n b u t d i s t r i b u t e among i n d i v i d u a l s t h a t which t h e i n d i v i d u a l s

have j o i n e d t o produce . I f t h e p u b l i c agency i s r e q u i r e d t o

p r o v i d e f o r them, it must r e c i p r o c a l l y r e q u i r e them t o f u r n i s h

t h e means. "' I n s h o r t , a l l b u r e a u c r a c i e s ,

t h e i r i n t e n t i o n s , were i n e v i t a b l y bound t o

and s u p e r f l u o u s .

r e g a r d l e s s o f

b e b o t h i n e f f i c i e n t

The c o r o l l a r y o f S p e n c e r ' s ~ r o s c r i p t i o n o f v a r i o u s k i n d s 1 I r,

o f governmenta l i n t e r f e r e n c e was h i s p r e s c r i p t i o n of an ex-

t r e m e l y l i m i t e d form o f government. He a rgued t h a t t h e most

g e n e r a l o b j e c t o f government was s imply t o p r o t e c t c i t i z e n s

from b o t h e x t e r n a l and i n t e r n a l a g g r e s s i o n : i n o t h e r words

i g o v e r n r e n t shou ld p r o v i d e f o r d e f e n s e a g a i n s t f o r e i g n i n v a s - i i i o n , and i t s h o u l d p r e v e n t c i t i z e n s fro^ h a r p i n g one a n o t h e r ' s

j p r o p e r t y and p e r s o n s . B e s i d e s t h i s , government s h o u l d pro-

, i v i d e t h e framework w i t h i n which c i t i z e n s r i g h t f r e e l y e n t e r

i n t o c o n t r a c t s w i t h one a n o t h e r . Thus: " t h e r e must , i n t h e

f i r s t p l a c e , be few r e s t r i c t i o n s on p e n ' s l i b e r t i e s t o r a k e

a g r e e m e n t s w i t h one a n o t h e r , and t h e r e must , i n t h e second

p l a c e , b e a n enforcement of t h e a g r e e v e n t s which they do

make". Apar t from t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f p r o p e r t y and p e r s o n s ,

and t h e enforcement o f c o n t r a c t s , governpen t had no l e g i t i -

mate a u t h o r i t y .

The o b j e c t o f " l i b e r a l i s m " was t o b r i n g a b o u t t h i s k ind

o f p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Spencer w r o t e The Man v e r s u s t h e

S t a t e p a r t l y because he f e l t t h a t i n t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e

bid., p.107.

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , l i b e r a l i s m was f a i l i n g t o f u l f i l what

he conce ived o f a s i t s t r u e p o l i t i c a l p u r p o s e . "Yost o f t h o s e

who now p a s s a s L i b e r a l s " he w r o t e " a r e T o r i e s o f a new t y p e . 1, 1

The h i s t o r i c a l purpose o f l i b e r a l i s m was s i p p l y t o l i m i t t h e

power o f government, whereas t h e purpose o f Toryisrr was t o

m a i n t a i n , o r i n c r e a s e , t h a t power. I n a t y p i c a l w h i g - l i b e r a l

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r y he argued t h a t t h e s e two opposinq

p r i n c i p l e s had emerged i n t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n f l i c t s o f t h e

1 7 t h c e n t u r y , and t h a t t h e subsequen t p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y o f

England was s imply t h e s t o r y o f t h e growing ascendency o f t h e

l i b e r a l p r i n c i p l e . 2 The g r e a t Whig re fo rms o f t h e 1 8 3 0 ' s

( s u c h a s t h e Reform B i l l and t h e Munic ipa l Reform B i l l ) were

t r u l y l i b e r a l i n t h a t t h e y s o u g h t t o emanc ipa te t h e many f r o r

" t h e c o e r c i o n o f t h e few". However, i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a c e r t a i n c o n f u s i o n developed o v e r t h e

r e a n i n g o f l i b e r a l i s m . The o r i g i n a l a t t e m p t s o f l i b e r a l i s m

t o r e d u c e t h e c o e r c i v e powers o f government were a l s o s e e n a s

" m i t i g a t i o n s of e v i l s which had d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y been

f e l t by l a r g e c l a s s e s o f c i t i z e n s , a s c a u s e s o f misery o r a s

h i n d e r a n c e s t o h a p p i n e s s " . Consequent ly " t h e s e measures came

t o b e t h o u g h t o f a s s o many p o s i t i v e b e n e f i t s ; and t h e w e l f a r e

3 I b i d . , p .66.

o f t h e many came t o be conceived a l i k e by L i b e r a l s t a t e s m e n

1 and L i b e r a l v o t e r s a s t h e aim o f L i b e r a l i s n u . Spencer con-

s i d e r e d t h i s a s a p e r v e r s i o n o f t h e p r o p e r aims o f l i b e r a l i s m

f o r " t h e r e a l i s s u e i s whether t h e l i v e s o f c i t i z e n s a r e more

i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h a n t h e y were ; n o t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e agency

which i n t e r f e r e s w i t h them". True L i b e r a l i s m was a s opposed

t o p a t e r n a l i s t i c democra t i c government a s i t w a s t o p a t e r n a l -

i s t i c monarchica l government; and Spencer concluded The Fan

v e r s u s t h e S t a t e w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n a p l e a : "The f u n c t i o n of

L i b e r a l i s m i n t h e p a s t was t h a t o f p u t t i n g a l i m i t t o t h e

powers o f k i n g s . The f u n c t i o n of t r u e L i b e r a l i s p i n t h e fu-

t u r e w i l l be t h a t o f p u t t i n g a l i m i t t o t h e powers o f P a r l i a -

ments . 11 3

61

On t h e f a c e o f i t S p e n c e r ' s " l i b e r a l i s m " , o r " l a i s s e z -

f a i r i s m " , may pe rhaps be unders tood a s a p l e a f o r f r e e d o n and

i n d i v i d u a l i t y . Spencer h i m s e l f , on a number o f o c c a s i o n s jus-

t i f i e d h i s p o s i t i o n a s a p l e a f o r " l i b e r t y " . He argued t h a t

t h e p r o g r e s s i v e growth o f government would u l t i m a t e l y l e a d t o

1 s o c i a l i s m , and t h a t s o c i a l i s m was a form o f s l a v e r y :

The d e g r e e o f h i s [ a c i t i z e n ' s ] s l a v e r y v a r i e s accord- i n g t o t h e r a t i o between t h a t which he i s f o r c e d t o y i e l d up and t h a t which he i s a l lowed t o r e t a i n ; and i t p a t t e r s n o t whe the r h i s mas te r i s a s i n g l e p e r s o n o r a s o c i e t y . I f , w i t h o u t o p t i o n , he has t o l a b o u r f o r t h e s o c i e t y , and r e c e i v e s from t h e g e n e r a l s t o c k such p o r t i o n a s t e so- c i e t y awards h i p , h e becomes a s l a v e t o s o c i e t y . 4

I n o t h e r words " l i b e r t y " was e x c l u s i v e l y c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e

e x t e n t o f government i n t e r f e r e n c e . Thus " t h e l i b e r t y which

a c i t i z e n e n j o y s i s t o be measured, n o t by t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

governn-en ta l machinery he l i v e s u n d e r , whether r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

o r o t h e r , b u t by t h e r e l a t i v e p a u c i t y o f t h e r e s t r a i n t s i t

imposes on h i p " . 3

T h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f " l i b e r t y " , however, was p u r e l y nega-

t i v e i n t h a t a l l Spencer meant t o s u g g e s t by i t was t h e ab-

s e n s e o f c e r t a i n k i n d s o f r e s t r a i n t s . I f f reedop. and i n d i v i -

d u a l i t y a r e t a k e n t o mean i n d i v i d u a l s e l f - d e t e r ~ i n a t i o n ( o r ,

p e r h a p s , " s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n " ) t h e n c l e a r l y S p e n c e r ' s " l i b e r t y "

d o e s n o t i n c l u d e o r i n c o r p o r a t e t h e s e n o t i o n s . I n s h o r t , t h e

- ' ~ b i d . , p .100 .

bid., p. lO1.

word l i b e r t y was used i n an ex t remely r e s t r i c t e d s e n s e i n The -

Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e and t h e r e i s no w a r r a n t w i t h i n t h e t e x t

i t s e l f f o r assuming t h a t Spencer i n t e n d e d i t t o be unders tood

i n any o t h e r s e n s e .

Fur the rmore , and p e r h a p s p o r e i n - p o r t a n t l y , S p e n c e r ' s jus-

t i f i c a t i o n o f l a i s s e z - f a i r e o n l y depended i n p a r t upon h i s

advocacy o f " l i b e r t y " . O v e r a l l , h i s main concern was t o pro-

pose t h o s e p o l i t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s under which , he f e l t , c e r t a i n

k i n d s o f s o c i a l development would t a k e p l a c e . The i m p o s i t i o n s

of government w e r e p r o s c r i b e d i n o r d e r t h a t t h e "laws o f l i f e "

1 might a c t unh indered . I n t h i s s e n s e , h e was p ropos ing a d i s -

t i n c t i o n between t h e r e s t r a i n t s o f n a t u r e and t h e a r t i f i c i a l

r e s t r a i n t s o f government. The i n d i v i d u a l was t o be f r e e d fron.

t h e l a t t e r s e t o f r e s t r a i n t s i n o r d e r t h a t h e might be proper-

l y s u b j e c t e d t o t h e former s e t o f r e s t r a i n t s . Consequen t ly ,

S p e n c e r ' s c o n c e p t i o n 0-f n a t u r a l " laws" o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n

p l a y e d a c r u c i a l p a r t i n h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f l a i s s e z - f a i r -

i s m .

A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e he a rgued

t h a t t h e te rms Toryism and L i b e r a l i s p cor responded t o two

d i s t i n c t t y p e s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T o r y i s r was t h e po-

l i t i c a l c r e e d o f what he d e s c r i b e d a s t h e " ~ i l i t a n t " t y p e o f

s o c i e t y . Th i s was a "regime o f s t a t u s " e x e m p l i f i e d " i n an

army o f c o n s c r i p t s , i n which t h e u n i t s i n t h e i r s e v e r a l g r a d e s . have t o f u l f i l covmands under p a i n o f d e a t h and r e c e i v e food

6 3

and pay and c l o t h i n g a r b i t r a r i l y a p p o r t i o n e d w . l By c o n t r a s t ,

~ i b e r a l i s v was t h e p o l i t i c a l c r e e d o f t h e " i n d u s t r i a l " t y p e o f

s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . T h i s t y p e was e x e m p l i f i e d " i n a body o f

p r o d u c e r s o r d i s t r i b u t o r s , who s e v e r a l l y a g r e e t o s p e c i f i e d

p a y n e n t s i n r e t u r n f o r s p e c i f i e d s e r v i c e s , and may a t w i l l ,

a f t e r d u e n o t i c e , l e a v e t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i f they do n o t l i k e

i t " . 2 I n s h o r t , r r i l i t a n t s o c i e t i e s w e r e based upon c o e r c i o n

whereas i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s were based upon c o n t r a c t u a l a g r e e -

ments and c o o p e r a t i o n . These two k i n d s o f s o c i a l o r g a n i z a -

t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d two d i f f e r e n t p h a s e s o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n

and i n t h a t s e n s e , p r e s u r a b l y , t h e p r o g r e s s i v e ascendency o f

l i b e r a l i s v was i n e v i t a b l e .

S p e n c e r p r o s c r i b e d government i n t e r f e r e n c e because he

f e l t t h a t i t would c o u n t e r a c t t h e s e " n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s o f

s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n " . He argued t h a t t h e s o c i a l organism was s o

complex t h a t any a c t o f government would u l t i n a t e l y modify

i t i n ways t h a t c o u l d n o t p o s s i b l y be f o r e s e e n :

T h e r e i s t h e f a c t , a l s o i n i t s b r o a d e r m a n i f e s t a t i o n s u n i v e r s a l l y r e c o ~ n i z e d , t h a t ~ o d i f i c a t i o n s of s t r u c t u r e , i n one way o r o t h e r produced, a r e i n h e r i t a b l e . No one d e n i e s t h a t by t h e accumula t ion o f s m a l l changes , g e n e r a t i o n a f t e r g e n e r a t i o n , c o n s t i t u t i o n f i t s i t s e l f t o c o n d i t i o n s . . . To which t h e r e comes t h e u n d e n i a b l e c o r o l l a r y t h a t eve ry law which serves t o a l t e r men 's modes o f a c t i o n - compel l ing , o r r e s t r a i n i n g , o r a i d i n g , i n new ways - s o a f f e c t s t h e n a s t o c a u s e , i n c o u r s e o f t i n e , f r e s h a d j u s t m e n t s o f t h e i r na- t u r e . Beyond any immediate e f f e c t wrought , t h e r e i s t h e re- mote e f f e c t , whol ly i g n o r e d by most - a remoulding o f t h e a v e r a g e c h a r a c t e r : a remoulding which nay b e o f a d e s i r a b l e ,

L I b i d .

64

k i n d , b u t which i n any c a s e i s t h e n o s t i m p o r t a n t o f t h e r e s u l t s t o be c o n s i d e r e d .

Given t h i s co r rp lex i ty , p o l i t i c i a n s s h o u l d n o t a t t e m p t t o t a p -

p e r w i t h t h e "spontaneously-formed s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n " .

P a t e r n a l government c o u l d o n l y o b s t r u c t t h e p r o c e s s e s o f na-

t u r a l s e l e c t i o n upon which a l l genu ine s o c i a l p r o g r e s s de-

pended.

I t i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t S p e n c e r ' s j u s t i f i c a t i o n of l a i s -

s e z - f a i r e depended l a r g e l y upon h i s c o n c e p t i o n of s o c i a l evo-

l u t i o n . H i s arguments i n t h i s r e s p e c t may n o t have been a l -

t o g e t h e r c o n s i s t e n t f o r t h e r e i s a s e n s e i n which governn.ent

w e l f a r e measures might themse lves - w i t h o u t do ing any i n j u s - I

t i c e t o S p e n c e r ' s own premises - b e r e g a r d e d a s an i n t e g r a l

p a r t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . However, a p a r t f r o n ques-

t i o n s o f c o n s i s t e n c y i t a p p e a r s t h a t Spencer i n t e n d e d t o r e s t

h i s j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f l a i s s e z - f a i r i s m on a more g e n e r a l t h e o r y

o f e v o l u t i o n .

Spencer devo ted most o f h i s l i f e t o c o n s t r u c t i n g a com-

p r e h e n s i v e sys tem o f ph i losophy . The o b j e c t o f t h e sys tem was

t o show how a l l phenomena c o u l d b e e x p l a i n e d i n terms o f a

t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n . H i s p l a n s f o r t h e f u t u r e System o f Syn-

t h e t i c Ph i losophy appear t o have matured i n l a t e 1 8 5 7 . l H e

s u b s e q u e n t l y d e c i d e d t o t r y t o i s s u e t h e p r o s p e c t i v e volumes

o f t h e s y s t e m by s u b s c r i p t i o n and i n 1860 a p r o g r a m e ( t o

which was a t t a c h e d a l i s t o f i n f l u e n t i a l s p o n s o r s , i n c l u d i n g

2 W i l l , Huxley and Darwin) was p r i n t e d and d i s t r i b u t e d . Dur ing

t h e n e x t t h i r t y - t h r e e y e a r s h e c a r r i e d o u t t h e scheme. F i r s t

P r i n c i p l e s was p u b l i s h e d i n 1862; P r i n c i p l e s of Biology, 1864-

67; t h e second e d i t i o n o f P r i n c i p l e s o f Psychology, 1870-72;

P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y , 1876-96; and l a s t l y P r i n c i p l e s of

E t h i c s , 1879-93.

S p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n began w i t h a n a c c o u n t o f

p r o c e s s e s o f change i n t h e i n o r g a n i c w o r l d . 3 A l l phenomena,

h e a r g u e d , were m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f " f o r c e " . Th i s f o r c e was

d i s p l a y e d e i t h e r a s m a t t e r o r a s mot ion . Tha t m a t t e r was a

n a n i f e s t a t i o n o f f o r c e c o u l d b e shown by examining t h e char -

a c t e r o f o u r s e n s o r y p e r c e p t i o n s :

1 S p e n c e r , Autobiography, 2:15-18.

L I b i d . , pp.479-484.

3 ~ p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y o f e v o l u t i o n was f i r s t o u t l i n e d i n S o c i a l S t a t i c s (1855) and i n an e s s a y e n t i t l e d " P r o g r e s s : I t s law and c a u s e " ( 1 8 5 7 ) . H i s t h e o r y was t h u s pre-Darwinian and h i s i n t e l l e c t u a l p r e d e c e s s o r s i n t h i s r e s p e c t w e r e L y e l l and La- mark. S p e n c e r , however, went beyond a l l o t h e r e v o l u t i o n i s t s i n t h a t he a t t e l r p t e d t o f u s e . h i s n o t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n w i t h t h e t h e o r y o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n o f ene rgy - which was b e i n g d e v e l - oped by n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p h y s i c i s t s - i n s u c h a way a s t o produce a comprehensive cosmology.

Body i s d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from s p a c e by i t s power o f a f f e c t i n g o u r s e n s e s , and, i n t h e l a s t r e s o r t , by i t s o p p o s i t i o n t o o u r e f f o r t s . We can c o n c e i v e o f body o n l y by j o i n i n g i n t h o u g h t e x t e n s i o n and r e s i s t a n c e ; t a k e away r e s i s t a n c e , and t h e r e remains o n l y s p a c e . 1

Motion, t h e o t h e r mode of f o r c e , was t h e p r o d u c t o f " u n i v e r -

s a l l y c o - e x i s t e n t f o r c e s o f a t t r a c t i o n and r e p u l s i o n " . 2

The two d i f f e r e n t modes o f f o r c e known a s m a t t e r and mo-

t i o n c a n n e i t h e r be c r e a t e d nor d e ~ t r o y e d . ~ The i n d e s t r u c -

t i b i l i t y o f p a t t e r i s one o f t h e n e c e s s a r y p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s of

s c i e n c e , f o r o u r a b i l i t y t o weigh t h i n g s depends upon t h e a s -

sumption t h a t t h e m a t t e r forming t h e w e i g h t r e p a i n s t h e same

w h i l e it i s b e i n g weighed.4 I n o t h e r words , i t i s n e c e s s a r y

t o p resuppose t h a t m a t t e r canno t s imply d i s s i p a t e i t s e l f wi th -

o u t any o u t s i d e i n t e r f e r e n c e . This p r e s u p p o s i t i o n i s a l s o

b o t h l o g i c a l l y and p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y i n t h a t i t i s

unavoidably e n t a i l e d i n o u r c o n c e p t i o n o f p a t t e r :

Our i n a b i l i t y t o conce ive r a t t e r b e c o r i n g n o n - e x i s t e n t i s im.mediately consequent on t h e n a t u r e of thouqh t ... i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o t h i n k o f something becoming n o t h i n g , f o r t h e same r e a s o n t h a t it i s impossible t o t h i n k o f n o t h i n g be-

' ~ e r b e r t S p e n c e r , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s ( N e w York: A .L . B u r t Company, 1880) , p.162.

3 ~ p e n c e r ' s a t t e m p t t o g i v e p h i l o s o p h i c a l p roof o f t h e p r i n - c i p l e o f t h e c o n s e r v a t i o n of energy was, u n d e r s t a n d a b l y enough, m e t by a c e r t a i n amount o f s c e p t i c i s m . For i n s t a n c e , M i l l w r o t e t o Bain: "was t h e r e e v e r s o s t r a n g e a n o t i o n ( f o r a man who s e e s . s o much) a s t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e o f t h e C o n s e r v a t i o n o f Force i s a p r i ' o r i and a law o f Consciousness?" ( M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , Vol . 11, p . 8 1 8 ) .

' spencer , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s , p . 151.

coming something - t h e r e a s o n , namely, t h a t n o t h i n g can- n o t become an o b j e c t of c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

The c o r o l l a r y o f t h e i n d e s t r u c t i v i l i t y o f r a t t e r i s t h e

c o n t i n u i t y o f mot ion . This t o o i s a n e c e s s a r y p r e s u p p o s i t i o n

o f s c i e n c e :

L ike t h e i n d e s t r u c t i b i l i t y o f m a t t e r , t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f motion, o r , more s t r i c t l y , o f t h a t someth ing which h a s mo- t i o n f o r one o f i t s s e n s i b l e forms, i s a p r o p o s i t i o n on t h e t r u t h o f which depends t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f e x a c t s c i e n c e . . . Motions, v i s i b l e and i n v i s i b l e , o f masses and molecu les form t h e l a r g e r h a l f of t h e phenomena t o be i n t e r p r e t e d (by s c i e n c e ) , and i f such n o t i o n s might e i t h e r p roceed from n o t h i n g o r l a p s e i n t o n o t h i n g , t h e r e c o u l d be no s c i e n t i f i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f them. 2

Motion can n e v e r b e l o s t . I t i s s imply t r a n s f o r m e d i n t o a

number o f d i f f e r e n t • ’ o m s such a s h e a t , l i g h t and sound.

Although n a t t e r i s i n d e s t r u c t i b l e , i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s

s u b j e c t t o c o n t i n u a l a l t e r a t i o n s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e d i f f e r e n t

k i n d s o f mot ion t h a t a r e i n p a r t e d t o i t . G e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g ,

t h e t r a n s f o r v a t i o n s t h a t o c c u r i n t h e u n i v e r s e may b e des-

c r i b e d t h u s :

Every o b j e c t , no l e s s t h a n t h e a g g r e g a t e of a l l o b j e c t s , undergoes from i n s t a n t t o i n s t a n t some a l t e r a t i o n of s t a t e . Gradua l ly o r q u i c k l y it i s r e c e i v i n g mot ion o r l o s i n g notion, w h i l e some o r a l l o f i t s p a r t s a r e s i m u l t a n e o u s l y changing t h e i r r e l a t i o n s t o one a n o t h e r . 3

This p e r p e t u a l r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m a t t e r and motion nay be

e x p r e s s e d i n t e r m s of t h e laws o f e v o l u t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n .

E v o l u t i o n o c c u r s when motion i s d i s s i p a t e d and m a t t e r i s

i n t e g r a t e d . I n t h i s s e n s e t h e c o o l i n g o f a n o b j e c t may be

d e s c r i b e d a s a s i m p l e k i n d o f e v o l u t i o n - f o r , a s t h e t e m -

p e r a t u r e o f a n o b j e c t i s reduced , t h e moverents o f i t s mole-

c u l e s d e c r e a s e and t h e o b j e c t i t s e l f becomes i n c r e a s i n g l y d e n s e ,

o r , " i n t e g r a t e d " . On t h e o t h e r hand, m a t t e r r a y d i s i n t e g r a t e a s

a r e s u l t o f t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f motion. T h i s i s t h e p r o c e s s o f

d i s s o l u t i o n , and i t o c c u r s , f o r i n s t a n c e , when m a t t e r i s h e a t e d .

E v o l u t i o n , t h e n , i n v o l v e s t h e p r o g r e s s i v e f o r m a t i o n o f

homogeneous a g g r e g a t e s o f m a t t e r . However, t h i s p r o c e s s i s

c o r p l i c a t e d by a number o f f a c t o r s . A homogeneous a g g r e g a t e

i s u n s t a b l e because i t i s exposed t o a nunber o f env i ronmenta l

f o r c e s . The p a r t s o f t h e a g g r e g a t e t h a t a r e t h u s exposed ~ u s t

a d a p t themse lves i n o r d e r t h a t t h e r e may be some k i n d of e q u i l -

i b r i u m between t h e a g g r e g a t e and i t s e n v i r o n ~ e n t . T h i s adap-

t a t i o n i s , i n e f f e c t , a p r o c e s s o f d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and conse-

q u e n t l y t h e i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e a g g r e g a t e becomes i n -

c r e a s i n g l y h e t e r o g e n e o u s . Spencer e x p r e s s e d t h e f i n a l formu-

l a t i o n o f h i s " law" o f e v o l u t i o n t h u s :

E v o l u t i o n i s a n i n t e g r a t i o n o f m a t t e r and c o n c o p i t a n t d i s s i p a t i o n o f mot ion; d u r i n g which t h e m a t t e r p a s s e s from an i n d e f i n i t e i n c o h e r e n t h o r o g e n e i t y t o a d e f i n i t e c o h e r e n t h e t e r o g e n e i t y ; and d u r i n g which t h e r e t a i n e d motion under- goes a p a r a l l e l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . 1

When t h e v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e a g g r e g a t e a r e c o v p l e t e l y d i f f e r -

69

e n t i a t e d and t h e whole a g g r e g a t e i s c o h e r e n t l y o r g a n i z e d t h e n

it may be s a i d t o have reached a s t a t e o f e q u i l i b r i u m .

E v o l u t i o n i s fo l lowed by d i s s o l u t i o n . T h i s i n v o l v e s " t h e

a b s o r p t i o n o f mot ion and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f m a t t e r " .' I n o t h e r

words t h e whole p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n i s r e v e r s e d . The c y c l e

o f e v o l u t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n i s e x h i b i t e d by a l l o r g a n i c and

i n o r g a n i c phenomena. Thus, f o r i n s t a n c e , a l i v i n g o r g a n i s v

e v o l v e s a s i t grows i n t h a t i t s v a r i o u s f u n c t i o n s become i n -

c r e a s i n g l y he te rogeneous and c o h e r e n t . A t d e a t h it r e a c h e s t h e

p o i n t o f p h y s i c a l and chemical e q u i l i b r i u ~ and t h e r e a f t e r i t

p roceeds t o The r ise and f a l l o f c i v i l i z a t i o n s

may be unders tood i n t h e same t e r m s . ' The f o r m a t i o n o f phys i -

c a l a g g r e g a t e s s u c h a s t h e s o l a r sys tem a r e l i k e w i s e manifes-

t a t i o n s o f t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . 4 Spencer even s u g g e s t e d

t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e a s a whole might undergo t h e c y c l e o f evolu-

t i o n and d i s s o l u t i o n ad i n f i n i t u m . 5

I Spencer , Reasons f o r d i s s e n t i n g from t h e ph i losophy o f M. Comte and o t h e r e s s a y s (Berke ley : The Glendessa ry P r e s s , 1 9 6 8 ) , p .27 .

* s p e n c e r , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s , pp .452-4.

3 ~ b i d . , p .451.

4 Spencer f i r s t d i s c u s s e d t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f

t h e s o l a r s y s t e m i n an e s s a y e n t i t l e d "The Nebular Hypothes i s " p u b l i s h e d i n The Westm.inster Review i n 1858. H e r e t u r n e d t o t h e s u b j e c t i n F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s .

5 ~ p e n c e r , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s , p . 465.

Spencer subsumed e t h i c s , p o l i t i c s and r e l i g i o n under h i s

c o n c e p t i o n o f e v o l u t i o n and i n t h i s s e n s e he a t t e m p t e d t o pro-

v i d e a comprehensive e x p l a n a t i o n o f hunan conduc t . I n g e n e r a l

h i s o b j e c t was t o a r g u e t h a t t h e g e n e r a l laws t h a t governed

a l l o r g a n i c and i n o r g a n i c phenomena a l s o governed t h e r e l a -

t i o n s between human b e i n g s .

Moral conduc t , he a r g u e d , c o n s i s t s o f t h e a d j u s t m e n t o f

a c t s t o e n d s ; and, i n s o f a r a s a l l n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s i n v o l v e

c e r t a i n k i n d s o f a d j u s t m e n t s s o t h e r e c a n n o t b e a s h a r p d i s -

t i n c t i o n between e t h i c s and n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s :

Conduct i s a whole; a n d , i n a s e n s e , it i s a n o r g a n i c whole - a n a g g r e g a t e o f i n t e r d e p e n d e n t a c t i o n s performed by an organism. Tha t d i v i s i o n o r a s p e c t o f conduc t w i t h which e t h i c s d e a l s , i s a p a r t o f t h i s o r g a n i c whole - a p a r t h a v i n g i t s components i n e x t r i c a b l y bound up w i t h t h e r e s t . 1

Any a c t i o n which does n o t i n v o l v e a n a d j u s t m e n t t o some d e f i n i t e

end i s s imply random and p u r p o s e l e s s and t h e r e f o r e c a n n o t , p ro -

p e r l y s p e a k i n g , be conce ived o f a s conduc t . Consequent ly

such a c t i o n s f a l l beyond t h e scope o f e t h i c s . 2

' ~ e r b e r t Spencer , The P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , 2 Vols . ( I n - d i a n a p o 1 i s : L i b e r t y C l a s s i c s , 1 9 7 8 ) , 1:38-39.

2 ~ p e n c e r ' s a t t e m p t t o d e s c r i b e moral conduc t i n n a t u r a l i s - t i c t e r m s h a s l e d t o t h e c h a r g e t h a t h i s t h e o r y i s devo id o f any genuine e t h i c a l c o n t e n t . I n o t h e r words , i t h a s been a l l e a L e d . t h a t a t h e o r y which d e n i e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f f r e e mora l c h o i c e s c a n n o t b e a t h e o r y o f e t h i c s . S idgwick, Brad ley and Moore were among t h e more prominent V i c t o r i a n t h i n k e r s who r a d e t h i s c r i t i c i s m .

The moral wor th

t o which it succeeds

s i d e r e d good i n s o f a r

t i v e l y . Converse ly ,

o f conduc t i s c o n t i n g e n t upon t h e e x t e n t

i n a c h i e v i n g i t s end . An a c t may be con-

a s it promotes i t s p r e s c r i b e d end e f f e c -

a n a c t nay b e c o n s i d e r e d bad i n s o f a r a s

it f a i l s t o promote i t s p r e s c r i b e d end e f f e c t i v e l y .

Broadly s p e a k i n g t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s , o r a c t s , may b e d i v i -

ded i n t o two c a t e g o r i e s : t h o s e t h a t a r e " s e l f - r e g a r d i n g " and

t h o s e t h a t a r e " o t h e r - r e g a r d i n g " . The end of bo th s e l f - r e -

g a r d i n g and o t h e r - r e g a r d i n g a c t s i s p l e a s u r e . When conduc t

i s p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t h e p l e a s u r e s o f s e l f and o t h e r s c o i n c i d e .

The absence o f such c o i n c i d e n c e i m p l i e s t h a t an a c t i s n o t

p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t o a l l p o s s i b l e e n d s , and consequen t ly such

a n a c t canno t be c o n s i d e r e d u l t i m a t e l y good ( a l t h o u g h i t may

be c o n s i d e r e d r e l a t i v e l y good) . 1

P l e a s u r e i s t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d a c c o r d i n g t o which t h e

moral wor th o f an a c t i o n i s judged. I n o t h e r words an a c t i s

good i n s o f a r a s i t p r o ~ o t e s p l e a s u r e . O v e r a l l , p l e a s u r e may

b e c o n s i d e r e d a s t h e u l t i m a t e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e s p e c i e s . I n

a s e n s e t h e " u l t i m a t e w e l l - b e i n g o f t h e s p e c i e s " r e sembles t h e

" G r e a t e s t Happiness" p r i n c i p l e o f t h e u t i l i t a r i a n s . However,

Spencer f e l t t h a t u t i l i t a r i a n i s m s u f f e r e d from a nurnber o f de-

f e c t s , and one o f t h e o b j e c t s o f h i s t h e o r y was t o supp ly t h e s e

d e f i c i e n c i e s . H e a rgued t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e u t i l i t a r -

i a n p r i n c i p l e n e c e s s a r i l y c r e a t e d c e r t a i n problems. That which

' spencer , The P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , 1:Ch. 111.

i s immedia te ly p l e a s u r a b l e may n o t , i n t h e l o n g r u n , be con-

d u c i v e t o t h e o r g a n i s m ' s w e l f a r e . L ikewise t h a t which may

promote t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s w e l f a r e may harm t h e s p e c i e s . A

g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e i s needed whereby such c o n t r a d i c t i o n s may

be r e s o l v e d , and u t i l i t a r i a n s have f a i l e d t o d i s c o v e r t h i s .

U t i l i t a r i a n s have been c o r r e c t i n s o f a r a s t h e y have i d e n t i f i e d

t h e good w i t h p l e a s u r e . However, t h e i r a n a l y s i s has been based

on p iecemea l e m p i r i c a l i n d u c t i o n s and consequen t ly t h e y have

been unab le t o f i n d a p u r e l y r a t i o n a l and d e d u c t i v e method o f

d e a l i n g w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e competing c l a i m s of d i f f e r e n t

p l e a s u r e s . 1 According t o S p e n c e r , t h i s method can be deduced

from b i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s .

An a c t which i s n o t p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t o i t s p r e s c r i b e d

end w i l l i n j u r e t h e o r g a n i s n . The b i o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t i v e o f

such i n j u r y i s p a i n . Converse ly , any a c t which i s p r o p e r l y

a d j u s t e d t o i t s p r e s c r i b e d end w i l l p r o n o t e t h e o r g a n i s m ' s wel-

f a r e ; and t h e b i o l o g i c a l c o r r e l a t i v e o f w e l f a r e i s p l e a s u r e .

I n s o f a r a s moral conduct i s conduc t which i s p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d ,

s o a l l moral conduc t w i l l promote p l e a s u r e . Consequent ly t h e

p l e a s u r e o f a l l i s t h e f i n a l g o a l o f moral conduc t . I n t h i s

way, Spencer c l a imed t o have j u s t i f i e d t h e p l e a s u r e p r i n c i p l e

i n te rms o f man's b i o l o g i c a l n a t u r e .

H e a l s o a rgued t h a t man's a b i l i t y t o p e r c e i v e moral d i s -

t i n c t i o n s was e x p l i c a b l e i n b i o l o g i c a l t e r m s . A s p l e a s u r e a t - *

' l b i d . , p . 9 2 .

t e n d s t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e o rgan i sm, s o t h e c o n t i n u e d e x i s t e n c e

o f s e n t i e n t l i f e p resupposes t h e p u r s u i t o f p l e a s u r e . The

c o n n e c t i o n between p l e a s u r e and s u r v i v a l t h u s becomes i n -

s t i n c t i v e and i t h a s t h e f o r c e o f a n unavo idab le d ic tum o f

c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n s h o r t , it i s "no more p o s s i b l e t o frame

e t h i c a l c o n c e p t i o n s from which t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p l e a s u r e ,

o f some k i n d , a t some t i m e , t o some b e i n g , i s a b s e n t , t h a n it

i s p o s s i b l e t o frame t h e c o n c e p t i o n o f a n o b j e c t f r o n which

t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s p a c e i s a b s e n t " . Yora l i n t u i t i o n i s

s i n p l y a n i n n a t e b i o l o g i c a l i n s t i n c t which e n a b l e s t h e o r -

ganism t o d i s t i n g u i s h between v a r i o u s k i n d s o f conduc t . Spen-

cer f e l t t h a t he had g i v e n an e m p i r i c a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f a

p r i o r i e t h i c s :

... t h e te rms ' a p r i o r i t r u t h ' and ' n e c e s s a r y t r u t h ' ... a r e t o be i n t e r p r e t e d n o t i n t h e o l d s e n s e , a s i n p l y i n g c o g n i t i o n s whol ly independen t o f e x p e r i e n c e s , b u t a s i n - p l y i n g c o g n i t i o n s t h a t have been r e n d e r e d o r g a n i c by irn- mense accumula t ions o f e x p e r i e n c e s , r e c e i v e d p a r t l y by t h e i n d i v i d u a l , b u t mainly by a l l a n c e s t r a l i n d i v i d u a l s whose nervous sys tems h e i n h e r i t s . 1

However, t h i s i n n a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s can o n l y b e d i s c o v e r e d by

r e p e a t e d i n d u c t i o n s . Consequent ly u t i l i t a r i a n s a r e c o r r e c t

i n s o f a r a s t h e y a t t e m p t t o d i s c o v e r e t h i c a l s t a n d a r d s by i n -

d u c t i v e and e m p i r i c a l means. I n t h i s way Spencer c la imed t o

have s u p p l i e d t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f b o t h u t i l i t a r i a n i s ~ and a

1 Spencer , F i r s t P r 2 n c i p l e s , p . 152.

p r i o r i s m . 1

Fur the rmore , Spencer a r g u e d , b i o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s en-

a b l e u s t o e x p l a i n why conduct which i s i m e d i a t e l y p l e a s u r -

a b l e may, i n t h e l o n g r u n , i n j u r e b o t h t h e organism and t h e

s p e c i e s . Conduct , l i k e e v e r y t h i n g else, i s s u b j e c t t o t h e

law of e v o l u t i o n . The a c t s o f lower organisms a r e r e l a t i v e l y

i n c o h e r e n t and homogeneous compared t o t h o s e o f more h i g h l y

evo lved o rgan i sms . The e v o l u t i o n of conduc t c o n s i s t s o f t h e

development o f more he te rogeneous conduc t i n t h e s e n s e t h a t

t h e a d j u s t m e n t s o f a c t s t o ends become more v a r i e d and corn-

p l e x . The i n c r e a s i n g s o p h i s t i c a t i o n o f t h e s e a d j u s t m e n t s

w i l l e n a b l e t h e more h i g h l y evo lved organism t o cope more suc-

c e s s f u l l y w i t h t h e c o m p l e x i t i e s o f i t s envi ronment . Converse ly ,

i f a n o r g a n i s m ' s a c t s a r e r e l a t i v e l y homogeneous and und i f -

f e r e n t i a t e d , t h e n i t i s l i k e l y t h a t t h e organism w i l l f i n d

i t s e l f c o n f r o n t e d by c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i t h which it canno t ade-

q u a t e l y cope . Consequent ly i t s chances of s u r v i v a l w i l l be d i -

minished. I n o t h e r words t h e p r o ~ r e s s i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f

conduct w i l l promote a r i c h e r and Fore v a r i e d e x i s t e n c e a s t h e

' spencer r e p e a t e d l y c la imed t o have r e s o l v e d t h e c o n f l i c t between i d e a l i s t me taphys ics and e ~ p i r i c i s m . On t h e f a c e o f it he a p p e a r s t o have compromised w i t h t h e i d e a l i s t ( o r , more p r e c i s e l y , neo-Kantian) d o c t r i n e s o f Hamilton and Mansel. I n F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s h e a rgued t h a t s p a c e and t i m e w e r e " n e c e s s a r y " i n t u i t i o n s . I n P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s he a rgued a b o u t moral i n - t u i t i o n s i n t h e same way. In S p e n c e r ' s p h i l o s o p h y , however, " a p r i o r i " o r " n e c e s s a r y " t r u t h s a r e s imply t h e p r o d u c t o f c e r - '

t a i n k i n d s o f b i o l o g i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g . Con- s e q u e n t l y , i n S p e n c e r ' s sys tem t h e " a p r i o r i " i s n o t a c a t e - gory independen t o f e x p e r i e n c e . R a t h e r , i t i s s imply p a r t o f e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y . I n t h i s s e n s e , Spencer d i d n o t compromise w i t h i d e a l i s m . H e s imply sough t t o e x p l a i n t h e "a p r i o r i " i n e m p i r i c a l t e r m s .

7 5

o r g a n i s m ' s chances o f s u r v i v a l a r e enhanced. I n te rms o f

x o r a l d i s t i n c t i o n s t h i s l e a d s t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t more

h i g h l y evolved conduc t i s good; w h i l e , c o n v e r s e l y , bad conduc t

i s r e l a t i v e l y less e v o l v e d .

I t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d o f rnoral conduc t

can o n l y b e reached by an organ is^ t h a t i s p e r f e c t l y e v o l v e d .

An a c t i s good i n t h e h i g h e s t s e n s e p o s s i b l e i f it promotes

t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e whole

s p e c i e s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . Such an a c t i s p e r f e c t l y evo lved a s

i t i s p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t o a l l p o s s i b l e e n d s . I n o t h e r words

man w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o a c t i n a comple te ly e t h i c a l manner

u n t i l he i s p e r f e c t l y evolved: " j u s t a s ... e v o l u t i o n becones

t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e when t h e conduc t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y a c h i e v e s

t h e g r e a t e s t t o t a l i t y .of l i f e i n s e l f , i n o f f s p r i n g and i n

f e l l o w pen ; s o . . . t h e conduc t ca - l l ed good r i s e s t o t h e conduc t

conceived a s b e s t , when it f u l f i l l s a l l t h r e e c l a s s e s o f end

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y " . 2

S p e n c e r ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f moral conduc t

was t h u s c l e a r l y t e l e o l o g i c a l i n t h a t he presupposed a n end

i n which a l l a c t s would b e p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d . A t t h a t p o i n t

e v o l u t i o n would c e a s e a s no f u r t h e r a d j u s t m e n t s would be nec-

e s s a r y . Thus h e f e l t t h a t t h e r e was "a w a r r a n t f o r t h e b e l i e f

t h a t e v o l u t i o n c a n end o n l y i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of t h e g r e a t -

1 Spencer , P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , 1:Chs. V & V I

es t p e r f e c t i o n and t h e most comple te h a p p i n e s s v . ' Spencer

r e f e r r e d t o t h i s s t a g e a s t h e rea lm o f "Abso lu te E t h i c s " .

However, he a r g u e d , a t p r e s e n t man h a s n o t r eached t h e

t e l o s o f t h i s r e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s . Van l i v e s i n a n age o f

t r a n s i t i o n . Consequent ly h i s a c t s w i l l a iways b e , i n some

s e n s e , i m p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d ; a n d , a s a r e s u l t , some p a i n must

n e c e s s a r i l y a t t e n d each a c t i o n r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x t e n t o f t h e

p l e a s u r e promoted by t h a t a c t i o n . Th i s e x p l a i n s why a man

may harm. t h e s p e c i e s by promot ing h i s own i n d i v i d u a l w e l f a r e ;

and c o n v e r s e l y , why, i n a t t e n p t i n g t o promote t h e w e l f a r e o f

t h e s p e c i e s , a n i n d i v i d u a l may i n j u r e h i m s e l f . U n t i l t h e

f i n a l s t a g e o f e v o l u t i o n i s reached i n which a l l a c t s a r e per-

f e c t l y a d j u s t e d t o a l l p o s s i b l e e n d s , t h e s e c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i l l

n e c e s s a r i l y o c c u r . Thus a t p r e s e n t , mora l conduc t can on ly

be r e l a t i v e l y r i g h t and Spencer r e f e r r e d t o t h i s s t a g e a s t h e

rea lm o f " R e l a t i v e E t h i c s " . 2

I n S o c i a l S t a t i c s (1855) Spencer had a rgued t h a t t h e

rea lms o f A b s o l u t e E t h i c s and R e l a t i v e E t h i c s were u t t e r l y

d i s t i n c t ; and t h a t , c o n s e q u e n t l y , s t u d y i n g what was a b s o l u t e l y

r i g h t c o u l d b e o f l i t t l e u s e i n a t t e m p t i n g t o f o r m u l a t e r u l e s

of conduc t f o r t h e p r e s e n t . However, it a p p e a r s t h a t he had

I Spencer , F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s , p .448.

bid., C h . XV.

3 H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , S o c i a l S t a t i c s ( N e w York: Rober t Sha l - kenbach Foundat ion , 1 9 5 4 ) , p .52 .

changed h i s mind on t h i s i s s u e when h e w r o t e P r i n c i p l e s o f

E t h i c s (1879-93) . I n t h i s work he a rgued t h a t t h e r e was a

c o n n e c t i o n between R e l a t i v e and Abso lu te E t h i c s i n t h a t t h e

l a t t e r s u p p l i e d t h e u l t i m a t e s t a n d a r d s r e q u i r e d t o make de-

c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e p r e s e n t r e l a t i v e v a l u e o f d i f f e r e n t

moral c h o i c e s :

Absolu te E t h i c s , by t h e s t a n d a r d it s u p p l i e s , does n o t g r e a t l y a i d R e l a t i v e E t h i c s , y e t , a s i n o t h e r c a s e s , it a i d s somewhat by keep ing b e f o r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n i d e a l c o n c i l i a t i o n o f t h e v a r i o u s c l a i m s i n v o l v e d ; and by sug- g e s t i n g t h e s e a r c h f o r such c o m p r o ~ i s e among them, a s s h a l l n o t d i s r e g a r d any b u t s h a l l s a t i s f y a l l t o t h e g r e a t e s t e x t e n t p r a c t i c a b l e . 1

The rea ln- o f A b s o l u t e E t h i c s t h u s s u p p l i e s b o t h t h e t e l o s o f

t h e e v o l u t i o n o f moral conduc t and t h e r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a f o r

everyday moral d e c i s i o n s . 2

According t o Spencer t h e e v o l u t i o n o f moral conduc t was

'Spencer, P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , 1: 316.

'Spencer ' s argurrent a t t h i s p o i n t a p p e a r s t o have been sorre- what i r r e s o l u t e and ambiguous. He c o u l d n o t f u l l y adrr i t t h e need f o r c r i t e r i a a c c o r d i n g t o which moral c h o i c e s shou ld b e made because t h a t would have been tantamount t o a d m i t t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f a c t i o n s which might n o t conform t o t h e laws o f e v o l u t i o n . A t t h e same t i m e , however, h e f e l t t h a t h i s sys tem shou ld be c o n s i d e r e d a s a g u i d e t o a c t i o n and t h e r e f o r e he had t o p r o v i d e some such c r i t e r i a .

J . D . Y . P e e l , i n a n a t t e m p t t o j u s t i f y S p e n c e r ' s p o s i t i o n , has a s s e r t e d t h a t Spencer was a r g u i n g " t h a t t h e c o n t i n g e n t l y d e s i r a b l e w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y come a b o u t " . H e r b e r t Spencer , The ~ v o i u t i o n o f a S o c i o l o q i s t (London: Heinemann, 1 9 7 1 ) , p .247. This i n t e r p r e t a t i o n begs t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o whether S p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y makes any p r o v i s i o n f o r mere c o n t i n g e n c y .

s imply one a s p e c t o f a b r o a d e r p r o c e s s o f s o c i o l o g i c a l evolu-

t i o n . The f i r s t s t a g e o f any s o c i a l d e v e l o p v e n t , he a r g u e d ,

was t h e fo rmat ion o f a homogeneous a g g r e g a t e :

That under i t s pr imary a s p e c t p o l i t i c a l development i s a p r o c e s s o f i n t e g r a t i o n , i s c l e a r . By i t , i n d i v i d u a l s o r i g i n a l l y s e p a r a t e a r e u n i t e d i n t o a whole. I n t h e e a r l i - es t s t a g e s t h e groups o f men a r e s m a l l , t h e y a r e l o o s e , t h e y a r e n o t u n i f i e d by s u b o r d i n a t i o n t o a c e n t r e . But w i t h p o l i t i c a l p r o g r e s s cones t h e compounding, r e - c o ~ p o u n d - i n g , and re-re-recompounding o f groups u n t i l g r e a t na- t i o n s a r e produced. 1

The main purpose o f t h i s p r o g r e s s towards u n i t y i n e a r l y m i l i -

t a n t s o c i e t i e s was t o p r o v i d e d e f e n s e a g a i n s t o t h e r s o c i e t i e s .

A s o c i e t y t h a t was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y o r g a n i z e d i n t e r n a l l y would

n o t s u r v i v e t h e o n s l a u g h t s o f i t s enerr ies .

Th i s s t a g e o f s o c i a l development i s superceded a s s o c i e -

t i e s become i n c r e a s i n g l y he te rogeneous and c o h e r e n t :

With t h i s advance from s m a l l c o h e r e n t s o c i a l a g g r e g a t e s t o g r e a t c o h e r e n t o n e s , which, w h i l e becoming i n t e g r a t e d p a s s from u n i f o r m i t y t o m u l t i f o r m i t y , t h e r e goes a n ad- vance from i n d e f i n i t e n e s s o f p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n t o d e f i n i t e n e s s o f p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n . Save i n h e r i t e d i d e a s and u s a g e s , n o t h i n g i s f i x e d i n t h e p r i m i t i v e h o r d s . But t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s above d e s c r i b e d , s e v e r a l l y be- g i n n i n g v a g u e l y , grow i n t h e i r t u r n s g r a d u a l l y more marked. C l a s s d i v i s i o n s , a b s e n t a t f i r s t and a f e rwards undecided, e v e n t u a l l y a c q u i r e g r e a t d i s t i n c t n e s s . f

The p r o g r e s s i v e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n of f u n c t i o n s e v e n t u a l l y l e a d s

t o t h e c r e a t i o n o f a h i g h l y i n d u s t r i a l i z e d s o c i e t y and t h u s

man w i l l r e a c h t h e end o f h i s e v o l u t i o n a r y development wi th -

i n t h e c o n t e x t o f a n i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t y .

L a s t l y , Spencer a l s o c la imed t h a t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s w e r e

a p r o d u c t o f s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . H e a rgued t h a t p r i n i t i v e man

had t o p o s t u l a t e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f g h o s t s i n o r d e r t o a c c o u n t

f o r t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f n a t u r a l phenonena because t h e p r i m i t i v e

r i n d c o u l d o n l y c o n c e i v e o f c a n s a l r e l a t i o n s i n te rms o f s o r e

k i n d o f human agency. However, a s man evolved, t h i s c o n c e p t i o n

o f numerous s u p e r n a t u r a l a g e n c i e s was g r a d u a l l y r e p l a c e d by

t h e i d e a o f a s i n g l e d e i t y . The ~ o n o t h e i s t i c r e l i g i o n s t h a t

developed i n t h i s manner r e f l e c t e d t h e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s of

man's s o c i a l e v o l u t i o n . I n m i l i t a n t s o c i e t i e s t h e d e i t y was

conce ived o f a s h a r s h and w a r r i o r - l i k e . I n d u s t r i a l i z a t i o n

c r e a t e d a new k i n d o f r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s :

- - . w h e r e m i l i t a n c y d e c l i n e s and t h e h a r s h , d e s p o t i c form o f government a p p r o p r i a t e t o it i s g r a d u a l l y q u a l i f i e d by t h e form a p p r o p r i a t e t o i n d u s t r i a l i s m , t h e f o r e a r o u n d o f t h e r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y f i l l e d w i t h t h o s e a s c r i b e d t r a i t s o f t h e d i v i n e n a t u r e which a r e con- gruous w i t h t h e e t h i c s o f peace : d i v i n e l o v e , d i v i n e n e r c y , a r e now t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e n l a r g e d upon. 1

I n t h i s s e n s e r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e f l e c t e d man's e t h i c a l

e v o l u t i o n .

Spencer p r e d i c t e d t h a t r e l i g i o u s c o n s c i o u s n e s s would con-

t i n u e t o e v o l v e i n t h a t r a n ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e d e i t y would

become p r o g r e s s i v e l y less a n t h r o p o r o r p h i c . He argued t h a t

t h e i m p u t a t i o n o f anthropomorphic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o a n o s t e n -

' ~ e r b e r t Spencer . 'Re l ig ion : A R e t r o s p e c t and P r o s p e c t " , N i n e t e e n t h Cen tu ry , J a n u a r y , 1884, p .4 .

s i b l y i n f i n i t e and t r a n s c e n d e n t d e i t y i n v o l v e d l o g i c a l con-

t r a d i c t i o n s t h a t c o u l d n o t be t o l e r a t e d by educa ted v i n d s .

Thus he f e l t t h a t r e l i g i o n would e v e n t u a l l y a r r i v e a t a con-

c e p t i o n o f a c o n p l e t e l y a b s t r a c t t r a n s c e n d e n t c a u s e which he

c a l l e d the "Unknowable". He a rgued t h a t i n t h i s r e s p e c t s c i e n c e

and r e l i g i o n would e v e n t u a l l y c o a l e s c e f o r s c i e n t i f i c en-

q u i r y s t o p p e d s h o r t o f " t h a t u l t i m a t e mystery which n u s t e v e r

1 t r a n s c e n d human i n t e l l i g e n c e " -- t h a t i s t o s a y , t h e f i n a l

c a u s e o f t h e e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s i t s e l f .

One w r i t e r h a s c l a i ~ e d t h a t "Spencer s t r o v e t o d i v e s t

r e l i g i o n o f a n t h r o p o m o r p h i s ~ , and s c i e n c e o f a r r o g a n c e , i n

o r d e r t o e s t a b l i s h a mutua l r e s p e c t between them". A c t u a l l y ,

it seems more l i k e l y t h a t Spencer was a t t e m p t i n g t o s t r i p

r e l i g i o n o f a l l genu ine r e l i g i o u s c o n t e n t i n o r d e r t o d i s s o l v e

it i n h i s c o n c e p t i o n of s c i e n c e . L ike P i l l h e was h o s t i l e

t o a l l forms of c o n v e n t i o n a l C h r i s t i a n b e l i e f . He spoke o f

t h e " h y p o c r i s y o f t h e C h r i s t i a n wor ld ; c e a s e l e s s i n i t s pro-

f e s s i o n s o f obed ience t o t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f i t s c r e e d , and

d a i l y t r a m p l i n g upon them i n a l l p a r t s o f t h e wor ld" . 3 I n p r i -

v a t e he f e l t t h a t h i s a c c o u n t o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r e l i g i o n was -

'sydney E i s e n , ' F r e d e r i c H a r r i s o n and H e r b e r t S p e n c e r , Embat t led U n b e l i e v e r s " , V i c t o r i a n S t u d i e s , V o l . X I I , 1968, p .36 . *

' 3 ~ p e n c e r t o Buchanan. Duncan, The L i f e and Let ters o f - ~ e r b e r t - s p e n c e r , p .308.

" d r e a d f u l l y d e s t r u c t i v e " .' That i s h a r d l y t h e language o f

r e c o n c i l i a t i o n . I t s e e m s more l i k e l y t h a t Spencer , l i k e

M i l l , hoped t o s e e C h r i s t i a n i t y c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d by an

e t h i c o s t e n s i b l y based on t h e r e s u l t s o f s c i e n c e .

I t h a s been s u g g e s t e d t h a t S p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y o f evolu-

t i o n s h o u l d b e unders tood a s a n O n t h i s view t h e

t h e o r y s h o u l d be judged n o t s o much a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n , b u t

r a t h e r , i n te rms o f i t s e x p l a n a t o r y e f f i c a c y - t h a t i s t o

s a y , i n t e r m s o f i t s v a l u e i n s u g g e s t i n g p o s s i b l e explana-

t i o n s . No doubt S p e n c e r ' s t h o u g h t may be o f v a l u e t o con ten-

p o r a r y s o c i o l o g i s t s i f it i s t r e a t e d i n t h i s n a n n e r . However,

t h a t i s n o t t o s a y t h a t Spencer i n t e n d e d t h i s t h e o r y t o be

unders tood i n t h i s way. He h i m s e l f c la imed t h a t he was syn-

t h e s i z i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n s o f s c i e n c e :

S c i e n c e means mere ly t h e f a m i l y o f t h e s c i e n c e s - s t a n d s f o r n o t h i n g more t h a n t h e sum o f knowledge formed o f t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n s ; and i g n o r e s t h e knowledge c o n s t i t u t e d by t h e f u s i o n o f t h e s e c o n t r i b u t i o n s i n t o a whole ... s c i e n c e i s p a r t i a l l y u n i f i e d knowledge; ph i losophy i s comple te ly u n i f i e d knowledge. 3

I n t h i s s e n s e Spencer undoubtedly b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e System o f

' spencer t o Youmans, 1 2 . A p r i l 1883. I b i d . , p . 251.

'see J . D . Y . P e e l , H e r b e r t Spencer , The E v o l u t i o n o f a Soc ' io log i s t , Chapte r 7 .

3 ~ p e n c e r , First P r i n c i p l e s , pp . 111, 113.

S y n t h e t i c Ph i losophy c o n s t i t u t e d a u n i f i e d e x p l a n a t i o n o f

phenomena.

S p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y was d e t e r m i n i s t i n t h a t he p o s t u l a t e d

t h e e x i s t e n c e o f c e r t a i n laws which governed a l l phenomena

i n c l u d i n g human a c t i o n s . Fur the rmore , t h e scope o f t h e t h e o r y

was v i r t u a l l y u n l i m i t e d , f o r Spencer f e l t t h a t he had found

t h e key t o e x p l a i n i n g e v e r y t h i n g f r o v t h e fo rmat ion o f g a l -

a x i e s i n o u t e r s p a c e t o t h e behav iour o f l i v i n q o r g a n i s m .

I t might pe rhaps b e t h o u g h t t h a t Spencer was a r g u i n g t h a t

freedom i s r e a l i z e d i n t h e p r o c e s s of e v o l u t i o n i n t h e s e n s e

t h a t once e v o l u t i o n i s completed F e n ' s a c t i o n s w i l l be

p e r f e c t l y a d j u s t e d t o a l l p o s s i b l e e n d s . I f n e c e s s i t y i s under-

s t o o d a s t h e unavo idab le and n e c e s s a r y i l l - a d j u s t m e n t o f a c t s

t o ends t h e n t h e comple t ion o f e v o l u t i o n w i l l i n v o l v e t h e

t r a n s c e n d e n c e o f t h e r e a l m o f n e c e s s i t y . I n o t h e r words once

man i s p e r f e c t l y evo lved he w i l l be f r e e d from c e r t a i n nec-

e s s a r y e x i s t e n t i a l c o n f l i c t s . However a t t r a c t i v e t h i s i n t e r -

p r e t a t i o n o f S p e n c e r ' s t h e o r y nay s e e n it i s n o t r e a l l y war-

r a n t e d . To b e g i n w i t h , Spencer d i d n o t a s s e r t t h a t once t h e

e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s was completed man would c e a s e t o b e sub-

j e c t t o t h e laws o f n a t u r e . I n S p e n c e r ' s l anguage , e v o l u t i o n

i s always t h e deus e x machina o f h i s t o r y . Fur thermore Spencer

s u g g e s t e d t h a t a s soon a s t h e p r o c e s s o f e v o l u t i o n i s corrpleted

t h e complementary p r o c e s s o f d i s s o l u t i o n would beg in and t h u s

man would never b e i n a p o s i t i o n t o e n j o y t h e f r u i t s o f t h e

s t a t e o f p e r f e c t e v o l u t i o n .

I n The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , Spencer was concerned w i t h

p r e s c r i b i n q t h e c o n d i t i o n s under which t h e s e n a t u r a l p r o c e s s e s

might a c t unh indered . I f , a s Auberon H e r b e r t b e l i e v e d , Spencer

was concerned w i t h " r e s t o r i n q t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o h i n s e l f " t h e n

it a p p e a r s t h a t Spencer must have meant t h i s i n a s t r i c t l y

b i o l o g i c a l o r n a t u r a l i s t i c s e n s e . I n o t h e r words , i n S p e n c e r ' s

view " l i b e r t y " and " i n d i v i d u a l i t y " w e r e s i n p l y e x p r e s s i o n s o f

c e r t a i n n a t u r a l l aws . Consequent ly h i s c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e a l -

l e g e d r e s u l t s o f s c i e n c e l e d him t o p r e s c r i b e t h e s u b s t a n -

t i v e a c t i v i t e s t h a t men shou ld engage i n - and t h e s e i n c l u d e d

p a r t i c u l a r views o f p o l i t i c a l and r e l i g i o u s conduc t . I n s h o r t ,

he was n o t concerned w i t h l i m i t i n g t h e scope o f government

i n o r d e r t h a t men might p u r s u e ends o f t h e i r own choos ing .

CHAPTER I11

MILL, SPENCER, AND THE VICTORIAN INTELLECTUAL COMMUNITY

The o b j e c t o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o examine some o f t h e a r -

guments o f t h e more prominent members o f t h e V i c t o r i a n i n t e l -

l e c t u a l community o v e r two i s s u e s :

F i r s t , t h e q u e s t i o n of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o l i t i c a l

power. The re fo rm a c t s o f 1832, 1867, 1884 and t h e b a l l o t

a c t o f 1872 e n t i r e l y a l t e r e d t h e c h a r a c t e r o f t h e e l e c t o r a t e .

The consequences o f such changes were t h e s u b j e c t o f i n t e n s e

d e b a t e s , i n t h e c o u r s e o f which b o t h p roponen t s and opponents

o f r e fo rm made c e r t a i n common a s s u n p t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e

o f e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l a r r a n g e ~ e n t s .

Secondly , t h e q u e s t i o n o f moral a u t h o r i t y . Yany Vic-

t o r i a n s were o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t they were ( t o use W i l l ' s

p h r a s e ) l i v i n g i n "an aye o f t r a n s i t i o n " .' I t was f e l t t h a t

o l d moral and s o c i a l a l l e g i e n c e s were b e i n g eroded- and rrost

V i c t o r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l s e x p r e s s e d concern o v e r t h i s s i t u a t i o n . 2

I n g e n e r a l t h e argument was between t h e p roponen t s o f v a r i o u s

n a t u r a l i s t i c s y s t e m o f e t h i c s and t h e d e f e n d e r s o f C h r i s t i a n

e t h i c s .

These i s s u e s were a s o u r c e o f c o n t i n u a l corrment i n t h e

'J.s. M i l l , "The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p . 3 .

2 ~ a l t e r Houghton, a t t h e beg inn ing o f t h e f i r s t c h a p t e r o f h i s book, The V i c t o r i a n Frame o f Mind (New Haven: Yale Uni- v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19571 c l a i m s t h a t t h e i d e a o f l i v 2 n g i n "an age o f t r a n s i t i o n " was " t h e b a s i c and a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l con- c e p t i o n o f t h e p e r i o d " .

8 4

g r e a t V i c t o r i a n p e r i o d i c a l s ( s u c h a s t h e Edinburgh Review,

t h e Q u a r t e r l y Review, F r a s e r ' s Maaazine, The Economist and

t h e Westmins ter Review). The i n t e l l e c t u a l s who c o n t r i b u t e d

t o t h e s e j o u r n a l s i n a s e n s e formed an i n f o r m a l academic com-

r u n i t y . They o f t e n corresponded w i t h one a n o t h e r and t h e y

1 were u s u a l l y c o n v e r s a n t w i t h one a n o t h e r ' s i d e a s . The pur-

pose o f examining t h e argument o f t h i s community i s t o c l a r i f y

t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f M i l l ' s and S p e n c e r ' s i d e a s w i t h i n

t h e c o n t e x t o f V i c t o r i a n p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t .

From t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s onwards b o t h Whigs and T o r i e s had cop-

p i t t e d themse lves t o r e v i s i n g t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f 1832. Be-

tween 1853 and 1866 seven a b o r t i v e re fo rm b i l l s were i n t r o -

duced i n t o t h e House of Commons. Th i s somewhat d e s u l t o r y

P a r l i a m e n t a r y a c t i v i t y was accompanied by a n e x t e n s i v e e x t r a -

P a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e over t h e q u e s t i o n o f reform. W i l l , Spen-

c e r , B r i g h t , Bagehot , A u s t i n , Cranborne and H a r r i s o n were

among some o f t h e n o r e prominent c o n t r i b u t o r s t o t h e p e r i o d -

i c a l l i t e r a t u r e on t h e s u b j e c t . A s a r e s u l t o f t h e e x t e n t

o f t h i s l i t e r a t u r e , and , owing t o t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e d e b a t e s

of 1866 and 1867, t h e p e r i o d o f t h e Second Reform Act may be

'For i n s t a n c e , anong t h e v a r i o u s i n t e l l e c t u a l f i g u r e s d e a l t w i t h i n t h i s c h a p t e r , M i l l co r responded w i t h t h e f o l - lowing: Spencer , C a r l y l e , Henry Yaine , J a F e s Stephen and Glad- s t o n e . S tephen was i n t i m a t e w i t h Yaine and C a r l y l e , and he cor responded w i t h M i l l and Newman.

s e e n a s t h e " l o c u s c l a s s i c u s " o f V i c t o r i a n arguments o v e r

t h e n a t u r e o f p o l i t i c a l a r rangements ( a l t h o u g h , o f c o u r s e ,

t h e s e i s s u e s w e r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d w e l l b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e

b i l l o f 1867) . The o b j e c t o f t h e f o l l o w i n g pages i s t o ex-

amine some o f t h e assumpt ions u n d e r l y i n g t h e arguments o v e r

" d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n " . A s P i l l p o i n t e d o u t , Aner ica p r o v i d e d a s u i t a b l e s t a r t i n g

p o i n t f o r a l l d i s c u s s i o n s o f d e r o c r a c y . "America" he w r o t e

" i s u s u a l l y c i t e d by t h e two g r e a t p a r t i e s which d i v i d e

Europe a s a n argument f o r o r a g a i n s t d e ~ o c r a c y . Democrats

have s o u g h t t o p rove by it t h a t w e ough t t o be derrocrats; ar isbcrats

t h a t we o u g h t t o c l e a v e t o a r i s t o c r a c y , and w i t h s t a n d t h e

d e m o c r a t i c sp i r i tn .' M i l l , however, no doub t e x a g g e r a t e d t h e

e x t e n t t o which t h e American e x p e r i e n c e d i v i d e d i n t e l l e c t u a l

o p i n i o n i n England. American democracy was a lmos t u n i v e r s a l -

l y condemned by t h e V i c t o r i a n i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e . T h e i r c r i -

t i c i s m s w e r e o f t e n c u l l e d second hand f r o n de T o c q u e v i l l e

( P i l l i s t h e c l a s s i c example of t h i s a s he wro te two l e n g t h y

rev iews o f d e T o c q u e v i l l e ) and t h u s b o t h t h e p roponen t s and

opponents o f r e f o r m made t h e same cormonplace c r i t i c i s m o f

America. The p r o v o t o r s o f P a r l i a ~ e n t a r y re fo rm were a t p a i n s

t o p o i n t o u t t h a t r e fo rm would n o t e n t a i l American-s ty le de-

'J.s. M i l l , " T o c q u e v i l l e on Democracy i n America" I , Essays on P o l i t i c s and C u l t u r e , p .174.

m o c r a t i z a t i o n . ' D i s r e a l i h i m s e l f j u s t i f i e d t h e a c t o f 1867

by c l a i r i n g t h a t B r i t a i n c o u l d never succumb t o t h e l e v e l -

l i n g i n f l u e n c e s o f democracy:

W e a r e warned of t h e e x a p p l e o f America and a g a i n s t e n t e r i n g upon t h e c o u r s e pursued by t h e Uni ted S t a t e s . I say t h e r e i s no s i r r i l a r i t y o f p o s i t i o n o f t h e Uni ted King- dorr and t h e Uni ted S t a t e s . The Uni ted S t a t e s were c o l o n i e s and t h e y s t i l l a r e c o l o n i e s ... whereas t h e Uni ted Kingdom i s e n t i r e 1 3 governed and s u s t a i n e d by i t s t r a d i t i o n a r y i n - f l u e n c e s . ,

Converse ly , t h o s e who opposed P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform ( s u c h a s

Cranborne and Lowe) s imply had t o a r g u e t h a t e x t e n d i n g t h e

f r a n c h i s e would e v e n t u a l l y l e a d t o democracy and Americaniza-

t i o n i n o r d e r t o make t h e i r p o i n t .

One o f t h e most corn-on themes t h a t emerged i n d i s c u s s i o n s

o f American democracy was t h e supposed m e d i o c r i t y produced by

democra t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s - a m e d i o c r i t y t h a t ex tended t o r u l e r s

and r u l e d a l i k e . I n h i s f i r s t r ev iew o f d e T o c q u e v i l l e Y i l l

c la imed it was a " f a c t t h a t t h e a b l e s t men seldom o f f e r them-

s e l v e s t o t h e p e o p l e s ' s u f f r a g e s u . Twenty-f ive y e a r s l a t e r he

' ~ r i ~ h t was one o f t h e few who w e r e p r e p a r e d t o defend t h e example o f A n e r i c a d e ~ o c r a c y . " I n America" he w r o t e "we f i n d law, o r d e r , p r o p e r t y s e c u r e ..." Speeches on q u e s t i o n s o f p u b l i c p o l i c y by John B r i q h t , N . P . 2 V o l s . , e d . James E . Thorold Roqers (London: Macmillan & Co., 18691, 2:28. Sore o f t h e c o n t r i b u t o r s t o Essavs on ~ e f o r i defended A u s t r a l i a n and A m e r i - .. can democracy - s e e h e Waking o f t h e Second Reforrr B i l l (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 6 ) , pp.230-231.

pith, - The l a k i n q o f t h e Second Reforv B i l l , pp. 232-233.

' 3~i11, " T o c q u e v i l l e ' ~ I , p.200.

s t i l l found American p o l i t i c a l l i f e : " . . . a s c h o o l from which

t h e a b l e s t t e a c h e r s a r e exc luded ; t h e f i r s t minds o f t h e coun-

t r y b e i n g a s e f f e c t i v e l y s h u t o u t from n a t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n

and f r o n p o l i t i c a l f u n c t i o n s g e n e r a l l y , a s i f t h e y were under

a fo rmal d i s q u a l i f i c a t i o n " . ' The ~ e d i o c r i t y o f t h e r u l e r s

was matched by t h e m e d i o c r i t y o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n g e n e r a l :

" I n America t h e r e i s no h i g h l y i n s t r u c t e d c l a s s ; no numerous

body r a i s e d s u f f i c i e n t l y above t h e c o m o n l e v e l , i n e d u c a t i o n ,

knowledge, o r r e f i n e m e n t , t o i n s p i r e t h e rest w i t h any r e v e r -

ence f o r d i s t i n g u i s h e d menta l s u p e r i o r i t y , o r any s a l u t a r y

s e n s e o f t h e i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f t h e i r own w i s h e s " . 2

I n c o n v e n t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l te rms J . F . S tephen and M i l l

were a t o p p o s i t e p o l e s o f t h e p o l i t i c a l spec t rum ( P i l l found

Stephen " b r u t a l " , " v a i n " and " e x c e e d i n g l y i g n o r a n t " o f p o l i -

t i c a l economyj 3 ; y e t S tephen e x p r e s s e d h i m s e l f i n an a l m o s t

i d e n t i c a l manner r e s p e c t i n g t h e l e v e l l i n a i n f l u e n c e s of A m e r i -

can democracy. T h a t sys tem, he w r o t e , e n s u r e d " t h e r a p i d pro-

d u c t i o n o f a n i m e n s e m u l t i t u d e o f commonplace, s e l f - s a t i s f i e d ,

and e s s e n t i a l l y s l i g h t p e o p l e " . C a r l y l e was somewhat more

v i r u l e n t , l i n k i n g t h e i s s u e s o f Reform, American democracy

M i l l , C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governvent , p .468.

go ill, " T o c q u e v i l l e " I , p.208.

3 ~ i l l t o T . E . C l i f f e ~ e k l i e , 8 Yay 1869. Y i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 4:1600.

4 ~ a m e s F i t z j a m e s S tephen , L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , F r a t e r n i t y , ed . R . J . White (Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 ) ,

and t h e e r a n c i p a t i o n o f t h e s l a v e s i n t h e f o l l o w i n 9 manner;

" c o u n t o f heads t h e God a p p o i n t e d way i n t h i s U n i v e r s e , a l l

o t h e r ways Devi l -appointed ..., Quashee Nigger t o S o c r a t e s o r

Shakespeare" . 1

I n a d d i t i o n t o d w e l l i n g upon t h e presumed l e v e l l i n g i n -

f l u e n c e s o f democracy, V i c t o r i a n w r i t e r s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i -

c a l l y assumed t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e i n e f f i c i e n c y and c o r r u p t i o n

n e c e s s a r i l y a t t e n d e d democra t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . During t h e

1 8 3 0 ' s M i l l b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e p e o p l e s h o u l d n o t , themse lves

d i r e c t l y manage t h e a f f a i r s o f t h e s t a t e : " I f democracy shou ld

d i s a p p o i n t any o f t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f i t s more e n l i g h t e n e d

p a r t i s a n s , i t w i l l be from t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f d e l e g a t i o n t o

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ; o f t h e c r u d e and n e c e s s a r i l y s u p e r f i c i a l

judgment o f t h e p e o p l e themse lves , f o r t h e judgment o f t h o s e

whom t h e p e o p l e , h a v i n g c o n f i d e n c e i n t h e i r h o n e s t y , have

s e l e c t e d a s t h e w i s e s t g u a r d i a n s whose s e r v i c e s t h e y c o u l d

command. " 2 Twenty-f ive y e a r s l a t e r he had modi f i ed t h e s e op-

i n i o n s i n t h e s e n s e t h a t h e no l o n g e r b e l i e v e d t h a t even r e -

p r e s e n t a t i v e s c o u l d a d e q u a t e l y f u l f i l t h e t a s k s o f l e q i s l a t i o n .

L e g i s l a t i o n , h e w r o t e , c o u l d o n l y be done "by rninds t r a i n e d

t o t h e t a s k th rough l o n g and l a b o r i o u s s t u d y " and t h a t , con-

s e q u e n t l y , e l e c t e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e a u t o v a t i c a l l y d i s q u a l -

'~homas C a r l y l e , "Shookina Niaoara : and a f t e r ? " , C r i t i c a l and Misce l l aneous E s s a y s , 5 Vols . ( N e w York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s '

Sons , 1 9 0 4 ) , p . 4 .

i f i e d from

t i o n shoulc

t h a t

3 b e

k i n d o f work.' de b e l i e v e d t h a t l e g i s l a -

l e f t t o a group o f s p e c i a l i s t s .

Although Bagehot was, u n l i k e J Y i l l , e v e n t u a l l y opposed

t o t h e b i l l o f 1867, he n e v e r t h e l e s s s u b s c r i b e d t o rrany of

t h e main t e n e t s o f M i l l ' s p h i l o s o p h y . He p r a i s e d Consider-

a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government a s "an e x c e e d i n g l y a b l e

p r o t e s t , by t h e o n l y l i v i n g t h i n k e r o f much a u t h o r i t y amona

E n g l i s h L i b e r a l s , a g a i n s t t h a t h e l p l e s s and r e l u c t a n t d r i f t -

i n g o f t h e L i b e r a l p a r t y i n t o p u r e democracy which i s s o rrel-

ancholy a s i g n o f t h e i r p o l i t i c a l i m b e c i l i t y " . 2 I t i s h a r d l y

s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e f o r e , t h a t he t o o , b e l i e v e d t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l

competency was one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t r e q u i r e m e n t s o f govern-

ment , and t h a t d e ~ o c r a c y f a i l e d t o l i v e up t o t h i s r e q u i r e m e n t .

He argued t h a t t h e B r i t i s h v i n i s t e r i a l s y s t e v produced a more

competent e x e c u t i v e t h a n t h e A ~ e r i c a n p r e s i d e n t i a l sys tem be-

c a u s e B r i t i s h m i n i s t e r s were chosen by a body ( t h e Covvons)

whi-ch had " b e t t e r e d u c a t i o n , h i g h e r s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , more f i r s t

hand conversancy w i t h p u b l i c a f f a i r s " t h a n a mass e l e c t o r a t e

c o u l d e v e r have . 3

Spencer (who a d r r i t t e d l y had a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t i o n o f

l ~ i l l , C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governren t , p . 428.

alter Bagehot " C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Govern- ment by John S t u a r t M i l l " , The C o l l e c t e d Works o f Wal te r Bagehot ,3 V o l s . , e d . Norran S t . John S t e v a s (London: The Economist 1965-) , 6 : 3 3 6 .

3 ~ a g e h o t I "The D e f e c t o f America", I b i d . , p . 161.

t h e r o l e o f government f r o n M i l l ) l i k e w i s e c r i t i c i z e d t h e

i n e f f i c i e n c y o f democra t i c i n s t i t u t i o n s . " I s i t n o t mani-

f e s t t h a t a r u l i n g body made up o f many i n d i v i d u a l s , who d i f -

f e r i n c h a r a c t e r , e d u c a t i o n and a ims, who b e l o n g t o c l a s s e s

h a v i n g a n t a g o n i s t i c i d e a s and f e e l i n a s , and who a r e s e v e r a l l y

swayed by t h e s p e c i a l o p i n i o n s of t h e d i s t r i c t s d e p u t i n g them,

must be a cumberous a p p a r a t u s f o r t h e r a n a g e r e n t o f p u b l i c

a f f a i r s ? "' S tephen h a v i n q pe rhaps l e a r n e d im.petuous and a u t o -

c r a t i c h a b i t s i n I n d i a a l s o d e p r e c i a t e d t h e " e n d l e s s d i s -

c u s s i o n , c o n t i n u a l e x p l a n a t i o n ... which harnper t o t h e l a s t de-

g r e e t h e p r o c e s s o f govern ing" .

Bes ides d e a l i n g w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f m e d i o c r i t y and i n -

e f f i c i e n c y , V i c t o r i a n wri ters a l s o l i k e d t o assume t h a t c o r -

r u p t i o n was one o f t h e n a t u r a l c o r o l l a r i e s o f American s t y l e

democracy. M i l l w r o t e : "The Demos, t o o , b e i n g i n America

t h e one s o u r c e o f power, a l l t h e s e l f i s h a m b i t i o n of t h e

c o u n t r y g r a v i t a t e s towards i t , a s it does i n d e s p o t i c count-

r i e s towards t h e monarch: t h e p e o p l e , l i k e t h e d e s p o t , i s

pursued w i t h a d u l a t i o n and sycophancy." ' A f t e r t h e a c t o f

1867 had been p a s s e d , Cranborne , i n a s i n i l a r v e i n , warned -

' ~ e r b e r t S p e n c e r , " R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government - What i s it good f o r ? " , Essays S c i e n t i f i c , P o l i t i c a l and S p e c u l a t i v e , 3:284.

*s tephen , L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , F r a t e r n i t y , p . 215.

3 ~ i l l , C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governren t , pp:468-469.

t h a t t h e "army o f p r o f e s s i o n a l e l e c t i o n e e r s w i l l n o t d i n i n -

i s h . The e x a n p l e o f America a s s u r e s u s t h a t t h e s e i n d u s t r i o u s

l a b o u r e r s grow i n b o t h numhers and power".' Lowe was r a t h e r

more b l u n t . I f "you want v e n a l i t y " h e a r g u e d , " i f you want

i g n o r a n c e , i f you want drunkenness" t h e n d e ~ o c r a c y was t h e

answer.

I t i s c l e a r t h a t , d e s p i t e some n i n o r d i s c r e p a n c i e s , t h e r e

was a c e r t a i n consensus o f o p i n i o n anon? l e a d i n g V i c t o r i a n

i n t e l l e c t u a l s r e s p e c t i n g t h e p resuned d e f e c t s of American

democracy. "Advanced l i b e r a l s " such a s P i l l and Spencer and

" r e a c t i o n a r i e s " such a s Lowe and Cranborne , a l i k e d e p r e c i a t e d

t h e supposed m e d i o c r i t y , i n e f f i c i e n c y and c o r r u p t i o n o f A m e r i -

can institution^.^ A s i ~ i l a r consensus o f o p i n i o n e x i s t e d

r e s p e c t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f

t h e E n g l i s h working c l a s s e s . On t h e whole i t was f e l t t h a t

many working men were comple te ly u n f i t f o r any k ind o f s e r i o u s

p o l i t i c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

M i l l e x p r e s s e d h imse l f s t r o n g l y on t h i s s u b j e c t : "None

a r e s o i l l i b e r a l " he w r o t e "none s o b i g o t e d i n t h e i r h o s t i l i t y

t o inprovement , none s o s u p e r s t i t i o u s l y a t t a c h e d t o t h e s t u -

p i d i s t and w o r s t o l d forms a s t h e uneducated . None a r e s o

l ~ o b e r t A r t h u r Gascoyne - C e c i l 3d marqu i s o f S a l i s b u r y , Lord S a l i s b u r y on p o l i t i c s ; a s e l e c t i o n from h i s a r t i c l e s i n - - t h e Q u a r t e r l y Review, 1860-1883, e d . P a u l S n i t h (Canbr idge: Canbridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972) , p . 2 7 5 .

2 ~ m i t h , The Yaking o f t h e Second Reform B i l l , p . 80.

owe o b v i o u s l y c a n n o t be c l a s s i f i e d a s a c o n s e r v a t i v e . I n f i n a n c i a l r a t t e r s he was a n u n i ~ p e a c h a b l e l 2 b e r a l and he was C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e Exchequer i n G l a d s t o n e ' s f i r s t m i n i s t r y .

u n s c r u p u l o u s , none s o e a g e r t o c l u t c h a t whatever t h e y have

n o t and o t h e r s have, a s t h e uneducated i n p o s s e s s i o n of power.

An uneducated mind i s a l m o s t i n c a p a b l e o f c l e a r l y c o n c e i v i n g

t h e r i g h t s o f o t h e r s . ' ' I t fo l lowed t h a t "no l o v e r of improve-

ment can d e s i r e t h a t t h e p r e d o ~ i n a n t power s h o u l d be t u r n e d

o v e r t o p e r s o n s i n t h e menta l and moral c o n d i t i o n of t h e

E n g l i s h working c l a s s e s . "2 Henry l a i n e , w i t h whom P i l l gen-

e r a l l y d i s a g r e e d because " t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e i n s t i n c t i s s o

s t r o n g i n him"' a l s o f e a r e d t h e p o s s i b l e i l l i b e r a l e f f e c t s

o f u n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e . U n i v e r s a l s u f f r a g e , he w r o t e , " i s com-

monly a s s o c i a t e d w i t h Rad ica l i sm; and no d o u b t amid i t s p o s t

c e r t a i n e f f e c t s would be t h e e x t e n s i v e d e s t r u c t i o n o f e x i s t -

i n g i n s t i t u t i o n s ; b u t t h e chances a r e t h a t , i n t h e long- run ,

i t would produce a mischevious form o f Conserva t i sm, and d r u g

s o c i e t y w i t h a p o t i o n compared w i t h which E ldon ine would be

a s a l u t a r y d r a u g h t ... and a r r e s t e v e r y t h i n g t h a t have e v e r

been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h L i b e r a l i s p . "4 Even B r i p h t , who was p e r -

haps t h e most e n e r g e t i c p roponen t o f ref or^, warned a g a i n s t

e n f r a n c h i s i n g " t h e residuum, which t h e r e i s i n a l m o s t eve ry

c o n s t i t u e n c y , o f a lmos t h o p e l e s s p o v e r t y and dependence". 5

'J .S . M i l l , "Thoughts on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reforrr" , Essays on C u l t u r e and P o l i t i c s , p .320.

3 ~ i l l t o John E l l i o t ~ a l r n e s , 11 J a n u a r y 1870. M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 4:1676.

4 ~ i r Henry Sumner Maine, P o p u l a r Government ( I n d i a n a p o l i s : L i b e r t y C l a s s i c s , 1976) , p . 57.

5Quoted i n G . Himmelfarb, V i c t o r i a n P i n d s , p . 376.

S e v e r a l w r i t e r s f e l t t h a t t h e a c t i v i t i e s of t r a d e s un ions

p o r t e n d e d t h e k ind of i r r e s p o n s i b l e depot is rn t h a t would b e

e x e r c i s e d by t h e working c l a s s e s i f t h e y e v e r ga ined p o l i t i -

c a l power. Cranborne warned a g a i n s t t h e " c r i m i n a l i t y " and

"tremendous power" o f t h e t r a d e s u n i o n s . "The r e s u l t w i l l be"

he w r o t e of G l a d s t o n e ' s reforrn b i l l " t h a t i n a b o u t t w o - f i f t h s

o f t h e e x i s t i n g boroughs o f England and Wales working men

w i l l be i n a m a j o r i t y . C o n s i d e r i n g t h e i r power o f combinat ion

(by which he meant t r a d e s u n i o n s ) t h e i r i g n o r a n c e o f economi-

c a l l a w s , t h e i r s t r o n g t a s t e f o r despotism. o f nuvbers , t h i s

r e s u l t i s f a r from r e a s s u r i n g , even i f i t went no f u r t h e r . I t 1

Spencer was s u b j e c t t o s i n i l a r a p p r e h e n s i o n s : "Men who r e n d e r

up t h e i r p r i v a t e l i b e r t i e s t o t h e d e s p o t i c r u l e r s o f t r a d e s

u n i o n s , seem s c a r c e l y independen t enough r i g h t l y t o e x e r c i s e

p o l i t i c a l l i b e r t i e s ... When t h e i r n o t i o n s o f r e c t i t u d e a r e

s o c o n f u s e d , t h a t t h e y t h i n k it a d u t y t o obey t h e a r b i t r a r y

conmands o f t h e i r union a u t h o r i t i e s , and t o abandon t h e r i g h t

of i n d i v i d u a l l y d i s p o s i n g o f t h e i r l a b o u r on t h e i r own terms

... w e may w e l l pause b e f o r e g i v i n q them t h e f r a n ~ h i s e " . ~ A l -

though M i l l ' s a t t i t u d e towards t h e un ions was a l i t t l e l e s s

s h r i l l he n e v e r t h e l e s s d e p l o r e d what he saw a s t h e tendency o f

working pen t o "employ a moral p o l i c y , which o c c a s i o n a l l y be-

comes a p h y s i c a l o n e , t o d e t e r s k i l f u l workven from r e c e i v i n g ,

' ~ o r d S a l i s b u r y , "The R e f o r r B i l l " , Lord S a l i s b u r y - on P o l i t i c s , p .205.

2 ~ e r b e r t Spencer , " P a r l i a ~ e n t a r y Reform: The Dangers and S a f e q u a r d s " , ~ s s a ~ s s c i e n t i f i c , p o l i t i c a l and ~ ~ e c u l a t i v e , - 3:365-366.

and employers from g i v i n g , a l a r g e r r enumera t ion f o r a more

u s e f u l s e r v i c e " . 1

I t i s c l e a r , t h e n , t h a t n o t o n l y d i d t h e opponents and

p r o p o n e n t s o f r e fo rm s h a r e c e r t a i n assumpt ions a b o u t democracy,

b u t a l s o t h a t they o f t e n h e l d s i x r i l a r o p i n i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e

p o l i t i c a l f i t n e s s of t h e working c l a s s e s . I n o t h e r words

t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o whether t h e masses s h o u l d e x e r c i s e d i r e c t

p o l i t i c a l power was s imply n o t a n i s s u e when i t came t o d i s -

c u s s i n g P a r l i a m e n t a r y re fo rm. The academic i s s u e t h a t d i v i d e d

t h e s e men was r a t h e r , whether workinq men shou ld b e a l lowed

t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l sys tem ( o r i n some

s l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n t h e r e o f ) i n t h e s e n s e o f b e i n g g i v e n a

r a t h e r more e x p l i c i t o p p o r t u n i t y o f d e f e r r i n g t o t h e o p i n i o n s

o f t h e i r " b e t t e r s " .

M i l l f e l t t h a t most p e o p l e s h o u l d b e a l lowed t o p a r t i -

c i p a t e w i t h i n t h e e x i s t i n g p o l i t i c a l sys tem sixrply because any

k i n d o f e x c l u s i o n was mora l ly i n d e f e n s i b l e . "Everyone" he w r o t e

"has a r i g h t t o f e e l i n s u l t e d by b e i n q r a d e a nobody and

stamped a s o f no a c c o u n t a t a l l . " L However, b e i n g a l lowed t o

p a r t i c i p a t e was n o t t h e same t h i n g a s e x e r c i s i n g d i r e c t p o l i -

t i c a l power. The mass o f t h e e l e c t o r a t e , a c c o r d i n g t o F i l l ,

s h o u l d d e f e r t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e i r " b e t t e r s " (and by t h i s

On L i b e r t y ,

L M i l l , C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Governnent , p .474.

M i l l meant a c l a s s of i n t e l l e c t u a l l y s u p e r i o r p e r s o n s - and

one o f t h e p r e c o n d i t i o n s of such s u p e r i o r i t y was s o c i a l e a s e ) .

Lack o f d e f e r e n c e was a mark o f s t u p i d i t y : "No one b u t a

f o o l , and on ly a f o o l o f a p e c u l i a r d e s c r i p t i o n , f e e l s o f fend-

ed by t h e acknowledgement t h a t t h e r e a r e o t h e r s whose o p i n i o n ,

and even whose wish [my i t a l i c s ] , i s e n t i t l e d t o a g r e a t e r

amount o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h a n h i s . "' I t was t h u s n o t o n l y a

q u e s t i o n o f d e f e r e n c e t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f o n e ' s b e t t e r s , b u t

a l s o o f a c q u i e s c i n g i n t h e wishes o f s u p e r i o r minds. How-

e v e r , what was needed, above a l l , was t o make t h e workin?

man aware o f t h e " r a t i o n a l " grounds upon which such d e f e r e n c e

was b a s e d . Thus i t was " n e c e s s a r y t h a t t h i s s u p e r i o r i n f l u e n c e

shou ld b e a s s i g n e d on grounds which he t h e l a b o u r e r can com-

p rehend , and o f which he i s a b l e t o p e r c e i v e t h e j u s t i c e " . L

P T i l l , however, d i d n o t r e s t h i s c a s e e n t i r e i y on t h e pos-

s i b i l i t y o f making t h e r a t i o n a l i t y o f t h i s d e f e r e n c e i n t e l l i -

g i b l e . The whole purpose o f C o n s i d e r a t i o n s on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e

Government ( p u b l i s h e d i n 1861) was t o recormend a sys tem o f

checks and s e c u r i t i e s t h a t would p r e v e n t t h e p o l i t i c a l ascen-

dency o f t h e masses ( w h i l e n e v e r t h e l e s s a l l o w i n g them t o p a r -

t i c i p a t e i n t h e p o l i t i c a l sys tem) and e n s u r e t h e hegemony o f

" s u p e r i o r rr inds". Thus he r e c o m e n d e d H a r e ' s s c h e r e f o r pro-

p o r t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n t h e hope t h a t it would p r o t e c t

educa ted x r i n o r i t i e s s o t h a t P a r l i a ~ e n t would be c e r t a i n "of

c o n t a i n i n g t h e ve ry e l i t e o f t h e n a t i o n " . ' For s i ~ i l a r r e a -

sons he proposed p l u r a l v o t i n g based on e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a -

t i o n s . Thus a n " o r d i n a r y u n s k i l l e d l a b o u r e r " shou ld have

one v o t e ; a s k i l l e d l a b o u r e r , two v o t e s , a foreman, t h r e e

v o t e s ; f a r r e r s , r a n u f a c t u r e r s and n e r c h a n t s , t h r e e o r f o u r

v o t e s , w h i l e r e r b e r s o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n s and u n i v e r s i t y grad-

u a t e s s h o u l d have f i v e v o t e s . ' P i l l hoped t h a t p r o p o r t i o n a l

r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and p l u r a l v o t i n g would make it i r p o s s i b l e

f o r t h e workin? c l a s s e s t o g e t a P a r l i a m e n t a r y v a j o r i t y .

I n t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s M i l l a l s o opposed t h e b a l l o t . Although

d u r i n g t h e 1 8 2 0 ' s and 1 8 3 0 ' s he a l o n g w i t h o t h e r p h i l o s o p h i c i r a d i c a l s ) had wanted t o see t h e b a l l o t i n t r o d u c e d , he had coxre

t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e b a l l o t was

no l o n g e r v a l i d under t h e changed p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l condi-

t i o n s o f t h e mid-n ine teen th c e n t u r y . The e f f e c t o f t h e b a l -

l o t was t h a t it e n a b l e d t h e v o t e r " t o g i v e f u l l e f f e c t t o

h i s own p r e f e r e n c e s , whether s e l f i s h o r d i s i n t e r e s t e d , under

no i n d u c e r e n t t o d e f e r t o t h e o p i n i o n s o r w i s h e s o f o t h e r s " . 3

A s M i l l b e l i e v e d t h a t p e o p l e s h o u l d d e f e r t o t h e o p i n i o n s o f

t h e e d u c a t e d e l i t e it i s c l e a r t h a t under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s

t h e b a l l o t v i g h t do more harm t h a n good: " T h i r t y y e a r s ago"

l ~ b i d . , p .456 .

2 ~ i l l , "Thoughts on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform", p . 317.

3~ i l l , pp.324-325.

he w r o t e i n t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s " i t was s t i l l t r u e t h a t i n t h e e l e c t i o n

of rembers o f P a r l i a r e n t , t h e r a i n e v i l t o be guarded a g a i n s t

was t h a t which t h e b a l l o t would e x c l u d e - c o e r c i o n by land-

l o r d s , errployers and cus tomers . A t p r e s e n t I c o n c e i v e , a rruch

g r e a t e r s o u r c e of e v i l i s t h e s e l f i s h n e s s , o r t h e s e l f i s h

p a r t i a l i t i e s , o f t h e v o t e r h i m e l f " .' I n o t h e r words t h e b a l -

l o t was dangerous because it t h r e a t e n e d t o d e s t r o y a p p r o p r i a t e

forms o f d e f e r e n c e .

Spencer d i d n o t t h i n k t h a t p l u r a l v o t i n g based on educa-

t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s would s u b s t a n t i a l l y a r r e l i o r a t e t h e dan-

g e r s o f democracy. "The mass o f t h o s e " he wro te t o P i l l "who

have t h e r e r e rud iments o f e d u c a t i o n , a r e , I b e l i e v e , a s pro-

foundly i q n o r a n t o f a l l m a t t e r s b e a r i n g on l e g i s l a t i o n a s t h o s e

who c a n n o t r e a d and w r i t e . " 2 However, he was a l s o convinced

o f t h e need f o r t h e " sp read o f sounder views arrong t h e workinq

c l a s s e s , and t h e n-oral advance which such sounder views i ~ p l y " . 3

He found P i l l ' s a r g u ~ e n t s a g a i n s t t h e b a l l o t conv inc ing : "Res-

p e c t i n g t h e b a l l o t I own t o b e i n g v e r y much shaken, i f n o t con-

v e r t e d [ by P i l l ' s arguments ]". N e v e r t h e l e s s , a l t h o u q h Spencer

' spencer t o P i l l , 2 4 Pa rch 1859. Duncan, The L i f e and L e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t Spencer , p .94.

3 ~ p e n c e r , " P a r l i a a e n t a r y Reform: The Dangers and Safe- g u a r d s " , p .375.

. 4 ~ p e n c e r t o M i l l , 2 4 March 1859. Duncan, The L i f e and -- L e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t Spencer , p .94 .

99

saw t h e problems o f democracy i n a l m o s t e x a c t l y t h e same

t e r n s a s M i l l , he d i d n o t have any ve ry c l e a r c u t answers .

H e s imply hoped t h a t t h e d a n g e r s of xvass p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p o l -

i t i c s c o u l d b e o f f s e t by s t r i n g e n t l y l i m i t i n g t h e f u n c t i o n s

of g o v e r n r e n t : "As f a s t a s government, by becoming r e p r e -

s e n t a t i v e , grows b e t t e r f i t t e d f o r ~ a i n t a i n i n g t h e r i a h t s o f

c i t i z e n s , [ b y which he meant t h e r u l e of l a w ] i t Grows n o t

on ly u n f i t t e d f o r o t h e r p u r p o s e s , b u t dangerous f o r o t h e r pur-

l p o s e s " .

Bagehot found M i l l ' s c r i t i q u e o f de r roc ra t i c t e n d e n c i e s

ve ry i m p r e s s i v e a l t h o u g h he d i d n o t a t t a c h much impor tance t o

M i l l ' s p r a c t i c a l r ecormenda t ions ( p l u r a l v o t i n g and propor-

t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n ) a s h e f e l t t h a t P i l l bestowed " t o o

l i t t l e a t t e n t i o n on t h e s e p r a c t i c a l a s p e c t s o f h i s s u b j e c t " . 2

However, l i k e M i l l , Bagehot b e l i e v e d t h a t s o r e k ind of educa-

t i o n was a n e c e s s a r y q u a l i f i c a t i o n f o r t h e f r a n c h i s e . Thus

he a rgued t h a t t h e f r a n c h i s e s h o u l d o n l y be extended t o t h e l a -

bour a r i s t o c r a c y a s " a g r i c u l t u r a l l a b o u r e r s may have no sen-

t i m e n t s on p u b l i c a f f a i r s ; b u t t h e a r t i s a n c l a s s e s have" . 3

One o f t h e i r o n i e s o f t h e d e b a t e s o f 1867 was t h a t Lowe

and Cranborne , t h e most v i r u l e n t opponents o f reform s h a r e d

' spencer , " P a r l i a ~ e n t a r y Reforv: The Dangers and Safe- g u a r d s " , p .377.

2 ~ a g e h o t , onsi side rations on R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government by John S t u a r t M i l l " , p .341.

3 ~ a g e h o t , " P a r l i a r r e n t a r y ref or^". The C o l l e c t e d Works of Wal te r Baqehot , 8 Vols , e d . Noman S t . John S t e v a s , 6:196.

many of t h e same assumpt ions a b o u t d e ~ o c r a c y and t h e n a s s e s .

They a l s o b e l i e v e d , l i k e M i l l and G l a d s t o n e , i n d e f e r e n c e t o

e d u c a t i o n and s o c i a l p o s i t i o n . Thus i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t o

f i n d t h a t Cranborne on t h e o c c a s i o n of Y i l l ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n of

Hare1 s scheme " rebuked . . . [ Y . F . ' s who had] lauqhed very much

and [been] v e r y i n a t t e n t i v e " . ' Nor i s it s u r p r i s i n g t o f i n d

t h a t F i l l , i n 1867, vo ted w i t h Cranborne i n f avour of Lowe's

scher-e f o r c u m u l a t i v e v o t i n g . 2

Lowe and Cranborne, however, u n l i k e t h e p roponen t s o f r e -

form, s imply d i d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t t h e working man's h a b i t s o f

d e f e r e n c e would c o n t i n u e i n d e f i n i t e l y under new p o l i t i c a l a r -

r a n q e n e n t s ( r e g a r d l e s s of whatever checks and s e c u r i t i e s c o u l d

be p r o v i d e d ) . Lowe agreed t h a t t h e r e were pany working men

who were " a d d i c t e d t o C o n s e r v a t i v e o p i n i o n s " and consequen t ly

t h e d e f e r e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r of s o c i e t y would n o t be u p s e t i n t h e

i n m e d i a t e f u t u r e . N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e p a s s e s would e v e n t u a l l y s a y ;

"We can do b e t t e r f o r o u r s e l v e s . Don ' t l e t us any l o n g e r

be c a j o l e d a t e l e c t i o n s . L e t us shop f o r o u r s e l v e s . I n a

s i m i l a r v e i n Cranborne argued ( a f t e r t h e b i l l had been p a s s e d ) :

"The o rmipo tence o f P a r l i a m e n t i s t h e i r s , wholly and w i t h o u t r e -

l ~ u o t e d i n #. Cowling, 1867 D i s r e a l i , G lads tone and Revo- l u t i o n ; t h e p a s s i n g o f t h e second Reforv B i l l (Capbridge: Cam- b r i d g e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 6 7 ) , p .22 .

2 ~ . ~ . Monypenny and G . E . Buckle, The l i f e of B e n j a r ~ i n D i s r e a l i , 1st E a r l of B e a c o n s f i e l d , 6 Vols. (London: John Yurray , 1910-1920) , 4 : 546.

3~ .C . Douglas , e d . , E n g l i s h H i s t o r i c a l Docurents, 12 Vols . ( N e w York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955-1956) , 1 2 : 163.

101

s e r v e . S u b j e c t t o t h e v i s a ~ i n o r i t y p o s s e s s e d i n v a r i o u s de-

g r e e s o f a v a s t a g g r e g a t e o f a c c u ~ ~ u l a t e d w e a l t h . I f he were

t o s e t a l l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of c o n s c i e n c e a s i d e , each menber o f

t h e poor b u t a b s o l u t e m a j o r i t y would n a t u r a l l y d e s i r e s o t o

use t h i s new power a s t o make some p o r t i o n o f t h i s w e a l t h h i s

own" .' Thus, Cranborne c o n t i n u e d , t h e b e l i e f s of t h e propon-

e n t s o f r e fo rm, who i n p u b l i c r e l i e d upon " t h e v i r t u e s o f t h e

working c l a s s " w h i l e i n p r i v a t e they drew "what c o n s o l a t i o n

t h e y c o u l d f r o n a b e l i e f i n i t s unbounded p l i a b i l i t y " , were

p u r e l y c h i v e r i c a l . I n t h i s s e n s e , Lowe, Cranborne and t h e

l i b e r a l s were n o t d i v i d e d o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n o f b a s i c assumptions

I n c o n c l u s i o n : I do n o t nean t o s u g g e s t t h a t M i l l ' s and

S p e n c e r ' s views were i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h o s e o f t h e i r po-

l i t i c a l opponen t s . T h e i r c r i t i c i s m s of democracy and t h e work-

i n g c l a s s e s were t e v p e r e d by a b e l i e f t h a t some k ind o f ex-

t e n s i o n o f t h e f r a n c h i s e was d e s i r a b l e . Moreover P i l l and

Spencer f e l t t h a t women shou ld have t h e v o t e . 3 Ye t , t h e s e

I Lord S a l i s b u r y , "The C o n s e r v a t i v e S u r r e n d e r " , Lord S a l i s - bury on P o l i t i c s , p . 258.

' spencer had o r i g i n a l l y defended t h e r i g h t s o f wonen i n S o c i a l S t a t i c s ( P a r t 11, Ch. x v i ) . However he s u b s e q u e n t l y changed h i s views on t h i s i s s u e . When M i l l a sked Spencer t o c o n t r i b u t e a n a r t i c l e t o a volume o f e s s a y s on woven's s u f - f r a g e t h a t Helen Tay lo r was e d i t i n g ( P i l l t o Spencer , Pay 24, 1867, N i l 1 , L a t e r L e t t e r s 3 : 1 2 7 0 ) , Spencer d e c l i n e d , a s he had come t o b e l i e v e t h a t : "The q i v i n a o f p o l i t i c a l power t o woven would I b e l i e v e r e s t r i c t a n d d i n d e e d d i h i n i s h l i b e r t y i n two ways. I t would s t r e n g t h e n t h e hand o f a u t h o r i t y . . . f o r wonen, a s . a mass, a r e , h a b i t u a l l y on t h e s i d e o f a u t h o r i t y . F u r t h e r it would a i d and s t r e n g t h e n a l l k i n d s o f s t a t e a d m i n i s t r a - t i o n s . . . " (Spencer t o M . i l l , 9 August 1867. Duncan, The l i f e and l e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t Spencer , p .138) .

s p e c i f i c commitrents

l i t i c a l " p o s i t i o n " .

102

do n o t , by t h e n s e l v e s , amount t o a po-

M i l l ' s and S p e n c e r ' s b a s i c p o l i t i c a l assurrp t ions p r e s e n t

a r a t h e r d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e . N e i t h e r o f them wished t o see a

s o c i e t y i n which every i n d i v i d u a l would be g i v e n an e q u a l

v o i c e i n t h e a f f a i r s of t h e s t a t e . Y i l l ' s a t t i t u d e s were very

o b v i o u s l y e l i t i s t . He wanted t h e v a s s e s t o d e f e r t o t h e b e t -

t e r judgnent o f an e l i t e o f i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l s u p e r i o r s .

1 H e was no d e ~ o c r a t . Although t h e q u e s t i o n o f d e f e r e n c e does

n o t e n t e r s o o b v i o u s l y i n t o S p e n c e r ' s ph i losophy it i s never-

t h e l e s s c l e a r t h a t he t o o d i s t r u s t e d t h e p o l i t i c a l a b i l i t i e s

and judgment o f t h e masses. There was n o t h i n g e x c e p t i o n a l

a b o u t such judgrrents on t h e masses and devocracy . They were

t h e s t o c k i n t r a d e o f most r e s p e c t a b l e V i c t o r i a n arguments

o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n of P a r l i a m e n t a r y ref or^.

The q u e s t i o n o f V i c t o r i a n a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d s . v o r a 1 a u t h o r -

1 J . H . Burns h a s conv inc ing ly argued t h a t P i l l ma in ta ined

h i s h o s t i l i t y towards democracy th roughou t h i s l i f e . He con- c l u d e s t h a t : " A c o n s i s t e n t v iewpoin t u n i t e s W i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t from s t a r t t o f i n i s h ; b u t i t i s n o t , i n t h e s t r i c t s e n s e h e would h i r s e l f have a d o p t e d , t h e v i e w p o i n t o f a demo- c r a t . Burns , " J . S . M i l l and democracy 1829-1861" r e p r i n t e d i n M i l l : A c o l l e c t i o n o f c r i t i c a l e s s a y s , e d . J . B . Schneewind (Not re D a ~ e : U n i v e r s i t y o f Not re Dane P r e s s , 19691, p.328.

i t y i s o b v i o u s l y n o t s u s c e p t i b l e o f t h e same k i n d s o f a n a l y s i s

a s t h e q u e s t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s towards denocracy . D i s c u s s i o n o f

t h e l a t t e r i s s u e c e n t e r e d around t h e p r a c t i c a l problerr. o f Par-

l i a m e n t a r y re fo rm, whereas t h e former p layed a p a r t i n a whole

m u l t i t u d e o f p r o b l e m r a n g i n g from t h e po lemics o f t h e T r a c t -

a r i a n s t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s i e s o v e r Darwin. However, d e s p i t e t h e

m u l t i p l i c i t y and v a r i e t y o f t h e s e i s s u e s , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s

o f t e n i n v o l v e d a common d e n o r i n a t o r - namely, t h e q u e s t i o n o f

t h e a c t u a l , o r presumed, d e c l i n e o f ~ h r i s t i a n i t ~ .' Thus t h e

arguments o f an avowed " l i b e r a l i n d i v i d u a l i s t " and a g n o s t i c

such a s P i l l , on t h e one ex t reme , and t h o s e , s a y , o f Neman ,

on t h e o t h e r ex t reme , nay be s e e n a s corrpet ing c l a i m s o v e r t h e

s a v e d i s p u t e d moral and i n t e l l e c t u a l t e r r i t o r y . The o b j e c t

of t h e f o l l o w i n g pages i s t o examine t h e manner i n which t h i s

problem was conce ived o f and t h e k i n d s o f s o l u t i o n s v a r i o u s

t h i n k e r s p roposed .

One assumpt ion t h a t was corrronly r a d e was t h a t t h e n ine -

t e e n t h c e n t u r y was a n e r a o f t r a n s i t i o n . "The f i r s t o f t h e

' ~ h r o u ~ h o u t t h i s c h a p t e r I have a t t e m p t e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e i d e a s , f e e l i n g s and r e a c t i o n s o f a s m a l l n u r b e r o f i n t e l l e c t u a l s ( w i t h a view t o c l a r i f y i n g some o f M i l l ' s and S p e n c e r ' s p o l i t i - c a l and e t h i c a l a s s u m p t i o n s ) . The i d e a s d e s c r i b e d may have re- f l e c t e d b r o a d e r c u r r e n t s i n s o c i e t y . On t h e o t h e r hand they may s imply have r e f l e c t e d t h e p e c u l i a r p o s i t i o n o f t h e i n t e l - l e c t u a l i n s o c i e t y . However, r e g a r d l e s s o f whatever o r i g i n i s a s c r i b e d t o t h e s e i d e a s , t h e p o i n t i s t h a t s u c h s p e c u l a t i o n s f a l l beyond t h e scope o f t h e . p r e s e n t e n q u i r y . I am n o t t r y i n g t o make any g e n e r a l comrents on t h e " c h a r a c t e r " o f t h e Vic- t o r i a n Age.

2 ~ h i s was a l s o t h e s u b j e c t d i s c u s s e d by t h e P e t a p h y s i c a l S o c i e t y ( founded by Knowles and Tennyson i n 1 8 6 9 ) . Both P i l l and Spencer w e r e i n v i t e d t o j o i n b u t t h e y d e c l i n e d . See A.W. Brown, The Metaphys ica l S o c i e t y ; ~ i c t o r i a n r i n d s i n c r i s i s ( N e w York: Columbia U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 4 7 ) .

l e a d i n q p e c u l a r i t i e s o f t h e p r e s e n t age" w r o t e P i l l " i s t h a t

it i s an aqe o f t r a n s i t i o n . Mankind have outgrown o l d i n -

s t i t u t i o n s and o l d d o c t r i n e s , and have n o t y e t a c q u i r e d new

o n e s . M i l l was s t r o n g l y impressed by Comte 's d i v i s i o n o f

h i s t o r y i n t o t h r e e s t a g e s and t h u s he f e l t t h a t w h i l e t h e eta-

p h y s i c a l s t a g e had been consummated i n t h e French r e v o l u t i o n ,

t h e " p o s i t i v e s t a t e was y e t t o comer'.* Cowte 's d o c t r i n e s

gave M i l l ' s n o t i o n o f an age o f t r a n s i t i o n a " s c i e n t i f i c

3 s h a p e " . C a r l y l e (who had f o r a w h i l e , m i s t a k e n l y , looked

upon M i l l a s a n i n t e l l e c t u a l a l l y and d i s c i p l e ) saw s i m i l a r

changes happening: "There i s " he w r o t e " a d e e p - l y i n g s t r u g g l e

i n t h e whole f a b r i c o f s o c i e t y ; a bound less g r i n d i n g c o l l i s i o n

o f t h e New w i t h t h e Old . "4 The age was. i n s h o r t , " s i c k and

o u t o f j ~ i n t " . ~ Spencer a l s o f e l t t h a t s o c i e t y had e n t e r e d

a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n a s t h e " i n d u s t r i a l " s t a g e g r a d u a l l y

r e p l a c e d t h e " p i l i t a n t " s t a g e . I t was t h u s a s o c i e t y i n

t r a n s i t i o n and i t s main c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were s t i l l f l u i d .

One consequence o f t h i s i d e a of an age o f t r a n s i t i o n was

t h e f e e l i n g t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l r o r a l and r e l i g i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s

' ~ i l l , "The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p .3 .

2 ~ i l l , Autobiography, p . 165.

3 ~ b i d .

' ~ a r l y l e , "S igns o f t h e . l i ~ e s " , C r i t i c a l and Misce l l aneous E s s a y s , 4 : 8 1 .

105

were b e i n g e roded . The b e l i e f s o f former ages w e r e becoming

i n c r e a s i n g l y i n a p p r o p r i a t e . However, no new s y s t e m o f b e l i e f

had emerged w i t h s u f f i c i e n t c l a r i t y and a u t h o r i t y t o c o m a n d

widespread a s s e n t . "The o l d d o c t r i n e s have gone o u t " F i l l

complained "and t h e new ones have n o t y e t come i n ; " ' and he

condenned t h e " p r e s e n t age o f loud d i s p u t e s b u t g e n e r a l l y

weak c o n v i c t i o n s . " 2 H e was a l s o o f t e n s c e p t i c a l o f o t h e r

p e o p l e s r e l i a i o u s c o n v i c t i o n s . "What i s b o a s t e d o f a t t h e

p r e s e n t t i m e a s t h e r e v i v a l o f r e l i g i o n i s a lways , i n nar-

row and u n c u l t i v a t e d minds" he w r o t e " a t l e a s t a s r u c h t h e

r e v i v a l o f b i q o t r y . "' Spencer l i k e w i s e f e l t t h a t d u r i n g an

age of t r a n s i t i o n it was i n p o s s i b l e f o r any c l e a r c u t moral

r u l e s t o emer-. During such t i r e s " t h r o u g h o u t a c o n s i d e r a b l e

p a r t o f conduc t , no g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e , no method o f e s t ima-

t i o n , e n a b l e s us t o s a y whether a proposed c o u r s e i s even

r e l a t i v e l y r i g h t " . 4 Thus a l t h o u g h p r e s e n t rroral r u l e s were

" f o r t h e t i m e b e i n g a u t h o r i t a t i v e " t h e y d i d n o t a l l o w f o r any

" c o n s i s t e n t o r d e f i n i t e e x p r e s s i o n " . A s a r e s u l t " t h e s t a t e

o f t r a n s i t i o n w i l l o f c o u r s e be an unhappy s t a t e " . 6

ill, "The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p . 1 6 .

'?Jill, Autobiography, p . l 6 6 .

31"ill, On L i b e r t y , p .240.

4 S p e n c e r , P r i n c i p l e s o f ' ~ t h i c s , 1: 296.

6 ~ p e n c e r , The Wan v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , p -140.

C a r l y l e was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y r h e t o r i c a l and v i r u l e n t

i n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t o f t h e d e c l i n e o f mora l s and

r e l i g i o n . I n 1829 he had w r i t t e n : "This i s n o t a R e l i g i o u s

age . Only t h e m a t e r i a l , t h e immedia te ly p r a c t i c a l , n o t t h e

I d i v i n e and s p i r i t u a l , i s i n p o r t a n t t o u s " . The f o l l o w i n g

f o r t y y e a r s on ly s e r v e d t o c o n f i r m h i s p r e j u d i c e s and i n

1867 he p r e d i c t e d t h a t " i n a l i m i t e d t i m e , say f i f t y y e a r s

hence , t h e Church, a l l Churches and s o - c a l l e d r e l i u i o n s ,

t h e C h r i s t i a n R e l i g i o n i t s e l f , s h a l l have d e l i q u e s c e d - i n t o

" L i b e r t y o f Consc ience" , P r o g r e s s of Opinion, P r o g r e s s of In -

t e l l e c t , P h i l a n t h r o p i c Pavement, and o t h e r aqueous r e s i d u e s ,

of a vap id bad ly - scen ted c h a r a c t e r " . 2

The f e e l i n g t h a t m o r a l s and r e l i g i o n ( t h e t r a d i t i o n a l

r e p o s i t o r y o f moral a u t h o r i t y ) were e i t h e r d e c l i n i n u , o r i n

danger o f d e c l i n i n g , was n o t l i m i t e d t o t h o s e who, f o r one

r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , were conmi t t ed t o an e x p l i c i t c o n c e p t i o n o f

a " s o c i e t y i n t r a n s i t i o n " . Thus Newman w r o t e : "People say

t o me, t h a t i t i s b u t a dream t o suppose t h a t C h r i s t i a n i t y

shou ld r e g a i n t h e o r a g n i c power i n human s o c i e t y which once

i t p o s s e s s e d . I c a n n o t h e l p t h a t ; I never s a i d it c o u l d " . 3

' c a r l y l e , "S igns o f t h e Times", p .74 .

* ~ a r l ~ l e , "Shoo t ing Niagara : and a f t e r ? " , p . 2. - 5

J . H . Newman, "The T a m o r t h Reading Roon" . Essays and S k e t c h e s , 3 V o l s . , e d . C.F. H a r r o l d (New York: Longmans, Green, 1948) , 2:203.

I n a somewhat d i f f e r e n t v e i n , S tephen condemned what he saw

a s t h e l a c k o f moral f i b r e o f h i s c o n t e n p o r a r i e s . For h i p

" p r o g r e s s " was s i p p l y " p r o g r e s s f r o v s t r e n g t h t o weakness". 1

These assumpt ions a b o u t t h e d e c l i n e o f c o n v i c t i o n s ,

n o r a l s and r e l i q i o n were t h u s t h e common p r o p e r t y o f zi num-

b e r o f l e a d i n g i n t e l l e c t u a l s . I t i s h a r d l y s u r p r i s i n g , t h e r e -

f o r e , t h a t t h e s e men shou ld have d e p l o r e d what they saw a s

t h e c a p r i c e o f p r i v a t e moral j u d g r e n t s . M i l l , Spencer , Car-

l y l e , Neman and S tephen a l i k e condemned t h e n o t i o n t h a t i n -

d i v i d u a l s s h o u l d be l e f t f r e e t o judge t h e v a l i d i t y of var -

i o u s n o r a l d o c t r i n e s f o r t h e m s e l v e s . The s p r e a d o f such i n -

d i v i d u a l c a p r i c e c o u l d on ly e x a c e r b a t e an a l r e a d y confused

s i t u a t i o n .

According t o Newman, " p r i v a t e judgement" (by which he

meant t h e r i g h t t o choose o n e ' s own b e l i e f s ) was a s o u r c e

o f s e r i o u s e r r o r . Ac t s o f p r i v a t e judgepent cou ld n o t therr-

s e l v e s be r i g h t , h e a rgued , i f t h e y l e d t o b e l i e f s t h a t were

d i a m e t r i c a l l y opposed. F u r t h e r p o r e , r o s t p e o p l e had n e i t h e r

t h e t ime nor t h e a b i l i t y t o engage i n t h e k inds of i n v e s t i -

g a t i o n needed i n o r d e r t o a r r i v e a t a c o n s i s t e n t se t o f be-

l i e f s ( t h a t i s , i f one were t o g r a n t t h e assumpt ion t h a t be-

l i e f s cou ld b e a r r i v e d a t th rough p r o c e s s o f i n f e r e n c e ) . 3

I Stephen , L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , F r a t e r n i t y , p.199.

J . H . Newman, " P r i v a t e Judgement". Essays and S k e t c h e s , 2 : l,37 .

108

However, p e o p l e d i d have a r i g h t o f p r i v a t e judgerrent i n choos-

i n g between t e a c h e r s . The c h o i c e o f a t e a c h e r t r a n s c e n d e d

t h e normal p r o c e s s e s o f l o g i c and i n f e r e n c e . Such c h o i c e s

r e f l e c t e d a k ind o f inward s p i r i t u a l development: "There

i s something i n t h e s i g h t o f p e r s o n s o r b o d i e s o f men which

speak t o us f o r a p p r o v a l o f d i s a p p r o b a t i o n w i t h a d i s t i n c t -

n e s s t o which pen and i n k a r e n o t e q u a l " .' I n s h o r t , w h i l e

men were a b l e t o choose between t e a c h e r s , they cou ld no t

choose between t h e d o c t r i n e s proposed by d i f f e r e n t t e a c h e r s .

Once a t e a c h e r had been chosen one had t o d e f e r t o h i s au-

t h o r i t y . I r o n i c a l l y M i l l condemned p r i v a t e judgment i n much t h e

s a r e w3.y a s Newman. Admi t t ed ly , t h e d o c t r i n e s M i l l was d i s -

c u s s i n g were moral and p o l i t i c a l , r a t h e r t h a n r e l i g i o u s , and

t h e t e a c h e r s h e advocated would be m e ~ b e r s of a " s e c u l a r

c l e r i s y " r a t h e r t h a n c l e r q m e n . Y e t d e s p i t e t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s ,

M i l l ' s arguments r a n a h o s t e x a c t l y p a r a l l e l t o Newman's and

i n t h i s r e s p e c t M i l l ' s c o n c e p t i o n o f an i n s t r u c t e d e l i t e may

be unders tood a s a k i n d o f s e c u l a r c l e r i s y . P r i v a t e judgment

was, a c c o r d i n g t o P i l l , a n e v i l t h a t had developed unavoidably

d u r i n g a p e r i o d o f t r a n s i t i o n . One o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

t h e age o f t r a n s i t i o n was t h a t v a r i o u s " a u t h o r i t i e s " were "d i -

v ided arrong themse lves , o r a g a i n s t each o t h e r " and consequen t ly

-

I " a v i o l e n t c o n f l i c t r aged among opposinq d o c t r i n e s " . Under

such c o n d i t i o n s it was "no wonder t h a t rrankind shou ld a t t a c h

themselves t o p r i v a t e judgment, a s t h e u l t i m a t e r e f u g e , t h e

l a s t and o n l y r e s o u r c e o f humani ty" . The m a j o r i t y o f rran-

k i n d , however, had n e i t h e r t h e a b i l i t y nor t h e o p p o r t u n i t y

o f a r r i v i n g a t t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f moral and p o l i -

t i c a l conduc t . "I do n o t b e l i e v e " he wro te " t h a t . . . they ( t h e

mass o f humanity) w i l l e v e r have s u f f i c i e n t o p p o r t u n i t i e s o f

s t u d y and e x p e r i e n c e , t o become themselves f a r r i l i a r l y con-

v e r s a n t w i t h a l l t h e e n q u i r i e s which l e a d t o t h e t r u t h s by

which it i s good t h a t t h e y s h o u l d r e g u l a t e t h e i r conduc t . I ! -j

Thus t h e p r i v a t e judqment which was u n f o r t u n a t e l y e x e r c i s e d

d u r i n g t h e age o f t r a n s i t i o n was a s o u r c e o f s e r i o u s e r r o r .

This e r r o r would on ly be overcome when " t h e f i r s t pen o f t h e

age w i l l ...j o i n hands and b e a g r e e d : and t h e n t h e r e w i l l be

no power i n i t s e l f , on e a r t h o r i n h e l l , c a p a b l e o f wi th -

s t a n d i n g them" . 4 I n o t h e r words , once t h e i n s t r u c t e d w i l l

a r r i v e a t a consensus , t h e n t h e p a s s o f humanity w i l l be a b l e

t o revert t o a p o s i t i o n o f d e f e r e n c e , and t h e e r r o r s a t t e n d -

i n g p r i v a t e judqment w i l l c e a s e .

T h i s conderrnation o f p r i v a t e j u d g ~ e n t was n o t s imply

%ill, "The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p .30 .

1 1 0

a p e c u l i a r i t y of W i l l ' s e a r l y w r i t i n g s ( t h a t i s t o s a y , a t

t h e t ime he was r e a c t i n g a g a i n s t Bentharvisn and r a d i c a l i s m ) .

His mature e t h i c a l t h e o r y c o n t a i n s a n o b l i q u e , y e t never the -

l e s s e q u a l l y d e c i s i v e , c r i t i c i s m o f p r i v a t e judgnent . I n

utilitarian is^ M i l l a rgued t h a t u t i l i t y i n c l u d e d bo th some o f

t h e "an imal a p p e t i t e s " and t h e h i g h e r p l e a s u r e s o f menta l c u l -

t i v a t i o n ; and t h a t t h e l a t t e r , were t h e most v a l u a b l e forms

of p l e a s u r e . This c o u l d be demons t ra ted by t h e " u n q u e s t i o n a b l e

f a c t t h a t t h o s e who a r e e q u a l l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h and e q u a l l y

c a p a b l e o f a p p r e c i a t i n g b o t h do g i v e a most marked p r e f e r e n c e

t o t h e manner of e x i s t e n c e which employs t h e i r h i g h e r f a c u l -

t i e s " .' Thus o n l y " a b e i n p o f h i q h e r f a c u l t i e s " cou ld d e c i d e

what c o n s t i t u t e d p l e a s u r e , and hence t h e p r o p e r s u b s t a n t i v e

n a t u r e o f t h e r u l e s moral conduc t . "From t h i s v e r d i c t " w r o t e

M i l l "of t h e o n l y competent judges , I apprehend t h e r e can be

no a p p e a l " . ' I n o t h e r words, when it cape t o d e c i d i n g upon

t h e r u l e s o f human conduc t , t h e r e was no room f o r p r i v a t e

judgment a s t h e u n i n s t r u c t e d masses would have t o d e f e r t o

t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e i n s t r u c t e d . There i s a n obvious connect -

i o n between t h i s n o t i o n and W i l l ' s denand f o r p l u r a l v o t i n g

based on e d u c a t i o n a l q u a l i f i c a t i o n s . I n b o t h p o l i t i c s and

e t h i c s P i l l hoped t h a t t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e i n s t r u c t e d would

'#ill, U t i l i t a r i a n i s m , p . 211.

be s u f f i c i e n t t o c o u n t e r a c t t h e c a p r i c i o u s whims of t h e pass -

e s .

Although Spencer d i d n o t d e a l e x p l i c i t l y w i t h t h e sub-

j e c t of p r i v a t e judgrrents , t h e whole d r i f t o f h i s e t h i c a l

t h e o r y t ended t o e x c l u d e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f such a c t s . For

Spencer , conduc t was e i t h e r good o r bad i n s o f a r a s i t tended

t o p r o p o t e o r h i n d e r t h e p r o c e s s e s of e v o l u t i o n . I n o t h e r

words " t h e conduc t t o which we a p p l y t h e name good, i s t h e

r e l a t i v e l y more evolved conduc t ; and bad i s t h e nape we app ly

t o conduc t which i s r e l a t i v e l y less evolved" .' A s moral con-

d u c t d i s p l a y e d t h e sarre c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s b i o l o g i c a l deve l -

oprrent, s o a c t s o f p r i v a t e judgment ( a s r e f l e c t i v e and d e l i -

b e r a t e c h o i c e s ) c o u l d n o t p l a y any p a r t i n r a n ' s oral l i f e .

The e v i l s a t t e n d i n g p r i v a t e judgment and t h e presum-ed

d e c l i n e o f moral c o n v i c t i o n s were t h u s coxr~onp lace assump-

t i o n s . The argurrents between " l i b e r a l s " and " c o n s e r v a t i v e s "

can o n l y be unders tood w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e s e sha red

a s s u n p t i o n s . No one ( n o t even "advanced l i b e r a l s " l i k e ill)

wished t o s e e men em.ancipated f r o n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f a u t h o r i t y .

Emancipat ion c o u l d o n l y l e a d t o f u r t h e r d e c l i n e and c o n f u s i o n .

I n o t h e r words n e i t h e r " l i b e r a l s " nor " c o n s e r v a t i v e s " argued \

o v e r a u t h o r i t y and l i b e r t y i n t h e a b s t r a c t . R a t h e r , conten-

t i o n a r o s e o v e r t h e q u e s t i o n a s t o what c o n s t i t u t e d t h e pro-

p e r r e p o s i t o r y o f moral a u t h o r i t y . Many t h i n k e r s of a l i b e r a l ,

' spencer , P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , 1 : 61.

112

d i s p o s i t i o n w e r e , on t h e whole , of t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e t r a -

d i t i o n a l r e p o s i t o r i e s had outgrown t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s . For

them it was a q u e s t i o n o f c r e a t i n g a new s t r u c t u r e of a u t h o r -

i t y and d e f e r e n c e t h a t would r e p l a c e t r a d i t i o n . By c o n t r a s t ,

c o n s e r v a t i v e s f e l t t h a t if t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y was n o t

f u l f i l l i n g i t s p u r p o s e , t h a t was s imply because it was b e i n g

undermined by t h e d o c t r i n e s o f l i b e r a l i s r r .

F o u r t e e n y e a r s a f t e r M i l l p u b l i s h e d On L i b e r t y , J . F .

S tephen p u b l i s h e d a work e n t i t l e d L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , Fra-

t e r n i t y i n which he a t t a c k e d t h e r a i n t e n e t s o f M i l l ' s doc-

t r i n e s . S tephen argued t h a t c o e r c i o n was t h e b a s i c q u a l i t y

o f a l l s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l r e l a t i o n s . Law, p u b l i c o p i n i o n

and r o r a l i t y a l l depended, i n v a r y i n g d e g r e e s , upon c o e r c i o n .

Consequen t ly , p o p u l a r n o t i o n s a b o u t " l i b e r t y " c o u l d on ly

s e r v e t o weaken t h e c o e r c i v e t i e s t h a t h e l d s o c i e t y t o g e t h e r : 1

" P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e e f f e c t o f t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h e comm.onplaces

a b o u t l i b e r t y h a s been t o r a i s e i n t h e minds o f o r d i n a r y peo-

p l e a s t r o n g p r e s u v p t i o n a g a i n s t obeying anybody, and by a

n a t u r a l rebound t o induce minds o f a n o t h e r c l a s s t o obey t h e

f i r s t p e r s o n who c l a i v s t h e i r obed ience w i t h s u f f i c i e n t em-

p h a s i s and s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e . I t has s h a t t e r e d t o p i e c e s most

o f t h e o l d f o r v s i n which d i s c i p l i n e was a r e c o g n i z e d and ad-

m i t t e d good, and c e r t a i n l y i t has n o t produced rrany new o n e s " . 2

1 Stephen was s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by Hobbes. According t o

h i s b r o t h e r L e s l i e , Hobbes was h i s " f a v o u r i t e p h i l o s o p h e r " . Les- l i e S tephen , The L i f e o f S i r James F i t z j a r r e s S tephen , p.220.

2 ~ t e p h e n , L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , F r a t e r n i t y , p .170.

113

Likewise , f o r Newman, t h e d o c t r i n e s o f l i b e r a l i s p were

a l l s u b v e r s i v e of a l l p r o p e r a u t h o r i t y and cou ld o n l y l e a d pen

i n t o t h e c a p r i c e and c o n f u s i o n o f t h e i r own p r i v a t e j u d q e n t . 1

Descr ib ing h i s e x p e r i e n c e s d u r i n g t h e t w e n t i e s and t h i r t i e s he

w r o t e : " I t was t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e l i b e r a l c a u s e which f r e t t e d

me inward ly . I became f i e r c e a g a i n s t i t s i n s t r u r r e n t s and mani-

f e s t a t i o n s . " 2 The s p i r i t o f l i b e r a l i s m was n o t h i n g l e s s t h a n

" t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e d e s t i n e d A n t i ~ h r i s t " . ~ Whereas

Stephen had a r g u e d , i n a Hobbesian r a n n e r , t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l

a u t h o r i t y had t o be m a i n t a i n e d c o e r c i v e l y s imply i n o r d e r t o

p r e v e n t t h e c o l l a p s e o f s o c i e t y , Newman was p o r e concerned

w i t h t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l a s p e c t s o f a u t h o r i t y . To p u t it s0p.e-

' ~ l t h o u ~ h b o t h Newrran and Stephen o b j e c t e d t o some of t h e more obvious s h i b b o l e t h s o f l i b e r a l i s p , t h e i r own i n t e l l e c t u a l p o s i t i o n s were ve ry d i f f e r e n t . Unl ike Newnan, S tephen was a l i b e r a l o f s o r t s and a n a g n o s t i c . When he w r o t e a review o f Newman's Apoba ia f o r F r a s e r ' s Magazine Newrvan cowplained t h a t t h e a r t i c l e c o n t a i n e d "many misconcep t ions o f ( h i s ) p e a n i n g " . (Newman t o M r s . F roude, 9 October 1864. The L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s o f John Henry Newnan, Vols . I X - X X I , e d . C.S. Dessa in (London: Thomas Nelson and Sons L t d . 1961-1970. Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1973-1977) 31 :255) . Althouqh Newman and S tephen had met and corresponded on a number o f o c c a s i o n s , r e l a t i o n s be- tween t h e two men e v e n t u a l l y becane somewhat s t r a i n e d . Newman f e l t t h a t S tephen v i s i t e d him i n o r d e r t o " f e r r e t o u t " h i s i d e a s s o t h a t he c o u l d s u b s e q u e n t l y p i s r e p r e s e n t therr i n p u b l i c (New- rran t o W.S. L i l l y , 17 February 1881. Newpan, L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s , 29 :337) . D i f f e r e n c e s o f temperament and a s s u ~ p t i o n s between t h e two were s o g r e a t t h a t e v e n t u a l l y Newwan p u t Stephen i n t h e s a p e i n t e l l e c t u a l c a t e g o r y a s P i l l . H e complained t h a t t h e i r " a r r o g a n c e i n a s s u ~ p t i o n s , and s u p e r c i l i o u s n e s s towards anyone who w i l l n o t admi t them, i s i n t h e most provoking d e g r e e ; and they ough t t o be b r o u g h t . t o book" (Newman t o Lord B l a c k f o r d , 2 2 February 1877. Neman , L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s , 27 :170) .

2 J . H . Newnan, Apologia P r o V i t a Sua, e d . M . J . S v a q l i c

(Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 19671, p .42 .

1-14

what c r u d e l y , i f S t e p h e n ' s concern was w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e d i s -

i n t e g r a t i o n o f s o c i e t y , t h e n Newman's concern was w i t h t h e

p o s s i b l e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . For Newran, ad-

he rence t o dogma and a c q u i e s c e n c e i n a u t h o r i t y were psycholo-

g i c a l " f a c t s " t h a t c o u l d n o t b e d i s m i s s e d any n o r e e a s i l y

t h a n any o t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a i t s : " C e r t i t u d e (by which he

meant u n c o n d i t i o n a l a c q u i e s c e n c e i n sope d o g n a t i c t r u t h ) i s

a n a t u r a l and normal s t a t e of r i n d , and n o t ( a s i s sometimes

o b j e c t e d ) one o f i t s e x t r a v a g e n c e s o r i n f i r r i t i e s " .' I n o t h e r

words " c e r t i t u d e " e x i s t e d s i d e by s i d e w i t h "doubt" and

"knowledge" a s one o f t h e n o r p a l c o n s t i t u e n t s of o n e ' s d i s -

p o s i t i o n . However, t h e b a l a n c e between t h e s e c o n s t i t u t e n t s

c o u l d be u p s e t i f q u e s t i o n i n g becape t o o p r e v a l e n t : "Ques-

t i o n i n g , when encouraged on any s u b j e c t - p a t t e r , r e a d i l y be-

comes a h a b i t , and l e a d s t h e p ind t o s u b s t i t u t e e x e r c i s e s o f

i n f e r e n c e f o r a s s e n t .... Reasons f o r a s s e n t i n g s u q g e s t r e a -

sons f o r n o t a s s e n t i n g ..... O b j e c t i o n s and d i f f i c u l t i e s t e l l

upon t h e n i n d ; it may l o s e i t s e l a s t i c i t y and be unab le t o

throw the^ o f f " . 2 I n t h i s manner t h e h a b i t o f q u e s t i o n i n a

was p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e . Q u e s t i o n i n g t h r e a t e n e d p r e -

c i s e l y t h a t d i s p o s i t i o n ( c e r t i t u d e ) upon which rnoral convic-

t i o n s r e s t e d . I t fo l lowed t h a t t h o s e who q u e s t i o n e d t r a d i -

t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c r e a t i n g moral c o n f u s i o n .

'J .H. Newrnan, An Essay i n Aid of a G r a m e r o f Assent (Lon- '

don: Longpans, Green, 1 8 9 5 ) , p . 2 0 9 .

L I b i d . , p .217.

115

The d o c t r i n e s o f l i b e r a l i s m w e r e t h u s b o t h orally and psy-

c h o l o g i c a l l y d e s t r u c t i v e . M i l l and Spencer , by c o n t r a s t , were o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t

t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y was i t s e l f r e s p o n s i b l e f o r whatever

r o r a l c o n f u s i o n e x i s t e d i n s o c i e t y . M i l l ' s compla in t a g a i n s t

t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r e p o s i t o r i e s o f moral a u t h o r i t y was n o t s o

much t h a t t h e y e x e r c i s e d any k i n d o f ty ranny over men, b u t

r a t h e r , t h a t t h e i r i n f l u e n c e was weak and confused . He f e l t

t h a t t r a d i t i o n was j u s t i f i e d th rough t h e t h e o r y of " i n t u i t i o n "

i n e t h i c s , i n t h a t t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i d e a o f an i n t u i t i v e

moral s e n s e was t o p r e v e n t p e o p l e from q u e s t i o n i n g moral v a l -

u e s . Thus t r a d i t i o n was j u s t i f i e d by " a ph i losophy which d i s -

courages t h e e x p l a n a t i o n of f e e l i n q s and m-oral f a c t s by c i r -

c u n s t a n c e s and a s s o c i a t i o n , and p r e f e r s t o t r e a t them a s u l -

t i m a t e e l e r e n t s o f human n a t u r e ; a ph i losophy which i s a d d i c t -

e d t o h o l d i n g up f a v o u r i t e d o c t r i n e s a s i n t u i t i v e t r u t h s ,

and deems i n t u i t i o n t o be v o i c e o f Na tu re and o f God, speak ing

w i t h an a u t h o r i t y h i g h e r t h a n t h a t o f reason" . ' However t h i s

s t r a t e g y ( o f a p p e a l i n g t o i n t u i t i o n ) was s e l f - d e f e a t i n g be-

c a u s e i n p r a c t i c e , t h e a p p e a l t o i n t u i t i o n u s u a l l y r e a n t no

more t h a n a n a p p e a l t o r e r e p a s s i o n ; and p a s s i o n l e d t o com-

p l e t e moral c o n f u s i o n . Consequent ly F e n ' s o p i n i o n s "on what

i s l a u d a b l e o r b lamable a r e a f f e c t e d by a l l t h e m u l t i f a r i o u s

c a u s e s which i n f l u e n c e t h e i r wishes i n r e g a r d t o t h e conduct ,

I M i l l , Autobiography, pp . 2 7 3 - 2 7 4 .

of o t h e r s , and which a r e a s nunerous a s t h o s e which de te rmine

t h e i r wishes on any s u b j e c t . S o r n e t i ~ e s t h e i r r e a s o n ; a t o t h e r

t imes t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s o r s u p e r s t i t i o n s ; o f t e n t h e i r s o c i a l

a f f e c t i o n s , n o t seldom t h e i r a n t i s o c i a l o n e s , t h e i r envy o r

1 j e a l o u s y , t h e i r a r r c g a n c e o r c o n t e ~ p t u o u s n e s s " . I n t u i t i o n

l e d d i r e c t l y t o chaos i n t h a t t h e i n t u i t i v e v o i c e o f vankind

" s o o f t e n a p p e a l e d t o i s u n i v e r s a l o n l y i n i t s d i s c o r d a n c e " . 2

Thus, t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c r e a t i n g an

age o f " l o u d d i s p u t e s b u t g e n e r a l l y weak c o n v i c t i o n s " .

I n h i s e a r l y w r i t i n g s M i l l had s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s "mere

chaos" would c o n t i n u e " u n t i l a moral and s o c i a l r e v o l u t i o n ( o r

i t may b e , a series o f s u c h ) h a s r e p l a c e d w o r l d l y power and

moral i n f l u e n c e i n t h e hands o f t h e most competent" .4 The

a s s u ~ p t i o n t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y would have t o be r e -

p l a c e d by t h e a u t h o r i t y of t h e " i n s t r u c t e d " under lay t h e c la ims

he made i n h i s l a t e r p o l i t i c a l and e t h i c a l w r i t i n g s , i n t h a t

he b e l i e v e d t h a t i n b o t h moral and p o l i t i c a l conduc t , t h e un-

i n s t r u c t e d rrasses would have t o d e f e r t o t h e s u p e r i o r judg-

ment o f t h e " i n s t r u c t e d " . Once t h i s r e v o l u t i o n had been ac-

c o ~ p l i s h e d , P i l l hoped t o s e e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a c r e e d

(by which he meant something a k i n t o Comte 's R e l i g i o n of Hu-

On L i b e r t y , p . 221.

"Whewell on Moral Ph i losophy" , p.194.

Autobiography, p.166.

"The S p i r i t o f t h e Age", p .18 .

mani ty) which would be s o "deep ly engraven on t h e f e e l i n a s

by e a r l y e d u c a t i o n and g e n e r a l u n a n i ~ i t y o f s e n t i r e n t , and

s o f i r m l y grounded i n r e a s o n and t h e t r u e e x i q e n c i e s of l i f e "

t h a t i t would n o t " l i k e a l l f o r r e r and p r e s e n t c r e e d s , r e l i -

g i o n s , e t h i c a l and p o l i t i c a l , r e q u i r e t o b e p e r i o d i c a l l y

thrown o f f and r e p l a c e d by o t h e r s " .' Thus P i l l wished t o s e e

t h e p a r t i a l i t i e s and weaknesses o f t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y r e -

p l a c e d by an a u t h o r i t y t h a t would no l o n ~ e r be s u b j e c t t o t h e

v i c i s s i t u d e s o f h i s t o r y .

Spencer was a l s o o f t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r -

i t y l e d t o r o r a l c o n f u s i o n . He a rgued t h a t i n an a r i s t o c r a -

t i c , o r " m i l i t a n t " s o c i e t y , t h e r e e x i s t e d two c o n f l i c t i n g

s e t s of moral r u l e s ; " t h e i n d i v i d u a l r a n h a s t o c a r r y on h i s

l i f e w i t h due r e g a r d t o t h e l i v e s o f o t h e r s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e

same s o c i e t y ; w h i l e he i s s o m e t i ~ e s c a l l e d on t o be r e a a r d l e s s

of t h e l i v e s o f t h o s e b e l o n g i n g t o o t h e r s o c i e t i e s .... Hate

and d e s t r o y your f e l l o w rnan i s now t h e cornrand; and t h e n t h e

command i s , l o v e and a i d your f e l l o w man". ' I t fo l lowed t h a t

t h e r e c o u l d n o t be any c o n s i s t e n t s y s t e r o f moral r u l e s u n t i l

t h e l a s t v e s t i g e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a r i s t o c r a t i c i n f l u e n c e had

been e l i m i n a t e d . Fur the rmore , t r a d i t i o n l e d t o weakness a s

w e l l a s c o n f u s i o n . Convention and custom were o f t e n a r b i t r a r y

and u n n e c e s s a r y , and consequen t ly t h e y would d i s s o l v e i n t h e

',ill, Autobiography, p . l 6 6 .

' spencer , P r i n c i p l e s o f E t h i c s , pp.167-168.

118

f a c e o f conduc t t h a t was p r o p e r l y a d j u s t e d t o t h e n e c e s s i t i e s

of b i o l o g i c a l s u r v i v a l ; t h u s , " c o n v e n t i o n a l f e e l i n g s w i l l g i v e

way b e f o r e n e c e s s a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and c o n v e n t i o n a l circum-

s t a n c e s b e f o r e n e c e s s a r y f e e l i n g s " . 1

A u n i v e r s a l l y c o n s i s t e n t and a u t h o r i t a t i v e sys tem of

e t h i c s would o n l y a r i s e once conformi ty t o t h e laws of evolu-

t i o n r e p l a c e d t h e outworn a u t h o r i t y o f t r a d i t i o n . The s o u r c e

o f t h e i n e x o r a b l e laws o f e v o l u t i o n was t h e "unknowable",

" t h a t u l t i n - a t e r y s t e r y which v u s t e v e r t r a n s c e n d human i n t e l l i -

gence" . * I n t h i s way S p e n c e r ' s s u b s t i t u t e f o r e x i s t i n o moral

a u t h o r i t y was c l o t h e d i n q u a s i - r e l i q i o u s d r e s s i n g .

I n c o n c l u s i o n - t h e presumed d e c l i n e o f moral c o n v i c t i o n s

and t h e dangers a t t e n d i n g p r i v a t e judgment were t h e common as -

sumptions o f b o t h l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e arguments . Thus

l i b e r a l s l i k e M i l l and Spencer proposed. a u t h o r i t i e s t h a t would,

they hoped, s u p p l y t h e d e f i c i e n c i e s o f t r a d i t i o n a l a u t h o r i t y

and e f f e c t i v e l y p u t a n end t o moral c o n f u s i o n and p r i v a t e judq-

rnent. By c o n t r a s t , t h i n k e r s o f a c o n s e r v a t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n f e l t

t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e s o f l i b e r a l i s m por tended t h e e r o s i o n o f a l l

a u t h o r i t y ; and t h a t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f r e p l a c i n g e x i s t i n g au-

t h o r i t y w i t h t h e s u b s t i t u t e s proposed by l i b e r a l s Kas p u r e l y

c h i ~ . e r i c a l . Newman found t h e c o n c e p t s o f "Humanity" and t h e

' spencer , S o c i a l S t a t i c s , p . 7 8 .

L S p e n c e r , " P r o g r e s s : I t s law and c a u s e " . Essays : Sc ien- -

t l f i c , P o l i t i c a l and S ~ e c u l a t i v e , 1 :35 .

"Unknowable", "hol low" and "absurd" ; w h i l e S tephen c o n p l a i n -

ed t h a t they were mere "shadowy figment^".^ To t h i s e x t e n t

t h e argument between " l i b e r a l s " and " c o n s e r v a t i v e s " was

n o t o v e r t h e e x t e n t and l i m i t s o f a u t h o r i t y , b u t r a t h e r , o v e r

t h e s u b s t a n t i v e n a t u r e o f t h e a u t h o r i t y t o be e x e r c i s e d .

l ~ e w m a n t o Ward, 3 August 1 8 8 4 . Newran, L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s . 30 :389 .

L L e s l i e S tephen , L i f e o f J a r e s F i t z j a r e s S tephen ,

CONCLUSION

Spencer and M i l l w e r e n o t l i b e r t a r i a n s . N e i t h e r were

they democra t s . T h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s o f l i b e r t y were l a r g e l y

i n t e n d e d a s v e h i c l e s o f p r e s c r i p t i o n and t h e v a r i o u s ends

t h e y p r e s c r i b e d o f t e n had l i t t l e t o do w i t h freedom and i n -

d i v i d u a l i t y . F i l l ' s d e t e r m i n i s t accoun t of h u ~ a n n a t u r e and

h i s i n s i s t e n c e upon t h e need f o r d e f e r e n c e t o an e l i t e of

i n s t r u c t e d p e r s o n s r e p r e s e n t e d , amona o t h e r t h i n g s , an a t -

tempt t o c o n f u t e t h e v a r i o u s e t h i c a l n o t i o n s of freedom and

i n d i v i d u a l i t y deve loped by C h r i s t i a n t h i n k e r s and i d e a l i s t

p h i l o s o p h e r s . L ikewise , S p e n c e r ' s scheme of a t r a n s c e n d e n t a l i

e v o l u t i o n a r y p r o c e s s c a n n o t be unders tood a s a p l e a f o r f r e e -

dom and i n d i v i d u a l i t y .

I n V i c t o r i a n E n ~ l a n d t h e r e was no g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d li-

b e r a l i d e o l o g y . D i f f e r e n t t h i n k e r s proposed d i f f e r e n t panaceas

t o what t h e y conce ived o f a s t h e most p r e s s i n g problems of

t h e e r a . For Arno ld , s a l v a t i o n l a y i n b r e a k i n g t h e o s t e n -

s i b l y p h i l i s t i n e h a b i t s o f t h e middle c l a s s e s . B r i g h t was

l a r g e l y concerned w i t h t h e e v i l s of a r i s t o c r a t i c p r i v i l e g e . 1

Acton h e l d r a t h e r o b s c u r e n o t i o n s abou t t h e a u t o n o ~ y o f con-

s c i e n c e and t h e r o l e t h a t l i b e r a l i s p p layed i n b r i n g i n g t h i s

L a b o u t . The p o s i t i v i s t schemes o f Y i l l and Spencer r e p r e s e n t e d

l ~ o h n V i n c e n t , The F o r n a t i o n of t h e B r i t i s h L i b e r a l P a r t y ( N e w York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1 9 6 6 ) , pp.161-301.

2 ~ e e G e r t r u d e H i m e l f a r b , "The American Revo lu t ion i n t h e p o l i t i c a l t h e o r y o f Lord Acton" , J o u r n a l of Modern H i s t o r y , 1969 pp.298-301.

120

y e t a n o t h e r s e t of p r e s c r i p t i o n s f o r t h e presuned i l l s o f t h e

a g e .

There was l i t t l e p o s i t i v e agreement between t h e s e men.

M i l l had a low o p i n i o n o f B r i g h t and t h e Yanches te r s c h o o l .

1 He r e g a r d e d them a s " i n f e r i o r men". The d i s t r u s t was r e c i -

p r o c a t e d and B r i q h t c o u l d n o t a g r e e w i t h one "who vo ted f o r

t h e n i n o r i t y c l a u s e , a g a i n s t t h e B a l l o t , and spoke i n f avour

of hang ing . I do n o t b e l i e v e i n t h e ph i losophy s o ruch b o a s t -

ed o f . "2 Arnold r e g a r d e d M i l l and B r i g h t a s p h i l i s t i n e s ; and

Acton c r i t i c i z e d M i l l ' s p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t a s "a ready-nade

s y s t e n t h a t h a s been t h o u g h t o u t l i k e h i g h e r va them-at ics be-

yond t h e need o r chance o f a p p l i c a t i o n " . 3

What t h e s e t h i n k e r s d i d a g r e e upon was o f t e n e n t i r e l y

n e g a t i v e and c o n s i s t e d o f h o s t i l i t y towards a r i s t o c r a t i c p r i -

v i l e g e , T o r y i s n and B e a c o n s f i e l d i s m . Arnold condemned t h e a r i s -

t o c r a c y a s b a r b a r i a n s who were no b e t t e r t h a n t h e i r m i d d l e - c l a s s

c o u n t e r p a r t s , t h e p h i l i s t i n e s . Acton developed an a lmos t

p a t h o l o g i c a l d i s l i k e o f Toryism and he wro te of D i s r e a l i ; " t h e

good was a b s e n t , b u t ... t h e bad, t h e i n j u r i o u s , t h e irmroral, t h e

d i s g r a c e f u l was p r e s e n t on a l a r g e ~ c a l e " . ~ L e s l i e Stephen

'n i l1 t o H a r r i e t M i l l . 30 June 1 8 5 4 . M i l l , L a t e r L e t t e r s , 1:221.

ince cent, The Format ion o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b e r a l P a r t y , p .201.

3 ~ e t t e r s of Lord Acton t o Nary, d a u g h t e r o f t h e Riph t Hon. W.E. G l a d s t o n e , e d . H e r b e r t P a u l (London: George A l l e n , 1 Y U 4 ) . p .48 .

p o i n t e d o u t t h a t M i l l ' s p r o f e s s i o n s o f pany s i d e d n e s s never

l e d him t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e T o r i e s might have t h e b e t t e r c a s e ,

and, t h a t i n P a r l i a m e n t he was a good p a r t y man.' B r i g h t ' s

speeches were f i l l e d w i t h c r i t i c i s m s of t h e a r i s t o c r a c y and

h i s a t t i t u d e towards s p i r i t u a l p e e r s was e s p e c i a l l y v i r u l e n t :

" t h e r e i s a n o t h e r k i n d o f P e e r which I aF a f r a i d t o touch

upon - t h a t c r e a t u r e o f - what s h a l l I s a y ? - o f montrous , nay ,

even o f a d u l t e r o u s b i r t h - t h e s p i r i t u a l ~ e e r " . ~ I n s h o r t ,

b e s i d e s t h e s e k i n d s of h o s t i l i t y , l i b e r a l a p o l e g i s t s o f t e n

had l i t t l e i n com.mon.

There i s a p a r a l l e l between t h e L i b e r a l i n t e l l i g e n t s i a

and t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y i n t h a t t h e l a t t e r was e s s e n t i a l l y an

a l l i a n c e o f convenience between v a r i o u s P a r l i a m e n t a r y Groups

whose aims w e r e v e r y d i f f e r e n t . 3 These groups found comnon

ground i n a number of measures des igned t o r educe t h e i n f l u e n c e

o f t h e a r i s t o c r a c y and make t h e machinery of government p o r e

e f f i c i e n t . Tha t i s why a f t e r G l a d s t o n e ' s f i r s t m i n i s t r y t h e

I V i n c e n t , The Formation o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b e r a l P a r t y , p.158.

'speeches o f John B r i q h t , .P . , e d . James E . Thorold Rogers, 2:16.

The compos i t ion of t h e p a r t y i s d i s c u s s e d i n Vincen t , The Formation o f t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y and Harner, L i b e r a l P o l i t i c s i n t h e Age o f G l a d s t o n e , and Rosebery (Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1 9 7 2 ) . B r i e f l y , t h e L i b e r a l P a r t y was composed o f t h e fo l low- i n g s e c t i o n s : t h e g r e a t r e g i o n a l i n t e r e s t s , I r e l a n d , S c o t l a n d , and Wales; o c c u p a t i o n a l , c l a s s and r e l i g i o u s i n t e r e s t s which i n c l u d e d Whigs, Labour and Nonconformity; and l a s t l y v a r i o u s p r e s s u r e g roups i n c l u d i n g t h e Uni ted Kingdon? A l l i a n c e , t h e L i b e r a t i o n S o c i e t y and t h e A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e Repeal of t h e Contagious D i s e a s e s A c t s .

L i b e r a l P a r t y a c h i e v e d very l i t t l e i n t h e way of s u b s t a n t i a l

r e f o r m . I t i s a r g u a b l e t h a t t h e p a r t y was on ly h e l d t o g e t h e r

by G l a d s t o n e ' s p e r s o n a l magnetism and g r e a t "moral i s s u e s "

such a s Turk i sh a t r o c i t i e s and Home Rule .

L i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l t h o u g h t , l i k e l i b e r a l p o l i t i c a l p rac -

t i c e , had no c o h e r e n t o v e r a l l a im, and , i n b o t h c a s e s , t h e

r h e t o r i c o f l i b e r t y o f t e n s e r v e d a s a v e h i c l e o f p e r s u a s i o n

and p e r s c r i p t i o n . L i b e r a l s might a g r e e o v e r t h e r h e t o r i c and

i t ' s p u r e l y n e g a t i v e i m p l i c a t i o n s b u t t h e y c o u l d n o t a q r e e on

what s u b s t a n t i v e ends t o p r e s c r i b e . P e r h a p s , a s i n t h e c a s e

of M i l l ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l e l i t e and S p e n c e r ' s e v o l u t i o n a r y s c h e n e ,

t h e ends proposed were a l i t t l e t o o a b s t r a c t t o have any po-

l i t i c a l r e l e v a n c e . The House o f Commons i s r e p o r t e d t o have

laughed a t M i l l when he i n t r o d u c e d H a r e ' s scheme f o r propor-

t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . However, r e q a r d l e s s o f what t h e h i s -

t o r i a n may t h i n k o f t h e adequacy o r r e l e v a n c e of t h e s e s c h e r e s

i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e schemes themselves had l i t t l e t o do w i t h

freedom and i n d i v i d u a l i t y . Viewed w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of Vic-

t o r i a n l i b e r a l i s m , what M i l l and Spencer had t o o f f e r was, e s -

s e n t i a l l y , a p o s i t i v i s t panacea f o r t h e presuved problems o f

t h e age .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

J O H N STUART PILL

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" S e d g w i c k ' s D i s c o u r s e " (1835 ) .

" C o l e r i d g e " (1840 ) . "Whewell on P o r a l P h i l o s o p h y " (1852 ) .

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T h r e e E s s a v s on R e l i a i o n . 1 8 7 4 .

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124

i n t r o d u c t i o n by G e r t r u d e H i m e l f a r b . N e w York: Anchor Books, 1963.

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" T o c q u e v i l l e on Democracy i n America" 1 ( 1 8 3 5 ) .

" C i v i l i z a t i o n " (1836) . " T o c q u e v i l l e on Democracy i n America" I1 ( 1 8 4 0 ) .

"Thoughts on P a r l i a m e n t a r y Reform" ( 1 8 5 9 ) .

" R e c e n t Writers on Reform" ( 1 8 5 9 ) .

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HERBERT SPENCER

The f o l l o w i n g works a r e t o b e found among o t h e r s i n - The Works o f H e r b e r t s p e n c e r , V o l s . VI-XV. R e p r i n t e d . Osnabruck: O t t o Ze l le r , 1966 .

V o l s . V I - V I I I P r i n c i p l e s o f S o c i o l o g y (1876) .

The S tudy o f S o c i o l o g y

Vol . X I 1 1 " P r o g r e s s : I t s Law and Cause" ( 1 8 5 7 ) .

Vol . X I V " N i l 1 v e r s u s H a n i l t o n - The T e s t o f T r u t h " ( 1 8 6 5 ) .

" P a r l i a ~ e n t a r y ref or^. The Dangers and S a f e g u a r d s " (1860) . " R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Government - What i s it good f o r ? " ( 1 8 5 7 ) .

Other works by Spencer .

An Autobiography, 2 V o l s . , London: Wil l iams and Norga te , 1904.

F i r s t P r i n c i p l e s , N e w York: A.L. B u r t Corpany, 1880.

The Man v e r s u s t h e S t a t e , - e d . Donald Macrae. Ba l t imore : Penguine Books, 1969.

The P r i n c i p l e s of E t h i c s , 2 Vols . , I n d i a n a p o l i s : Li -ber ty ~ l a s s i c s , 1978.

S o c i a l S t a t i c s , New York: Rober t Schalkenbach Founda t ion , 1954.

Reasons f o r D i s s e n t i n g from t h e Ph i losophy o f Y. Comte, Berk ley : The Glendessa ry P r e s s , 1968.

" R e l i g i o n : A R e t r o s p e c t and P r o s p e c t " , N i n e t e e n t h Cen- t u r y , 1884.

PRIWARY WORKS

Acton, John Dalberg . L e t t e r s o f Lord Acton t o PKary, Daughter o f t h e R i a h t Hon. W.E. G lads tone . Ed. H e r b e r t P a u l , London: ~ g o r ~ e A l l e n , 1904.

Arno ld , Matthew. C u l t u r e and Anarchy. Ed. J . Dover Wilson, Cambridge: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1932.

Bagehot , W a l t e r . The C o l l e c t e d Works of Wal te r Baqehot, 8 Vols . Ed. Norrnan S t . John S t e v a s , London: The Economist ,

B r i g h t , John . Speeches on Q u e s t i o n s o f P u b l i c P o l i c y By John B r i g h t , M.P. Ed. James E . Thorold Rogers , London: Mac- m-i l lan & Co., 1869.

C a r l y l e , Thomas. C r i t i c a l and ~ i s c e l l a n e o u s E s s a y s , 5 Vols . N e w York: ~ h a x e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1904.

Maine, Henry Sumner. Popu la r Governren t . I n d i a n a p o l i s : Lib- e r t y C l a s s i c s , 1976.

Newman, John Henry. Apologia P r o V i t a Sua. Ed. Mar t in J . ' S v a ~ l i c , Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1967.

- An Essay i n Aid o f a Gramrner o f A s s e n t . London: Longmans, Green , 1895.

- E s s a y s and S k e t c h e s , 3 V o l s . Ed. C h a r l e s F r e d e r i c k H a r r o l d , N e w York: Longrrans, Green , 1948.

- The L e t t e r s and D i a r i e s o f John Henry N e w - man. V o l s . 11-31. Ed. C.S. D e s s a i n , London: Thomas N e l - - s o n and Sons L t d . , 1961-1970; Oxford: C l a r e n d o n P r e s s , 1973-1977.

S a l i s b u r y , R o b e r t A r t h u r Gascoyne-Ceci l , 3d Marquis o f . Lord S a l i s b u r y on P o l i t i c s ; A S e l e c t i o n From H i s A r t i c l e s i n t h e Q u a r t e r l y Review, 1860-1883. Ed. P a u l S m i t h , Cap- b r i d g e : Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1972 .

S t e p h e n , J a p e s F i t z j a m e s . L i b e r t y , E q u a l i t y , F r a t e r n i t y . Ed. R . J . W h i t e , Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967.

S t e p h e n , L e s l i e . The L i f e o f S i r James F i t z j a n e s S t e p h e n . London: S m i t h , E l d e r & Co. , 1895. R e p r i n t E d i t i o n ; Farn- borough: Gregg I n t e r n a t i o n a l P u b l i s h e r s L i ~ i t e d , 1971.

SECONDARY WORKS

Anschu tz , R.P. The P h i l o s o p h y o f J . S . M i l l . Oxford: C la ren - don P r e s s , 1963.

B a r k e r , E r n e s t . P o l i t i c a l Thought i n England 1848 t o 1 9 1 4 . Oxford : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1959.

B e r l i n , I s a i a h . Four E s s a y s on L i b e r t y . Oxford : Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969.

B l a k e , R o b e r t . D i s r e a l i . London: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1969 .

B r i t t o n , K a r l . John S t u a r t P i l l . London, B a l t i m o r e : Penguin Books, 1953.

Brown, Alan W i l l a r d . The M e t a p h y s i c a l S o c i e t y ; V i c t o r i a n Winds i n C r i s i s . N e w York: C o l u ~ b i a U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1947. R e p r i n t E d i t i o n ; N e w York: Octagon Books, 1973.

Chadwick, Owen. Actcn and G l a d s t o n e . U n i v e r s i t y o f London: The A t h l o n e P r e s s , 1976.

- The S e c u l a r i z a t i o n o f t h e European Vind i n t h e N i n e t e e n t h Century: The G r i f f o r d L e c t u r e s i n t h e Uni- v e r s i t y o f Edinburgh f o r 1973-1974. Canbr idge: Carbr idge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1975.

- The V i c t o r i a n Church, 2 Vols . N e w York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966

Cockshut , A . O . J . The U n b e l i e v e r s ; E n g l i s h A g n o s t i c Thought 1840-1890. N e w York: New York U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966.

Conacher , J . B . The Aberdeen C o a l i t i o n , 1852-1855; A Study i n Mid-Nineteenth-Century P o l i t i c s . Cambridge: Capbridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1968.

Cowling, M . 1867 D i s r e a l i , G lads tone and R e v o l u t i o n ; The P a s s i n g o f t h e Second Reform B i l l . Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1967.

- M i l l and L i b e r a l i s m . Cambridge: Cambridge Univer- s i t y P r e s s , 1963.

Duncan, David. The L i f e and L e t t e r s o f H e r b e r t Spencer . Lon- don: Vethuen & Co., 1908.

Douglas, D . C . (Ed . ) . E n g l i s h H i s t o r i c a l Documents, 1 2 Vols . New York: Oxford U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1955-1956.

Hamer, D . A . L i b e r a l P o l i t i c s i n t h e Age of Glads tone and Rose- b e r y : A S tudy i n Leadersh ip and P o l i c y . Oxford: Clarendon P r e s s , 1972.

Hayek, F.A. John S t u a r t M i l l and H a r r i e t T a y l o r ; T h e i r Cor- r e s ~ o n d e n c e . Chicaso: U n i v e r s i t y o f Chicaqo P r e s s , 1951.

Himmelfarb, G e r t r u d e . Lord Acton, A S tudy i n Conscience and P o l i t i c s . London: Routledge & K . P a u l , 1952.

- On L i b e r t y and L i b e r a l i s n : The Case of John S t u a r t M i l l . New York: A . A . Knopf, 1974.

- V i c t o r i a n Minds. N e w York: A . A . Knopf,

Hobsbawm, E . J . I n d u s t r y and Empire. London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1968.

Houghton, W a l t e r , E . The V i c t o r i a n Frame o f Mind 1830-1870. * New Haven: Yale U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1974.

Kennedy, James G . H e r b e r t Spencer . Boston: G . K . H a l l & Co. , 1978.

L i p p i n c o t t , B .E . V i c t o r i a n C r i t i c s o f Democracy: C a r l y l e , Ruskin, Arno ld , Maine, Lecky. N e w York: Octagon Books, 1964.

Magnus, P . G l a d s t o n e , A Biography. London: J . Yurray, 1954.

Monypenny, W.F. & Buckle , G . E . The L i f e o f Benjamin D i s r e a l i E a r l o f B e a c o n s f i e l d , 6 Vols . London: John Murray, 1910-1920.

Packe , Michael S t . John . The L i f e o f John S t u a r t M i l l . New York: MacMillan, 1954.

P e e l , J . D . Y . H e r b e r t Spencer : The E v o l u t i o n o f a S o c i o l o g i s t . London: Heinemann, 1971.

Popper , K a r l . The Open S o c i e t y and i t s E n e n i e s , 2 Vols . P r i n c e t o n ( N .J . ) : P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1963.

Robson, John M . The Improvement o f Mankind. U n i v e r s i t y o f Toronto P r e s s : Rout ledge & Kegan P a u l , 1968.

R u s s e l l , B e r t r a n d . A H i s t o r y o f Western Ph i losophy . New York: Simon and S c h u s t e r , 1945.

Ryan, Alan . John S t u a r t M i l l . London: Rout ledqe and Kegan P a u l , 1974.

Schneewind, J . B . (Ed . ) . M i l l : A C o l l e c t i o n of C r i t i c a l E s s a y s . -- Notre Dame ( I n d . ) : U n i v e r s i t y o f Notre Dare P r e s s , 1969.

Smith , F r a n c i s Barrymore. The Making o f t h e Second Reform B i l l . Cambridge: Cambridge U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1966.

Symondson, Anthony (Ed. ) . The V i c t o r i a n C r i s i s o f F a i t h . Lon- don: S o c i e t y f o r promoting C h r i s t i a n Knowledge, 1970.

V a r g i s h , Thomas. Newman: The Contempla t ion o f Mind. Oxford: Clarendon p r e s s , 1970.

Vincen t , John. The Formation o f t h e B r i t i s h L i b e r a l P a r t y . New York: C h a r l e s S c r i b n e r ' s Sons , 1966.

Ward, W i l f r i d . Wi l l i am George Ward and t h e C a t h o l i c R e v i v a l . London: Macmillan, 1893.

ARTICLES

E i s e n , Sydney. " F r e d e r i c H a r r i s o n and H e r b e r t S p e n c e r : Em- b a t t l e d U n b e l i e v e r s " . V i c t o r i a n S t u d i e s , 1 2 ( 1 9 6 8 ) .

- " H e r b e r t Spence r and t h e S p e c t r e o f Comte". The J o u r n a l o f B r i t i s h S t u d i e s , 7 ( 1 9 6 7 ) .

Hamer, D . A . " G l a d s t o n e : The Waking o f a P o l i t i c a l P y t h " . V i c t o r i a n - S t u d i e s , 2 2 (1978) .

Houghton, W a l t e r , E. V i c t o r i a n P e r i o d i c a l L i t e r a t u r e and t h e A r t i c u l a t e C l a s s e s . V i c t o r i a n S t u d i e s , 2 2 ( 1 9 7 9 ) .

Ken t , C h r i s t o p h e r . "Highe r J o u r n a l i s p and t h e Mid-Vic to r i an C l e r i s y " . V i c t o r i a n S t u d i e s , 1 3 ( 1 9 6 9 ) .

McCloskey, H . J . " M i l l ' s L i b e r a l i s p " . P h i l o s o p h i c a l Q u a r t e r - l v . 1 3 ( 1 9 6 3 ) .

R e e s , J . L . "A Re-Reading o f W i l l on L i b e r t y " . P o l i t i c a l S t u d i e s , 8 (1960 . --

Roach, J . " L i b e r a l i s m and t h e V i c t o r i a n I n t e l l i g e n t s i a " . Cambridge H i s t o r i c a l J o u r n a l , 8 ( 1 9 5 7 ) .

- " V i c t o r i a n U n i v e r s i t i e s and t h e N a t i o n a l I n t e l - l i g e n t s i a " . V i c t o r i a n S t u d i e s , 2 (1959) .