Mill & DarwinMill & DarwinMill & DarwinMill & Darwin

Mill, cont.Mill, cont.– Mill’s Ethical DualismMill’s Ethical Dualism

DarwinDarwin– Darwin & AristotleDarwin & Aristotle– Animals & Humans: Different in Degree or Animals & Humans: Different in Degree or

in Kind?in Kind?– Darwin’s Theory of MoralityDarwin’s Theory of Morality– Human Nature: Fixed or in Flux?Human Nature: Fixed or in Flux?

Ethical dualismEthical dualismEthical dualismEthical dualism

Unbridgeable gap between what is and Unbridgeable gap between what is and what ought to be (David Hume), or what ought to be (David Hume), or between facts and values.between facts and values.

"You cannot derive values from facts, or "You cannot derive values from facts, or oughts from isses."oughts from isses."

New Questions RaisedNew Questions Raised

Metaphysical problem: what kind of facts are Metaphysical problem: what kind of facts are moral facts? How do they fit into the natural moral facts? How do they fit into the natural (and supernatural) world?(and supernatural) world?

Epistemology: given that our minds and Epistemology: given that our minds and brains are parts of the natural world, how can brains are parts of the natural world, how can we acquire information about the moral we acquire information about the moral domain?domain?

Motivation: Why be moral? Why care?Motivation: Why be moral? Why care? What is the basis of the authority of the moral What is the basis of the authority of the moral

"ought"?"ought"?

Sympathy as Basis of MoralitySympathy as Basis of MoralitySympathy as Basis of MoralitySympathy as Basis of Morality

Mill fastens on a particular motive or Mill fastens on a particular motive or feeling: compassion, sympathy, good-feeling: compassion, sympathy, good-will.will.

Morality is based on the perfection and Morality is based on the perfection and universalization of that feeling: impartial universalization of that feeling: impartial sympathy for all human beings.sympathy for all human beings.

Critique of Sympathetic Critique of Sympathetic MoralityMorality

Critique of Sympathetic Critique of Sympathetic MoralityMorality

Why should this feeling be given priority Why should this feeling be given priority over others? What makes the moral over others? What makes the moral point of view inescapable and point of view inescapable and overriding?overriding?

Nietzsche: Victorian moralism is merely Nietzsche: Victorian moralism is merely a vestige of extinct faith.a vestige of extinct faith.

DarwinDarwin

Did Darwin Did Darwin burybury Aristotle or Aristotle or reviverevive him? him? Is the Difference between Animals and Is the Difference between Animals and

Humans one of Humans one of degreedegree or of or of kindkind?? Can morality be explained by natural Can morality be explained by natural

evolution?evolution? Is Human Nature Is Human Nature fixedfixed or in a constant or in a constant

state of state of fluxflux??

Did Darwin Bury Aristotle or Did Darwin Bury Aristotle or Revive him?Revive him?

Key issue: place of teleology (final Key issue: place of teleology (final causes) in biology.causes) in biology.

Philosophers and biologists have Philosophers and biologists have argued both ways, right up to present.argued both ways, right up to present.

Darwin Buried AristotleDarwin Buried Aristotle Assume: biological systems have built-in Assume: biological systems have built-in

purposes purposes only if only if they have been they have been specifically designed by God to serve those specifically designed by God to serve those purposes.purposes.

Darwinism provides a basis for denying the Darwinism provides a basis for denying the existence of any built-in purposes in the existence of any built-in purposes in the biological world, since it replaces specific biological world, since it replaces specific Divine designs with the actions of an Divine designs with the actions of an impersonal, purely physical process impersonal, purely physical process (natural selection).(natural selection).

Dawkins: design vs. Dawkins: design vs. designoidsdesignoids

Organisms only appear to have been Organisms only appear to have been designed; they are really "designoids".designed; they are really "designoids".

Contrast:Contrast:– Mt. Rushmored: design.Mt. Rushmored: design.– Mountain in NM that resembles JFK: Mountain in NM that resembles JFK:

designoid.designoid.

Darwin Resuscitated AristotleDarwin Resuscitated Aristotle Correspondence between Asa Gray Correspondence between Asa Gray

(leading American zoologist) and Darwin (leading American zoologist) and Darwin (published in (published in NatureNature).).

Gray:Gray:"We recognize the great service rendered by "We recognize the great service rendered by

Darwin to natural science by restoring Darwin to natural science by restoring teleology to it, so that instead of having teleology to it, so that instead of having morphology against teleology, we shall have morphology against teleology, we shall have henceforth morphology married to henceforth morphology married to teleology." teleology." NatureNature, June 4, 1874., June 4, 1874.

Darwin’s ReplyDarwin’s Reply

"What you say about teleology pleases "What you say about teleology pleases me especially, and I do not think anyone me especially, and I do not think anyone else ever noticed the point. I have else ever noticed the point. I have always said that you were the man to hit always said that you were the man to hit the nail on the head." (quoted in the nail on the head." (quoted in AutobiographyAutobiography, p. 308), p. 308)

Francis Darwin (Charles’s Francis Darwin (Charles’s son)son)

"One of the great services rendered by my "One of the great services rendered by my father to the study of Natural History is the father to the study of Natural History is the revival of Teleology. The evolutionist revival of Teleology. The evolutionist studies the purpose or meaning of organs studies the purpose or meaning of organs with the zeal of the older Teleologist, but with the zeal of the older Teleologist, but with far wider and more coherent purpose."with far wider and more coherent purpose."

Echoed by Thomas Huxley. (Auto., p. 316)Echoed by Thomas Huxley. (Auto., p. 316)

Darwinian Final CausationDarwinian Final Causation Assume that final causation/natural Assume that final causation/natural

purpose does not necessarily involve purpose does not necessarily involve being the product of an intentional design.being the product of an intentional design.

Case in point: Aristotle believed that Case in point: Aristotle believed that organs had purposes, even though he did organs had purposes, even though he did not believe that they had been designed.not believe that they had been designed.

We can use natural selection to We can use natural selection to distinguish function/use, distinguish function/use, essence/accident.essence/accident.

What did natural selection What did natural selection select this organ select this organ forfor??

The heart does all of the following:The heart does all of the following:– pumps bloodpumps blood– makes thump-a-thump-a noisemakes thump-a-thump-a noise– fills space in the chestfills space in the chest– when freeze-dried, makes a good paperweightwhen freeze-dried, makes a good paperweight

Why did natural selection favor creatures Why did natural selection favor creatures with a heart? Because hearts pump blood, with a heart? Because hearts pump blood, and not for any reason related to the other and not for any reason related to the other facts.facts.

Teleology & DarwinismTeleology & Darwinism Some recent philosophers have gone so far Some recent philosophers have gone so far

as to say that only natural selection can as to say that only natural selection can produce things with final causes, purposes.produce things with final causes, purposes.

Seems to go too far: surely purposes can Seems to go too far: surely purposes can result from either natural selection or result from either natural selection or intelligent design.intelligent design.

As philosophers, we don't have to settle the As philosophers, we don't have to settle the Darwinism/intelligent design issue, since Darwinism/intelligent design issue, since both agree that final causation applies to both agree that final causation applies to biological systems.biological systems.

The Difference between The Difference between Humans and Other Animals Humans and Other Animals

one one Darwin consistently maintains that the Darwin consistently maintains that the

difference between man and other difference between man and other animals is only one of degree -- animals is only one of degree -- quantitative, and not qualitative.quantitative, and not qualitative.

Unique Human FeaturesUnique Human Features

Language use.Language use. Tool use.Tool use. Morality.Morality. Religion.Religion. Art.Art. Science and philosophy.Science and philosophy.

Continuity with Animals?Continuity with Animals?

Darwin argues that many of these have Darwin argues that many of these have precursors in non-human animals.precursors in non-human animals.

He deals in detail with the first three.He deals in detail with the first three.

Darwin on MoralityDarwin on Morality

Morality is species-relative.Morality is species-relative. Morality is based on:Morality is based on:

– 1. Instinctive sympathy.1. Instinctive sympathy.– 2. Sensitivity to praise and blame by 2. Sensitivity to praise and blame by

others.others.– 3. Habit.3. Habit.

Lower and Higher MoralitiesLower and Higher Moralities The universal morality of good will to all is The universal morality of good will to all is

an accidental by-product of the expansion an accidental by-product of the expansion of human reason and imagination, of human reason and imagination, working on these raw materials.working on these raw materials.

Darwin talks of "higher" and "lower" Darwin talks of "higher" and "lower" standards of morality -- apparently with standards of morality -- apparently with reference to some transcendent, extra-reference to some transcendent, extra-biological reference point.biological reference point.

Humanity in Continual FluxHumanity in Continual Flux

Darwin believed in flux: an ongoing Darwin believed in flux: an ongoing state of gradual, essentially constant state of gradual, essentially constant change.change.

Contrast: punctuated equilibrium.Contrast: punctuated equilibrium.– Long periods of stasis, punctuated by brief, Long periods of stasis, punctuated by brief,

rapid episodes of change.rapid episodes of change.

Implications of the Flux ViewImplications of the Flux View 1. Human Nature can and does change 1. Human Nature can and does change

over time. Aiming at a moving target.over time. Aiming at a moving target. 2. We can produce (both intentionally and 2. We can produce (both intentionally and

unintentionally) changes in human nature.unintentionally) changes in human nature.– Raises the issue of eugenics, and of genetic Raises the issue of eugenics, and of genetic

re-engineering.re-engineering. Discussion in DOM on the impact of Discussion in DOM on the impact of

civilization on course of human evolution.civilization on course of human evolution.

Third ImplicationThird Implication

3. Different sub-populations, races may 3. Different sub-populations, races may have different versions of human nature.have different versions of human nature.– As the whole population moves through As the whole population moves through

phylogenetic space, different sub-populations phylogenetic space, different sub-populations may be moving at different velocities, in may be moving at different velocities, in different directions.different directions.

– Raises questions about the unity of human Raises questions about the unity of human species.species.