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MILITARY-INDUSTRIAL COUNCIL:
Yuri MaslyukovFirst Deputy Chairman of the Russian Federation Government
Yuri AntipovVice-President of the Association of Investors in the Conversion of Russia’s Defense Complex
Yuri BaluevskyHead of the Main Operations Directorate of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
Anatoly BelosvetChief Designer of the Aircraft Research and Production Complex “MIG”
Boris BunkinGeneral Designer of Almaz Research and Production Association
Anatoly DolgolaptevPresident of the League of Assistance for Defense Enterprises of Russia
Alexander DondukovChairman of the Board of Directors and General Designer of the Yakovlev Design Bureau
Mikhail FaleyevDeputy Minister of Civil Defense, Emergency Situations and Liquidation of the Aftermath of Natural Disasters
Vyacheslav FilimonovDirector General of the PromexportFederal state Unitary Enterprise
Victor GlukhikhCouncil Chairman of the International Congress of Industrialists and Enterpreneurs
Yuri GlybinCorresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Rocket and Artillery Sciences
Leonid IvashovChief of the Main Directorate for International Military Coop-eration of the Defense Ministry of the Russian Federation
Igor KasatonovFirst Deputy Commander in Chief of the Navy of the Russian Federation
Vladimir KireyevPresident of the Russian Academy of Rocket and Artillery Sci-ences
Vladimir KlimenkoDeputy Minister of Emergency Situations
Valentin KlimovDirector General of the Tupolev Aircraft Research and Engineering Complex
Anatoly KornukovCommander in Chief of the Air Force of the Russian Federa-tion
Vladimir KovalkovDirector General of the Irkutsk Aircraft Industrial Association
Vladimir KuroyedovCommander in Chief of the Navy of the Russian Federation
Nikolai MakarovetsDirector General of Splav State Research and Production Enterprise
Ivan MaterovFirst Deputy Minister of Economics of the Russian Federation
Victor MerkulovDirector General of the Komsomolsk-on-Amur Aircraft Production Association
Nikolai MikhailovState Secretary and First Deputy Defense Minister of the Russian Federation
Valery MikhailovHead of the Department for Industry Reforms and Conversion of the Russian Federation Government
Sergei MikheyevGeneral Designer and President of the Kamov JSC
Valery MironovColonel-General, Cand. Sc. (Military)
Victor MironovChairman of the Committee for Military and Technical Policy of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation
Zinovy PakState Secretary and Deputy Minister of Economics of the Russian Federation
Valentin PashinDirector of the Krylov Central Research Institute
Stanislav PolovnikovPresident of the Kompomash Corporation
Grigory RapotaDirector General of the RosvoorouzhenieFederal State Unitary Enterprise
Boris SaltykovDirector General of the Russian TechnologiesFederal State Unitary Enterprise
Arkady ShipunovHead and General Designer of the Instrument-Making Design Bureau
Alexei ShulunovFirst Vice-President of the League of Assistance for Defense Enterprises of Russia
Alexander ShlyakhtenkoHead and General Designer of Almaz Central Marine Design Bureau
Mikhail SimonovGeneral Designer of the Sukhoi Design Bureau
Georgy SinelshchikovGeneral Designer and Director General of the Mil Moscow Helicopter Plant
Oleg SoskovetsChairman of the Association of Financial-Industrial Groups of the Russian Federation
Alexander StarovoitovPresident of the Academy of Cryptology of the Russian Federation
Valery VenkovDirector General of the Severnaya Verf Shipbuilding Plant
Gennady VoroninChairman of the State Standards Committee of the Russian Federation
Oleg YefimovHead of the Sipbuilding Department of the Ministry of Eco-nomics of the Russian Federation
Vladimir YukhninHead and General Designer of Severnoye Design Bureau
Nikolai ZlenkoDeputy Chief of the Main Directorate for International Military Cooperation of the Defense Ministry of the Russian Federation
CONTENTS 2/99
Photos and sketches by:
Vyacheslav Afonin, Vassily Aldakushkin, Alexander Belyayev, Vadim Bondarev, Yevgeny Bulakevich, Arkadi Chiryatnikov, Victor Drushlyakov, Yefim Gordon, Pavel Maslov, AlexeiMikheyev, Yuri Pakhomov, Sergei Pashkovsky Albert Pushkarev, Artur Sark -isyan, Vladimir Sulzhenko, Leonid Yakutin. Also photos con-tributed by Alexei Sokolov from his personal archives and by ITAR-TASS,design bureaus, research institutes and plants.
EXCLUSIVES
Russian "Desert Fox"
hunters ......................................8
Pantsyr-SI air defense
missile-gun system
and its modifications .................14
IDEX ’99
Modernization of Russian
close-in air defense system ......18
Start launchers
at sea and in air ........................22
Combined
ECM operations ........................24
Control system
to improve missile complex
effectiveness ............................26
Upgraded P-18 radar
offers new capabilities ..............28
Projectile or armor:
Which is stronger? ....................32
Modernization of battle tanks
and infantry combat vehicles
via upgrading their electrical
equipment ................................36
TMM-6 heavy
mechanized bridge ...................38
Bagira and Varyag
to replace Makarov ...................42
Aviation
Meet the Kamov Ka-60
Kasatka helicopter ....................46
Navy
Transas:
Electronic technologies
take effect ................................52
Prime manufacturer
of control systems
for unique naval
weapons Complexes .................56
History
Levkov's hovercraft ...................62
14
439
46
63
Vladimir Svetlov, Member of the Russian Academy of Rocket and Artillery Sciences, General Designer of Fakel Engineering Design Bureau
EXCLUSIVES
The military actions that havetaken place over the last decadehave typically been limited-scale,air offensive operations which werewell-coordinated both in time andspace, and involving the massemployment of precision-guidedmunitions. It should be empha-sized, however, that such opera-t ions are only poss ib le i f theopposing act ion in i t ia ted by adefender’s air defense assets areinsignificant. Today, one can hardlyname a state in which just a fewprecisely delivered missile-bombattacks on their most vulnerableinstal lat ions —such as nuclearpower plants, dams, control cen-ters, warehouses, etc.—would notmean a nationwide disaster result-ing in serious environmental dev-astation, as well as other extremelygrave consequences. The ravagecaused by such attacks is compa-rable with nuclear aftermath, caus-ing irreparable damage both to thenature and economic infrastruc-ture.
In the light of this situation, thedevelopment of air defense missilesystems has been given top priori-ty over the last few years. Indeed,their availability and conformitywith up-to-date standards, or, con-versely, their obsolescence ormere deficiency, predetermine, to
a large extent, the behavior of astate on the international arenaand influence its ability to respondadequately to the emerging con-flicts in which air attack assets arelikely to be used. Such countriesand regions as Lybia, the Balkans,Sudan, Afghanistan or Iraq, whichhas now turned into a test ingground for the latest technologicaldevelopments in the field of airattack capabilities, are just a fewexamples over the past years, con-firming this premise. The eventsmaterializing around the Russian-made S-300PMU 1 air defensemissile (ADM) system, planned tobe delivered to Cyprus, may beadded to the list.
What all this means is that effec-tive protection against possible airattacks must continue to be of vitalimportance to a l l nat ions. Thestrategic, tactical and maritime avi-ation airplanes and helicoptersarmed wi th var ious precis ion-guided missiles and bombs, as wellas the missiles fired from ships arethe basic components of modernair attack assets. Today, any mod-ernization or development programenvisions extensive use of «stealth»technology to make aircraft unde-tectable by radar and enhancetheir rates of survivability (use ofarmor-protected pilot cabins; pro-
tection of fuel tanks, autopilots,control systems against fragments,etc.).
The effectiveness of modern airdefense (AD) systems is largelydependent upon their ability tocounter tactical ballistic missilescurrently operational in more thana dozen states. The substantial dif-ferences between aircraft and mis-siles in their performance charac-teristics and methods of combatemployment, demand a solution ofspecific and, often, almost contra-dictory problems. Ballistic missilesare primarily noted for their highspeed and the extremely shorttime that they are in an AD cover-age zone, the unpredictability oftheir employment due to the diffi-culty of detecting mobile missilelaunchers, and the inabi l i ty todetect a missile launch. The lowvulnerability of ballistic missiles,achieved due to their speci f icdesign features and small dimen-sions of main components, is alsobecoming a factor. This was vividlydemonstrated by the repulsion ofIraqi Scuds by U.S.-made Patriotmissles.
Cruise missiles, and other preci-sion-guided missiles, may be con-sidered somewhat antipodal to bal-l ist ic missi les. They f ly at anextremely low altitude (including inthe terrain-following mode), andtheir large radius of action andhigh target accuracy alone pre-sents a severe problem for thedefender. Furthermore, recent dra-matic breakthroughs in electronicshave allowed designers to createhighly accurate weapons with a
8 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
RUSSIAN «DESERT FOX» HUNTERS
In the near future, the latest versions of the ADM systems, ground-based and shipborne, will receive thenew 9M96E and 9M96E2 missiles developed by the Fakel Engineering Design Bureau.
91 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
standoff launching range farbeyond the reach of the majority ofAD systems currently in service.Modernization and developmentprograms of such weapons call forthe introduction of «stealth» tech-nology into their design, the reduc-t ion of the weight of onboardequipment, the employment oflow-sensi t iv i ty explos ive com-pounds to enhance survivabilityand, consequently, to increase theweight of the warhead and theflight range. Presently, a wholerange of antiship and other low-fly-ing supersonic missiles capable ofperforming intensive approachmaneuvers are either in the designor fl ight-test stages. Naturally,designers of ADM systems theworld over are trying to solve thecomplex engineering problem ofcountering targets of various class-es through the use of multipurposeADM systems which are capable ofeffectively engaging ballistic andaerodynamic targets. Developmentof weapons systems suited for thisrole can be justified from the engi-neering, tactical and economicviewpoints. The world’s best ADMsystems which can perform awhole range of missions are theRussian S-300, U.S.-made Patriot(version RAS-2) and Patriot RAS-3nearing adoption for service, aswell as the Franco-Italian SAMP/Twith the Aster-15 and Aster-30missiles.
In Russia, multipurpose ADMsystems have, for years, beendeveloped by an association ofmanufacturers, research institutes,and design bureaus. In recentsyears, their cooperative effort hasled to such operational ADM sys-tems as the S-300PMU, -1, -2, andtheir shipborne versions, designat-ed Rif and Rif-M. These systemsintegrate, to a maximum possibledegree, the abil i t ies that makethem effective against ballistic andaerodynamic targets. In the nearfuture, the latest versions of theADM systems, ground-based andshipborne, will receive the new9M96E and 9M96E2 miss i lesdeveloped by the Fakel Engineer-ing Design Bureau and incorporat-ed in the Oboronitelnye Systemy(Defense Systems) Ffinancial andIndustrial Group.
These missiles are a new step inthe creat ion of ADM systems.Obviously, the development of anew missile is a fairly long processand, therefore, it is very importantfor its designers to make a correctassessment of current trends inthe evolution of air attack and air
defense weapons.Today, new generation
of surface-to-air missiles(SAMs) have come toreplace their predeces-sors. This tendency mani-fests itself most vividly inthe replacement of medi-um-range SAMs whichconstitute the backboneof air defense systems inthe majority of the world’smost developed nations.While basic componentsof the ADM systems suchas radars, communica-tions systems, and com-mand posts are beingimproved gradually, sur-face-to-air missiles havemade a dramatic qualita-tive leap forward in theirdevelopment. This is pri-marily attributed to therevolutionary advancesthat have been made inthe missile flight controlmethods and in the on-board equipment itself.
New generat ions ofSAMs feature a combina-t ion of act ive homingheads with devices ensur-ing their high agility. Thisinnovation has broughtabout a drastic increasein the missile target accu-racy and has made i t ,bas ica l l y , a sor t o f akinetic weapon, i . e. aweapon that kills its tar-get with a direct hit.
Another feature ofthese new missiles is thesignificant reduction intheir launching weight:from 1 - 1.8 t (U.S.-madePatriot RAS-1 and RAS-2,a n d R u s s i a n - m a d e S-300PMU SAM systems)to 300 - 500 kg (U.S.-made Patr iot RAS-3, Franco-Italian Aster-15,and Aster-30, as well asRussian-made 9M96Eand 9M96E2).
In October 1998, Russ-ian miss i les were d is-played for the first time inOctober 1998 at theDefendory ‘98 exhibitionin Athens. With suchadvanced foreign coun-terparts as the RAS-3 andAster, the Russian mis-siles stood out from therest in terms of their per-formance characteristics.The 9M96E and 9M96E2
The Rif missile lift-off
missi les carry simi lar onboardequipment, payload and are identi-cal in construction. The only differ-ence between the two missiles isthat the 9M96E2 model isequipped with a more powerfulpropuls ion motor featur ing agreater power-to-weight ratio. Withlittle difference in size and weight,the 9M96E and 9M96E2 missilesmay engage targets at a range of1 to 40 km (9M96E) and 120 km(9M96E2) and at an altitude of 5 mto 20 km (9M96E) and 30 km(9M96E2), outperforming their foreign counterparts.
To develop new missiles, engi-neers and designers had to revisetraditional approaches, devise fun-damentally new engineering solu-tions, review previous experienceand investigate current trends. The
experience gained by Fakel indeveloping reliable high-rate-of-firemissi les was also taken intoaccount.
The new missile concept andarchitecture have been chosen inclose cooperation with the coun-try’s leading research and designorganizations. Owing to this coor-dinated effort, the new develop-ments incorporate the latest engi-neering advances and have beendevised with a view to virtually allmajor SAM development trends.Confident of the precision andsoundness of the assessmentsmade, Fakel developed therequired technical documentationfor the missiles, using the mostadvanced CAD methods. The flighttests performed in the late 1980sdemonstrated the basic advan-tages of these new missiles.
As the work on the 9M96E and9M96E2 missiles was going on, allefforts were focused on creating
highly effective surface-to-air mis-siles capable of destroying all cur-rently operational and future mis-siles and aircraft.
The pr imary a im of an a i rdefense missile is to destroy theincoming missile’s payload in theinterception phase, lest it shouldfal l in the area of a protectedinstallation (e.g. near an electricpower station or ship). The attack-ing missi le’s payload can bedestroyed either by a direct hit onthe payload section or, in the eventof an insignificant miss, by theSAM’s warhead splinters.
To understand how this missioncan be accomplished by new mis-siles, consider the principle of theiroperation in the target interceptionphase. Unlike foreign counterparts,the 9M96E (9M96E2) missile usesthe so-called «cold» vertical lift-off:before its sustainer motor is start-ed the missile is expelled from itscontainer to a height of over 30 m.
10 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
The 9M96E missile
Each container holds four 9M96E or 9M96E2 missiles
111 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
While the missile is ascending, itsgas-dynamic system causes theweapon to tilt towards the target.Once the sustainer motor is start -ed the missile assumes inertialcontrol via radio link at the initialand mid-course legs of the flightpath (to assure maximum noiseprotection). In the target intercep-tion phase, the missile switchesover to the radar homing mode.Whenever the missile has to per-form a maneuver to get to its ren-dezvouz point i t can activate a«superagility» mode, for which pur-pose the gas-dynamic control sys-tem is enabled. The systemincreases the missile’s aerodynam-ic overload capacity by about 20units within 0.025 seconds.
It should be pointed out here thatthe «superagility» feature of the9M96E and 9M96E2 missiles, aug-mented by their enhanced guidanceaccuracy, provides a guided pathmost suitable for target engage-ment by the missile, as well as thelethality of the missile’s payload.
The introduction of a consider-able number of new components inthe new missiles called for a pro-found optimization of their designfeatures, component units andassemblies on the ground in themost realistic operational and fly-ing conditions. A multitude of labo-ratory and r ig tests (f ire, heatresistance, environmental, weath-er, special electronic, etc.) werecarried out.
While development work on the9M96E and 9M96E2 missiles wasin progress, extensive use wasmade of advanced computer-aidedmodeling methods which allowedthe designers to use the results ofthe ground and flight-rig tests ofindividual components as the inputdata. The results of the tests indi-cated the ability of the new mis-siles to destroy the payload of the
Scud ballistic missile (or its updat-ed version) and the Harpoon anti-ship missile with a probability of 70percent. The 9M96E and 9M96E2missiles carry a 24-kg warheadwhich produces a controlled killingzone. The use of such a warheadmakes these missiles highly effec-tive against all aircraft types.
The provision of the 9M96E and9M96E2 missiles with the data-ware-controlled payload is anotherway to enhance the effectivenessof modern air attack means. Thiskind of payload is designed to«stop» a piloted target, i.e. causeits structural disintegration uponinterception, and to destroy (dis-able) the payload carr ied byremote-piloted vehicles (RPVs).
The payload is act ivated viaradio fuze which uses all the dataavailable on board the missile forits adaptation to the conditions ofthe target-missile rendezvous. Theradio fuze sets the time the pay-load should be detonated. Todestroy the vulnerable portion of
the target, the set time must agreewith the velocities of fragmentsand fragmentation spray direction.
The directed spray is achievedwith the aid of a controllable blast-fragmentation warhead using amultipoint initiation system. Oncethe radio fuze generates a com-mand for the initiation of the war-head in the controlled mode in thepresence of the «miss» informa-tion, the system activates initiationof the explosive charge at periph-eral points facing the requireddirection (towards the target). As aresult, the energy of the explosionis concentrated in this directionand the bulk of the fragmentationfield is flung towards the target atan increased velocity. If there isno «miss» information in the sys-tem, the warhead’s explos ivecharge is initiated at the centerand fragments scatter symmetri-cally in all directions.
The 9M96E and 9M96E2 mis-siles are fully adapted for use in airdefense systems of the Air Forceand Navy. A considerable reduc-tion in their size and weight hasmade it possible to accommodatefour missiles into one container,which has the same dimensions asthe one used by the S-300PMU,Rif-5V55R, 48N6E and 48N6E2ADM systems. The greater numberof missiles at hand makes the sys-tem more flexible in action, andallows it to remain operational for alonger time before running out ofmiss i les as a resul t of heavyattacks conducted by the enemyusing precision-guided munitionsor RPVs.
Fakel’s designers and engineershave developed missi les whichoutperform their foreign counter-parts, including American andFrench ones, and incorporate thelatest technological advances inthe field made by the military-industrial complexes of the USAand Western Europe.
These new missiles fully meetthe requirements of the 21st cen-tury. They incorporate theadvances of Russia’s missile-build-ing industry, science and technolo-gy made over the past decade,and demonstrate that Russia,despite the economic and financialcrisis, is still one of the world’sleading missile-producing nations.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 9M96E AND 9M96E2 MISSILES
9M96E 9M96E2
Target engagement envelope, km:Range:
minimum 1 1
maximum 40 120Altitude:
minimum 0.005 0.005
maximum 20 30Weight, kg:
missile 333 420
warhead 24 24container with four missiles 2,300 2,700
Average velocity, m/s 750 1,000
First shot hit probability:piloted target 0.9 0.9
unpiloted target 0.8 0.8
target’s payload 0.7 0.7
Arkady Shipunov, General Designer and Head of the Instrument Design BureauVyacheslav Dudka, First Deputy General Designer, Chief Engineer of the Instrument Design BureauVladimir Obrazumov, Branch Chief Designer
EXCLUSIVES
In modern military operations, air
attack weapons can deal strikes atvital facilities of the armed forces,
economy and power idustry through-out the entire depth of a country,
resolve strategic tasks and predeter-mine the outcome of war before thebeginning of ground combat actions.
The organization of effective airdefense, as is acknowledged in the
world, is based on the echelonedair defense including close-range
systems such as the Tunguska, Tor,Roland and Crotale systems, medi-um- range s y s t ems such as t he
HAWK and Buk and long-range sys -
tems such as the Patr iot and S-300. Being highly effective in terms
of combat employment, the medi-um- and long-range systems can -
not implement their capabilities infighting small-size low-flying targetsin the close zone and varied terrain
environment. In addition, a tacticalstratagem is used against such sys -
tems to expend sophisticated andexpensive surface-to-air missi les
(SAM) by using cheap and massivetargets such as var ious remotelypiloted vehicles (RPV). The number
of such systems is always insuffi-cient owing to their high cost.
The reliable protection of manyvital military and industrial facilities is
poss ib le on ly in case of us ing aclose-in air defense system.
Such a system must meet strin -gent requ i rements per ta in ing tocombat effectiveness at a relatively
low cost.The deve lopment o f a sys tem
possess ing the p roper t i es o f aclose-range system (engagement of
low-flying and surprise targets, oper-ation on the move during protectionof mechanized convoys, relatively
low cost, especially that of SAMs)and medium-range systems (capa -
bility of fighting air attack weaponsbefore their use of onboard ammuni-
tion, high capacity to engage targetsper unit of time and jamming immu-nity) will allow the organization of
two-level air defense based on a uni-versal close-in system and long-
range systems.Such a universal system is repre -
sented by the Pantsy r -S1 a i rdefense missile-gun system devel -oped by the Tula Instrument Design
Bureau and intended for air defenseof mobile units, strategically impor-
tant military and industrial facilities
14 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
PANTSYR-S1 AIR DEFENSE MISSILE-GUN SYSTEM
AND ITS MODIFICATIONS
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF COMBAT VEHICLE
Targets to be engaged strategic and tactical aircraft, cruise missiles, helicopters, onboard precision-guided weapons,
remotely piloted vehiclesArmament missiles and gunsAmmunition load:
missiles on launchers 8 - 12artillery rounds 1,400
SAM guidance system components TAR, target and missile tracking radar (centimetric and millimetric), thermal imaging sight, IR direction finder
Range, km:aircraft detection 36 - 38aircraft tracking 24 - 30
Engagement zones, m:missiles:range 1,000 - 18,000altitude 5 - 10,000
guns:range 200 - 4,000altitude 0 - 3,000
Maximum speed of engaged targets, m/s 1,000SAM guidance system radio commands with IR and radio direction findingNumber of simultaneously engaged targets 2 (within 90 x 90o in azimuth and elevation)Reaction time, s 4 - 6Missile salvo fire ensuredEngagement of ground targets ensuredCombat crew 3
151 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
(airfields, military bases, communi-
cation nodes and industrial facilities)and surface ships under any battleenvironment.
PANTSYR-S1 SYSTEM
FEATURES
The in tegrated miss i le and
gun armament creating an uninter-rupted engagement zone of 18 to20 km in range and of up to 10 km
in altitude.The small-size surface-to-air
missile with high flight and ballisticcharacteristics (Vmax = 1,300 m/s)
and a highly powerful fragmentationrod warhead (it weighs 20 kg with
the sustainer weight being 30 kg).Absolute jamming immuni ty
attained via a common multimodeand multispectral radar and opticalcontrol system operating in the deci-
metric, centimetric, millimetric andIR wave bands.
The capability to fire on themove of gun and missi le system
which no other air defense system inthe world can do (the Tunguska sys-tem can deliver only gun fire on the
move).The universal nature of target
engagement, i.e., engagement of awide range of air targets: aircraft
and helicopters before they fire theirweapons, small-size guided missiles,as well as lightly armored ground
targets and manpower.The comp le te l y au tomat ic
mode of battle performance of aseparate combat vehicle and several
combat vehicles acting as part of anair defense uni t , which improvest ime character ist ics and reduces
psycho log ica l and phys io log ica lloads on crew members.
The great number of targets
engaged per time unit due to the
short reaction time, high speed ofSAM flight and the availability of two
independent gu idance channe lsoperating in a wide sector (90 x 90o
in azimuth and elevation).
Autonomous operation due tothe fact that each combat vehicle
contains equipment for detection,tracking and engagement of targets.
The command system of SAMguidance ensuring high effective -ness of the small-size agile missile.
The passive mode of operationand superhigh accuracy of guid-
ance due to the use of the long-waveband IR channel with logical signal
PANTSYR-S1 ENGAGEMENT ENVELOPE
PANTSYR-S1 VERSIONS
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SAM
Speed, m/s:maximum 1,300average at range of 18 km 780
Weight, kg:in container 85launch 71
Length of container, mm 3,200Diameter, mm:sustainer 90booster 170
Weight, kg:warhead 20explosive 5.5
Fuze type contact + proximity, radar, adaptiveFuze radius of action, m 9
process ing and automat ic targettracking.
The modular construction andcompactness, which make it possi-
ble to install the system on trackedand wheeled vehicles and in shelters.
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
COMBAT ASSETS:— combat vehicle (up to six in a
battery);— surface-to-air missile;
— 30mm round;— transloader (one for two com-
bat vehicles).
MAINTENANCE FACILITIES:— maintenance vehicle (for main-
tenance and repair of mechanicalassemblies);
— repair and maintenance vehicle(for maintenance and repair of elec-tronic equipment);
— adjustment vehicle (for adjust-ment operations);
— SPTA vehicle (for transportationof group SPTA set).
TRAINING AIDS:— classroom trainer;— mobile trainer.
POSSIBLE VERSIONS
OF PANTSYR-S1 AIR DEFENSE
MISSILE-GUN SYSTEM
The main structural feature of the
system is a unified turret which can
be installed on tracked and wheeledvehicles, surface ship decks, build-
ings, in stationary structures andshelters.
MAIN PROPERTIES OF GUIDANCE SYSTEM
Simultaneous engagement of twotargets approaching from different
directions owing to two independentposts (radar post and optical post).
H igh immun i ty to any type o finterference due to the integration of
radar and optronic means into a uni-fied system operating in the deci-metric, centimetric, millimetric and
IR wave bands.Two-missile salvo at one target in
the radar mode of operation.Short reaction t ime (4 to 6 s)
owing to automatic tracking of upto 20 targets by the target acquisi-tion radar (TAR) and target desig -
nation accurate to 0.4 o in azimuth,0.7 o in elevation and 50 m in range
ensuring rapid target search andlockon by the target and missi le
tracking radar and the TV-opticalsystem.
Computat ion of target dynamic
parameters and its motion, weaponselection and assignment of the kind
of fire.Implementation of the full cycle of
battle performance from search of
targets until their defeat in the auto-
matic mode.Operation of the system by the
crew in the semiautomatic mode.
57E6YE SURFACE-TO-AIR
MISSILE
FEATURESShor t f l i gh t t ime a t the boos t
phase ( t = 1 .5 s , Vmax = 1 ,300m/s).
High agility after separation of the
booster.Small ballistic deceleration during
post-boost flight (40 m/s for 1 km offlight).
Expanded engagement zones upto 20 km in range and up to 10 kmin altitude.
Heavy weight of the warhead (20kg) at the small launch weight of the
SAM.Employment of rod subprojectiles
in the warhead ensur ing posit iveengagement of a broad class of tar-gets.
Availability of the air-dynamic con-trol actuator (without limitations in
terms of service life).Microminiature onboard equip-
ment.
2A38 AUTOMATIC GUN
The gun armament comprises two2A38 twin-barrel automatic guns of
the Tunguska air defense systemcapable of engaging air and ground
16 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
MAINTENANCE FACILITIES:
Adjustment vehicle
SPTA vehicle
Maintenance vehicle
Repair and maintenance vehicle
171 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
targets up to 4 km in range and upto 3 km in altitude.
FEATURES
High rate of f i re (up to 5,000rds/min).
Large ammuni t ion load (1,400rounds).
Potential use of different types of
ammunition (AP-T, F-T, HEF-I).Delivery of fire in the automatic
and semiautomatic modes.Engagement of aircraft and heli-
copters with a probability of 0.6.
BASIC CHARACTERISTICS
Caliber, mm 30Weight of one automatic gun, kg 2,230
Muzzle velocity, m/s 970Barrel life, rds at least 8,000
Feed belt
VARIANTS
OF COMBAT EMPLOYMENTProceeding from the expected
intensi ty of str ikes by a ir at tackweapons, peculiarities of facil it ies
under defense and relief of the terrain,the most typical variants of combatemployment of the Pantsyr-S1 system
will be the following: full strengthemployment (six combat vehicles),
reduced strength employment (threecombat vehicles) and autonomous
operation of the combat vehicles.Each variant must comply with an
assigned mission and ensure:
— the utmost use of the arma-ment capabilities;
— re l iab le pro tec t ion f rom a l ldirections;
— uninterrupted cooperation withobjects under protection and adja-cent units;
— prompt maneuvering;— the use of terrain conditions to
the best advantage;— ease of control;
— electromagnetic compatibility.
MODES OF OPERATION
Depending on local conditions in
the area of combat operations andvariants of combat employment, thePantsyr-S1 system can operate in
one of the following modes.AUTONOMOUS OPERATION
Each combat vehic le operatesindependent l y and ensures the
implementation of the full operatingcycle: search, detection, identifica-tion, dangerous target selection, tar-
ge t des igna t ion , supp lementa lsearch, lockon, tracking and target
engagement by missiles and guns.COMBINED OPERATION
The battery operates as a unit ofsix combat vehicles interconnectedby telecoded communication. Each
combat vehicle accomplishes thefu l l cyc le of bat t le per formance
against selected targets and sendsinformation on the selected targets
to the other battery’s vehicles thatexclude them from the list of thetargets to be handled.
OPERATION UNDER BATTERYCOMMAND POST CONTROL
Each of the six combat vehiclesaccomplishes all the stages of battleperformance beginning from acquir-
ing target designation data from thecommand post.
OPERATION ON THE LEADER-FOLLOWER PRINCIPLE
The battery operates as a unit ofsix combat vehicles, one of which isassigned as a leader and the others
as fol lowers. The leading combatveh ic le operates as a command
post and also performs the func-tions of a combat vehicle as in the
case of autonomous operat ions.Each fo l l ow-on comba t veh i c l ereceives target designat ion data
from the leader and operates underthe control of the battery command
post in all other respects.
SYSTEM MAINTENANCE FACIL-
ITIESThese are designed to:
— ensure constant combat readi-ness;
— detect faulty units of the com-
bat vehicle with the aid of built-intest devices;
— detect faulty functional assem-blies in the units with the aid of spe-
cial maintenance facilities;— recover units by replacing faulty
funct ional assembl ies wi th those
taken from the system SPTA set;— inspect SAMs during their stor-
age.
TRAINING AIDS OF PANTSYR-S1 SYSTEMThe training aids are designed to
instruct and practice combat vehiclecrews in the basic procedures of
battle performance and maintenanceand are represented by the class-
room and mobile versions of train -ers.
TRAINING AIDS
Mobile trainer
Classroom trainer
Vyacheslav Abanin, Director of the Ulyanovsk Mechanical Plant
Close-in air defense (AD) systems play
special role among field air defense
weapons. Their primary task is to provideair defense of motorized and tank units
and subunits in maneuvering combat and
on the march by delivering fire on themove. Besides, practical close-in fighting
requires that the systems be outfitted
with effective AD guns capable of engag-ing both air and ground targets. The
most successful type of these weapon
systems is Russia’s famous Shilka self-
propelled AD gun mount developed in the
early 1960s and designed to fight primar-ily tactical aircraft and helicopters. The
advent of tactical precision-guided
weapons (PGW) called for the introduc-tion of a missile channel to fight aircraft
and helicopters before they could fire
PGW.As a consequence, the renowned
Tunguska AD gun-missile system was
developed by the Tula Instrument DesignBureau and built in the 1980s.
The intense development of air attack
weapons has changed the approach tothe modernization of this class of AD
weapons. According to experts, the
modernization potentialities of such sys-tems as the Shilka and Tunguska have
not yet been exhausted and optimal
updating can considerably extend theirservice life, while their combat effective-
ness canl satisfy the
present-day requirements.The principal lines of modernization of
these systems are described below.
ZSU-23-4 Shilka Self-Propelled
Air Defense Gun Mount
The modernization seeks for state-of-the-art design and technologies to
update the self-propelled (SP) air
defense gun mounts and make themeffective in heavy electronic countermea-
sures (ECM) environments, in adverse
weather and dust-laden conditions, in anyseason and at any time of day or night.
The modernization envisages:
1. Integration of the modernized Shilkagun mounts into a unified army informa-
tion system of air target reconnaissance
and designation by organically assigninga mobile air target reconnaissance and
control post (MRCP), Sborka, to the bat-
tery as its command post (BCP).2. Improvement of the gun mount’s
main part—the RPK-2 radar-computer
complex (85 percent of the equipmentaccommodated in the turret) and creation
of a new complex, the RPK-2U.
The radar has been virtually replaced bya new one, operating on the same frequen-
cy band but based on solid-state compo-
nents: all units and systems of the radarhave been subjected to modernization and
the radar equipment is accommodated in
five cabinets (instead of seven).The RPK-2U complex incorporates:
— digital computer system (DCS)
18 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
MODERNIZATION OF RUSSIAN CLOSE-IN AIR DEFENSE SYSTEMS
The modernization seeks for state-of-the-art design and technologies to update self-propelled
air defense mounts and make them effective in heavy electronic countermeasures environments, in adverse and dust-laden conditions, in any season
and at any time of day or night.Shilka SP gun mount
IDEX’99
191 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
which jointly with the radar makes up a
fire control radar system (base sys-
tem);— television-aided sight and laser
rangefinder which together with the radar
and digital computer system form anoptical-radar fire control system (ORFCS)
operating in the passive mode both day
and night (moonlight at a quarter of themoon);
— equipment, including:
(a) data receiving/transmitting (DRT)equipment for the gun mount to
exchange information with the Sborka
battery command post via a telecodedcommunication channel for reception of
external target designation signals and
operational control of the Shilka batteryengaging a target by one, two, three and
more gun mounts;
(b) digital-to-analog and analog-to-digital converters;
(c) trainer for radar operators;
(d) built-in equipment for check andadjustment of the RPK-2U complex low-
frequency automatics and turret laying
drives (2E2) in static and dynamic con-ditions;
(e) commander’s guidance unit (CGU).
3. Replacement of a number of sys-
tems, units and assemblies by up-to-date
ones boasting higher technical and oper-
ating characteristics.4. Updating of the base tracked vehi-
cle and crew life support system.
The fire control radar system has beenmodified with the aim to:
— extend the air situation information
field by integrating the gun mount intothe unified field AD system;
— reduce the time of information pro-
cessing in the fire control system (deadtime);
— redistribute regular and random
errors and pass bands of the follow-upsystems and groups of the radar-
computer complex systems;
— change the principle of introducingcorrections for the angles of tilt and turn
of the mount on the move;
— change the principle of error deter-mination in the generation of total laying
angles of the automatic guns;
— introduce and automatically accountfor meteorological data, corrections for
changes in the muzzle velocity due to
barrel bore wear, corrections in orienta-tion and others (all refer to know-how);
— change the method of processing
secondary information;— modify some existing modes of bat-
tle performance.
The followinginnovations have
been introduced:
– modes ofoperation to han-
dle low-flying tar-
gets in heavy ECMenvironments (by
the stored rate of
range variation,stored target coor-
dinates received
from the digitalcomputer system,
moving target indication (MTI) by radar
angular coordinates;
— automated control of the gun mountbattle performance from a higher com-
mand post (HCP);
— built-in check of the electronicequipment;
— mode of radar operators’ training.
The above innovations have made itpossible to:
— cosiderably enhance the air target
search potential and acquisition probabili-ty;
— improve the radar immunity to pas-
sive jamming (with the introduction ofangular automation channel protection
and modernization of the MTI system
range channel), active range deceptionjamming and tracking a jammer by angu-
lar coordinates (with the introduction of
modes of tracking by the stored rate oftarget range variation and its inertial
range and angle-aided tracking by signals
from the digital computer system);— provide the security of operation in
heavy ECM environments (with the intro-
duction of the optical-radar system);— improve the precision characteris-
tics of the follow-up systems and groups
of the radar-computer complex systems;— reduce the surveillance time of the
fire control system.
The implementation of the abovemodifications has enhanced the effec-
tiveness of fighting high-speed (up to
500 m/s) and small targets maneuver-ing at altitudes down to 25 m (0 m with
the introduction of the ORS) rather than
100 m.The air target (aircraft, helicopter) kill
probability during one pass of the engage-
ment zone at an ammunition expenditureof up to 300 rounds per gun mount con-
stitutes 0.3 to 0.74 (rather than 0.07 to
0.12) and depends on the organization of
Ranzhir
Battery command post:Sborka MRCP
control over the combat activity of the bat-tery gun mounts from the higher com-
mand post and engagement of the target
by one, two, three and more mounts.In addition to better technical charac-
teristics, the operating characteristics
have been also improved by providing:— prompt functional check of the
radar-computer complex and its
components;— means to upgrade training and
practice of radar operators in handling air
targets in heavy ECM environments with-out aircraft flights (up to five targets with
simulation of operation under conditions
of passive and noise jamming);— better controllability and maneuver-
ability of the tracked vehicle and reduced
labor content required to maintain andoperate the vehicle;
— higher reliability of starting the trac-
tion engine;— better habitability conditions.
The service life of a modernized gun
mount after the overhaul of non-modern-ized systems, units and assemblies has
been extended, with spare parts being
supplied.The modernization of the Shilka SP gun
mount changes the latter into a modern
AD system which fits readily into training,repair and operating structures of clients
and can provide cover of stationary instal-
lations, tank and motorized columns on themarch in adverse weather and dust-laden
conditions, in any season and at any time
of day or night where other systems outfit-
ted with optical guidance and control sys-
tems prove ineffective.
Tunguska-M1 Air Defense
Gun-Missile SystemCompared to the Tunguska-M, the
Tunguska-M1 system ensures:
— automatic guidance of AD missiles(with manual correction for minor guid-
ance deviations);
— automatic exchange of informationwith the battery command post (for high-
er efficiency of battery activity);
— batter immunity of the missile guid-ance channel (engagement of targets
using optical decoys);
— engagement of small targets (cruisemissiles of the ALCM type) owing to the
use of a radar proximity target sensor
(PTS) with circular radiation pattern;— increase of the engagement zone
within a range of 8 to 10 km.
Overall, the combat effectiveness ofthe Tunguska-M1 system in ECM envi-
ronments is 1.3 to 1.5 times higher than
that of the Tunguska-M system.As compared to the 9M311 air
defense missi le, the 9M311-1M is
noted for:— installation of a radar proximity tar-
get sensor in place of the 8-beam laser
one;— installation of a pulsed light on the
sustainer in place of the flare;
— increased operating time of the mis-sile components which has allowed the
firing range to be extended from 8 to 10
km.
The Tunguska-M system can be mod-
ernized by the manufacturing plant up tothe Tunguska-M1 level.
The modernization package for the
series-produced Tunguska-M systemincludes:
1. Introduction of reception and auto-
matically controlled external target des-ignation equipment in the SP mount. The
equipment is interfaced with the battery
command post over a radio channelwhich allows automatic distribution of
targets among the battery SP mounts
from the Ranzhir battery command postand considerably enhances the system
combat effectiveness to repel mass
attacks.2. Introduction of a relief circuit to sig-
nificantly facilitate the gunner’s work in
optical tracking of a moving air target asif it were a stationary one. This consider-
ably reduces tracking errors, which is
essential for engagement of a target by amissile as in this case the miss value
should not exceed 5 m.
3. Improvement of the coordinatedetermination equipment due to the
application of a new type missile outfitted
with a pulsed light in addition to thesource of continuous light. This innova-
tion significantly enhances the immunity
of the equipment to optical decoys andthe kill probability of targets using optical
decoys. The employment of the new mis-
sile extends the target engagementrange up to 10,000 m.
4. Modified system for measurement
of tilt, gradient and course angles toallow an appreciable reduction in the
perturbing action on gyros which occurs
during movement of the SP mount,reduce errors in measurement of tilt and
course angles of the SP mount, enhance
the automatic gun fire control loop sta-bility and, consequently, the kill probabil-
ity.
The Ulyanovsk Mechanical Plant, theleading producer of renowned and
advanced close-in and medium-range air
defense weapons, offers modernized ver-sions of the Shilka and Tunguska-M sys-
tems.
These are our offers for your consid-eration. Should you accept them, you will
acquire highly effective air defense sys-
tems to ensure your country’s nationalsecurity.
ULYANOVSK
MECHANICAL PLANT
94 Moskovskoye Shosse,Ulyanovsk 432008, Russia
Phone: +7 (8422) 31-7558
Fax: +7 (8422) 32-6168
20 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
Tunguska-M1 SP mount
Gennady Muratshin, Director General of the Start Research and Production Enterprise
In the 1960s and 1970s, antisub-marine rocket launchers fitted with
loading mechanisms were devel-oped for the Vikhr and Metel sys-
tems. These launchers featuredautomatic loading of rockets ontolaunch rails and their remote direc -
tion towards a target.In the same years, Start devel -
oped mu l t ip le launchers fo r theGrad-M and Ogon systems intend-
ed to attack enemy coastal posi-
tions by fire before landing opera-tions commence.
The Grad-M system launcher,designated MS-73, features servo
drives used to direct the launchertowards the target as the ship isroll ing and pitching. The launcher
is intended to equip medium-dis -p l a cemen t amph i b i o u s a s s au l t
ships. It accommodates eight rock-et b locks, 20 rockets each, in a
drum. In action, the rocket blocks
are transported in pairs onto thelaunch rai ls. The rockets can befired in ripples with a separation
interval of 0.5 s. After each ripple,the empty blocks are lowered into
the drum, whi le the next pair istransported onto the rails. The high
ra te o f f i r e and the long f i r i ngrange of up to 20 km assure effec-tive support to a landing party.
The MS-227 launchers o f theOgon system have a small weight
and size, as they are intended toequip high-speed small-displace-
men t l a nd i ng c r a f t . One suchl aunche r ca r r i e s a b l ock o f 22rockets, and the reload rounds can
be a r r a nged unde r deck , i fr equ i r ed . The s y s t em ’ s des i gn
a l lows load ing the tubes in theunderdeck position. In action, the
launcher is raised above the deckand rockets are fired in ripples witha sepa r a t i o n i n t e r v a l o f 0 . 2 s .
Depending on the rocket type, tar-gets are hitted out to a range of
22 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
START LAUNCHERSAT SEA AND IN AIR
Througout its semicentennial history, the Start Research and ProductionEnterprise has been involved in the development of weapon launchers for the Navy, and it was one of its priority tasks. The beginning of the work dates back to the 1950s when a multiple antisubmarinerocket launcher was under development.
IDEX’99
The MS-227 launchers of the Ogon system
231 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
4.5 to 10 km.
In the 1970s, the company tookpart in the development of the Shtil
and Klinok shipborne air defensemissile (ADM) systems intended formedium- and large-displacement
ships. The ZS-90 launcher developed
by Start for the Shtil ADM systemca r r i e s 24 m i s s i l e s , t ype 9M38
(Buk-M1), in an underdeck drum.The missi les can be loaded ontothe launcher ra i ls automat ica l ly .
The raming rate is 3 m/s. The aim-ing drives angular rate is 46 deg/s
i n e l e v a t i o n and 84 deg / s i nazimuth, the rate of f i re being 5
sho t s pe r m i nu t e . T he 3S95launcher of the Klinok ADM systemcompr i ses 3 o r 4 modu les o f 8
con t a i ne r - l aunche r s each . The
launcher directs the missiles of theTor-M1 type in azimuth. The rate of
f i r e o f 24 l aunches pe r m inu teallows simultaneous engagement of
several targets.In 1975, Start began developing
an internal rotary launcher (IRL) for
firing cruise missiles from aircraft.The sys tem was ordered by the
Tupolev Design Bureau.The challenging task called for
the diversification of the entire pilotp r oduc t i on t o t he a v i a t i o nspecifics. There were no analogs
o f t h i s equ i pmen t i n Rus s i a o rabroad at that time, so an exten-
sive research, design and experi-mental work had to be carried out
t o de ve l op t he des i gn . Ha v i ngstudied d i f ferent var iants of thesystem, the choice was made in
favor of a rotary version with a cat-apult fitted inside a drum accom-
modating six lever-motion mecha-nisms designed to hold the mis -
s i les and guide them when theyare being ejected from the missilebay of the carrier aircraft. An air-
hydraulic accumulator chargeablefrom the platform’s hydraulic sys -
tem and capable of being quicklyreloaded for firing single missiles
or missile salvos was used as thecatapult. The drum had a rotary
drive to set any of the six missilesto the f ir ing posit ion. Following a
series of experiments the systemunde rwen t r i g t e s t s and was
accepted. As a result, the MKU-5-6 system entered service with the
Tu-95MS aircraft. It was followedsimilar systems developed for Tu-22Ms and Tu-160s.
Operation of these systems byAir Force units for over 10 years
proved their outstanding perfor -mance charac te r i s t i cs and h igh
reliability, which made it possible toincrease the overhau l l i fe by 20percent at a later stage. Presently,
Start performs full-scale overhaulsof the systems.
S i n ce 1983 , a l o ng w i t h t h edevelopment of IRLs for air-to-sur-
face miss i les , the company hasbeen engaged , j o i n t l y w i t h t heSukhoi Design Bureau, in research
and development of various kindsof air-to-air missi le launch cata-
pults.
Maintaining its engineering and intellectualpotential, Start welcomes cooperation withRussia’s defense industry enterprises and foreign partners in military-technical field,including equipment deliveries.
The Tu-22M3 bomber
The Klinok ADM system
Valery Blokhin, Director of Gradient Research InstituteGennady Kapralov, Director General of Kvant Production Association
Recent local wars and armed con-
flicts which involved modern armsindicate that major strikes against
enemy forces were delivered by air-launched precision-guided weapon
systems (ALPGWS).At the preparatory and delivery
stages the ALPGWSs are supported
by v a r i ou s e l e c t r on i c s y s t emsdesigned to provide intel l igence,
verify the obtained data, establishcommunication between units and
guide the weapons towards theirt a rge ts . Howeve r , desp i t e the i rbroad abilities, the electronic sys-
tems have one serious disadvan-tage: they are susceptible to an
adverse affect of var ious naturaland man-made interferences. Intel-
l igence-gathering radio-electronicsystems are sensit ive to specif ictypes of jamming signals which can
either hinder the use of weaponsby the enemy or, sometimes, even
make it completely impracticable.E l ec t r on i c coun te rmeasu res
(ECM) sys tems are f ind ing ever
increasing use by the world’s lead-ing armies. Studies made in this
field indicate that joint employment
24 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
COMBINED ECM OPERATIONS
IDEX’99
SW and USW communicationsjamming company
AKPB-D
AKPB
Electronic reconnaissancecompany
Radar reconnaissance company
Airborne radar jamming battalion
Block diagram
1. Automated Battalion Command Post (AKPB) /Automated Company Command Post (APUR)2. SPN-2 (SPN-4) high-power jammer
251 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
of combat and ECM systems con-siderably increases the overall war-
fighting capability. As a rule, ECMelements and units and subdividedinto two independent groups, each
of which performs a unique task:(a) one group suppresses enemy
radio communications and (b) theother group is responsible for his
radar and electronic facilities.Although dedicated employment
of different assets sometimes looks
very at t ract ive, the use of com -bined ECM units (or elements) is
more desirable in certain situations,provided a highly automated con-
t ro l o f t he i r j o i n t ope ra t i ons i sattained.
The Gradient Research Institute
(Rostov-on-Don) in partnership withthe Kvant Production Associat ion
(Veliky Novgorod) and subcontrac-tors, have deve loped the equip-
ment for combined ECM units andnow offer it for export.
A poss ib le var iant of an re in-
forced (combined) ECM battalion is
presented on the chart.This battalion incorporates:— modified automated battalion
command post (AKPB-D);— SW and USW communications
jamming company;— a i r bo r ne r ada r j amm ing
battalion;
— e l ec t ron i c r econna i s sancecompany;
— r ada r r e conna i s s ance company.
The command post of the rein-forced battalion is represented byt h e a u t oma t ed c ommand po s t
(AKPB) o rgan ic to the a i rbo rneradar jamming battalion. This com-
mand post is appropriately modi-f ied to control di f ferent-purpose
reinforced companies (AKPB-D).The SW and USW communica-
t i o n s j amm ing company i s
equ i pped w i t h t he R -330K ( T ) , R-325U, R-378A and R-934U jam-
ming stations.The electronic reconnaissance
company incorporates the RTR-85V6mobile automatic station and Avto-baza reconnaissance station.
The radar reconnaissance com-
pany can be equ ipped w i t h t heN e b o - S V m o d e r n s u r v e i l l a n c e
radars, as well as Obzor and Kupol3D radars which transmit (via thePORI radar data processing post)
the entire package of processedaerial situation data to the AKPB-D
command post . Th is system canalso incorporate radars in service
with the client’s armed forces.The core of the reinforced battal-
ion is the airborne radar jamming
battal ion tasked to suppress air -borne side-looking, navigation, low-
altitude flight, and weapon manage-ment radars. The battalion compris -
es three companies equipped withthe SPN-2 and SPN-4 high-powerjammers which can be act ivated
either by the operator via a controlconso le , or f rom the automated
company-level control post. The air-borne radar jamming battal ion is
capable of suppressing up to 50a i r c r a f t r ada r s s imu l t aneous l yapproaching from any direction at
an altitude of 30 meters to 30 kilo -meters. The battalion’s capabilities
were descr ibed in more detai l inMilitary Parade #6, 1997.
T he i n f o rma t i o n e x changebe tween ba t t a l i o n e l emen t s i saccompl ished by te lecoded and
radio telephone links.The proposed structure of the
reinforced (combined) ECM battal -ion provides for automatic accom -pl ishment of the whole range of
missions: from air space electronicand radar reconnaissance to opti -
ma l t a rge t d i s t r i bu t i on amongorganic jamming assets.
The ‘ c omb i ned ECM un i t ’approach helps the unit comman -der to vary the composition of his
ECM unit to respond to the specifictact ical environments adequately
and a l l ows c l i en t s t o o rde r t heequipment assortment they need or
can afford.
GRADIENT RESEARCH INSTITUTE
96 Sokolov Prospect, Rostov-on-Don 344010, Russia
Phone: +7 (8632) 32-4770, Fax: +7 (8632) 32-0345
KVANT PRODUCTION ASSOCIATION73/1 Bolshaya
Sankt-Peterburgskaya St., Veliky Novgorod 173001, Russia
Phone: +7 (81622) 27-117,Fax: +7 (81622) 24-333
RTR-85V6 station
Alexander Zimin, First Deputy Director and Chief Designer of the Central Research Institute of Automatics and HydraulicsAnatoly Shapovalov, Deputy Chief Designer
The current tendency to reduce
nuclear and conventional forces andarms generates a need for substantial
changes in fire missions executed byadvanced theater missiles. The scopeof fire missions increases as well. An
effective engagement zone for all ele-mentary targets in the enemy area is
unattainable owing to excessive mis-sile expenditure. Hence the notions«destroyed combinat ion» and
«engagement with pinpoint accuracy»to describe fire missions, when the
destruction of one or several elemen-
tary targets makes the entire groupobjective ineffective in terms of its
main functions. Attaining this aim callsfor radically new target designation(TD) technologies to be embodied in
the missile complex control system.They are based on informat ion
derived from space and air-basedreconnaissance facilities and otherreconnaissance carriers, and comput-
ed at a data processing post (DPP).To meet the requirements for missile
accuracy, terrain comparison and
map matching guidance systems(TCMMGS) and reference preparation
posts (RPP) have been established.The augmented scope of fire mis -
sions executed by precision-guided
missiles has changed the approach tocombat planning. To ensure high mis-
sile efficiency, multiple launchers andtransporter-loaders have been devel-oped, while the nature and scope of
missions performed by the controlsystem during combat employment
26 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
CONTROL SYSTEM TO IMPROVE MISSILE COMPLEX
EFFECTIVENESS
IDEX’99
271 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
planning have been radically revised.The advent of highly efficient recon-
naissance facilities and ground- andair-based precision-guided weapons
has called for due account of defen-sive counteraction while delivering a
strike. Therefore, the planning of com-bat employment of the precision-guid-ed missile complex control system
must include an estimate of the mini-mum essential manpower and equip-
ment, an outline of strike delivery andassets needed for its implementation,
a forecast of losses in fire weaponswhen affected by hostile fire and anestimate of reserves to compensate
for these losses. It should also provide
recommendations for echelonmentand control, as well as variants on the
disposition of firing elements andorganization of the launch area ensur-
ing the minimum time to deliver a fireattack, while minimizing the losses
inflicted by defensive counteraction.A high rate of changes in the dispo-
sition and state of firing elements dur-
ing fire attack delivery necessitatesthe processing of a large volume of
data for control over units and sub-units. This has called for the creation
of an automated control equipmentcomplex (ACEC) which is mounted onthe command and staff vehicle (CSV).
Here, information is processed andsubmitted to authorities in a form suit-
able to make decisions with regard toall the factors reflecting the real com-
bat situation.The most impor tant fac tor o f
«se lect ive st r ikes» by prec is ion-
guided weapons against the vital ele-ments determining the fighting effi-
ciency of an objective as a whole isthe check of missi le str ike effect
which helps close control over preci-sion-guided missiles on the feedbackprinciple. In our opinion, this problem
can be radically solved on the basisof technical supplemental reconnais-
sance and monitoring facilities inte-grated into the missile complex con-
t ro l loop. I t would apprec iab lyenhance the fire attack effect.
The main functions of the control
system for a precision-guided theatermissile complex can be illustrated by a
diagram.Such an approach to the preci-
sion-guided missile complex control
system is essential not only for thecreation of more advanced and mod-
ernized theater missile complexes,but for the troops and weapons con-
trol systems at the operational andtactical levels. The Central Research
Institute of Automatics and Hydraulicshas accumulated the required scien-tific and engineering potential and
has developed requisite technicalfacilities: a command and staff vehi-
cle, data processing post, referencepreparation post, ground-based con-
trol system (GCS), onboard controlsystem (OCS), terrain comparisonand map matching guidance system,
and an operational control and com-munications system (OCCS). These
facilities are recommended as a foun-dation for future control systems.
CENTRAL RESEARCH INSTITUTEOF AUTOMATICS AND
HYDRAULICS
5, Soviet Army St.,
Moscow 127018, RussiaPhone: (095) 971-2944.
Fax: (095) 281-9534.
Data bank
MISSILE COMPLEX CONTROL SYSTEM
Space, air-basedand other
reconnaissancefacilities
Check of missilestrike effect
MCAO battle management commands
MCISS
Information on disposi-tion and state
ACEC Missile CS
DPP
TD References
RPP CSV
OCCS
GCS OCS TCMMGS
Functional Diagram of Control System for Precision-Guided Missile Complex
Vladimir Kazakov, Director General of the Nitel CompanyValery Brailovsky, President of the Technological Cooperation Center of Radio and Electronics Complex
Developed in the 1970s, the
P-18 radar is st i l l one of the principal surveillance and targeting
radars used by Russia’s air defense
(AD) and air traffic control (ATC) sys-tems. The radar has won fame owing
to its prominent technical character-
ist ics, rel iabi l i ty and simplicity ofoperation.
However, emergence of new air
threats and advanced e lectron iccountermeasures (ECM) has spurred
the development of more capable
ground-based radars.To raise the P-18 radar capabilities
to the level of existing and future
requirements, and to extend its ser-vice life, the Nitel JSC, Nizhni Nov-
gorod, and the Technological Coop-
eration Center of Radio and Electron-ics Complex JSC, Moscow, have
made the following improvements to
the radar:— the radar’s jamming immunity
has been increased by more than
a factor of 100;— clutter rejection system operat-
ing efficiency and stability have been
enhanced owing to the replacementof ana log equipment by d ig i ta l
equipment;
— radar data readout and a i r target track generation have been
automated;
— the radar is prov ided wi thremote air data collection, processing
28 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
UPGRADED P-18 RADAR OFFERS
NEW CAPABILITIES
IDEX’99
1 - Automatic data readout equipment
2 - P-18 radar
3 - Antijamming equipment
4 Ë 5 - Digital MTI equipment
291 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
and display facilities;
— ground radar interrogator is builtaround new circuit components and
can be operated as part of the inter-
national identification system;— some units are based on mod-
ern components providing for higher
performance characteristics.For the upgraded P-18 radar char-
acteristics, compared to those of the
basic version, refer to Table 1.The upgrades to the P-18 radars
and their modificatios can be done
stage-by-stage in 1999 to customerspecifications directly at their operat-
ing sites.
Moreover, the Nitel JSC, manufac-turer of the P-18 radar, offers reno-
vation packages to extend its service
life for another 10 years and guaran-teed supply of spare parts.
The proposed comprehens ive
modernization (retrofit) of the P-18radar will significantly enhance its
capability to detect current and future
air threats in severe ECM conditions,including stealth aircraft; maintain its
compet i t i veness unt i l 2010, and
extend its service life for 15 to 20years, which is particularly important
for countries with limited financial
resources.
NITEL JSC
Nizhni Novgorod, RussiaPhone: (8312) 65-5159
Fax: (8312) 65-5019
TECHNOLOGICAL COOPERATION
CENTER OF THE RADIO AND
ELECTRONICS COMPLEX JSCMoscow, Russia
Phone/Fax: (095) 253-7733
P-18 Radar Performance Characteristics Table 1
Characteristic Basic version Upgraded version
Active jamming immunity:target acquisition range in the presence
of enemy electronic countermeasures with the total spectral density of 200 W/MHz
and nominal range of 200 km at target altitude, m:
3,000 fails to detect 84 km10,000 fails to detect 150 km
20,000 fails to detect 162 kmNumber of suppressed
jamming vectors no 4Cancellation ratio
(at signal/noise ratio of 25-40 dB) 0 23-33Passive noise immunity:
operating range, km 0-150 0-350clutter suppression
coefficient, dB 20 30design elements storage tubes microcircuits
Automation of data readout:automatic primary
and secondary signal
processing and MTI mode no yesautomatic detection
and tracking of jammers no yesautomatic measurement
and indication of target altitude no yes
Target positioning errors:
horizontal coordinates at least 3,000 m 400 maltitude at least 2,000 m 800 m
speed component no 20 m/sAutomatic data collection and processing:
situation plotting board yes no
data delay
(after target acquisition) 5-8 min or more 20-30 sdata update rate 2-4 min 10 s
simultaneously tracked
targets 10-15 120coordinate indication error, km 6-12 0.8
data exchange between several systems no yes
data recording no yesIFF system:
international mode no yessimulation resistance no yes
identification accuracy not more than 0.9 at least 0.97
Upgraded ground radar interrogator
Remote data reception and display kit
Dmitry Rototayev, Director General of the Steel Research InstituteValery Grigoryan, Deputy Director General
This question has arisen after the
advent of armored vehicles whichconsequently involved the problem
of their protection. Since that time,
the competition has progressed withvariable success.
Wh i le the ma in des t ruc t ion
weapons were kinetic energy armor-piercing projectiles, the competition
proceeded by increasing the dimen-
sions of the gun caliber, the armorthickness, or the armor inclination
angles. This development can be
traced to battles between Germanand Sov ie t tank armaments and
armor dur ing Wor ld War I I . The
advent of hard-core armor-piercingprojectiles for tank and antitank guns
brought little change to the protec-
tion concept. Shaped-charge projec-tiles made a revolution in terms of
their penetrating power compared to
the protective abilities of homoge-neous steel armor. The problem of
armor enhancement could not be
resolved conventionally owing to theunacceptab le increase in tank
weight. This gave an impetus to the
development of a new generation ofSov ie t tanks (T-64 , T-72 , T-80)
which were provided with combined
fronta l armor that inc luded suchfillers as glass textolite and ceram-
ics. They ensured abnormally high
protective anticumulative propertieswhich correspond with those predict-
ed by the hydrodynamic theory of
Academician M. Lavrentyev, who hadsubstantiated the advantage of rela-
tively light fillers over steel armor
when affected by a cumulative jet.The nature of this anomaly rests
mainly in the active destructive effect
of the cavity-surrounding filler on thecumulative jet. The effect is due to
the release of energy accumulated
by the filler during the passage ofthe cumulative jet, as well as to the
released internal energy of the filler
itself when glass and ceramics areused as fillers. The advent of such
combined armor became possible
32 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
PROJECTILE OR ARMOR: WHICH IS STRONGER?
IDEX’99
T-72A tank
T-72S tank with apron ERA
331 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
cialists. At the same time, the prob-
lem was so lved for pro tect ion
against fin-stabilized armor-piercingdiscarding sabot (APDS) projectiles,
whose penetrators contained tung-
sten carbide or tungsten cores, aswell as against the high-explosive
squash head (HESH) pro jec t i les
which contained plastic explosive.Since then, armor protection had to
be designed while keeping in mind
two rival destruction weapons: theAPDS pro jec t i les and the HEAT
(shaped charge) ammun i t ion . I t
should be noted that the combinedfrontal armor of the Soviet tanks in
the 1970s ensured their protection
not from the entire range of shaped-
charge ammunition but against themost mass ive ammuni t ion of the
time, such as the HEAT projectiles
for the 105mm tank and the antitankgun, and shaped-charge grenades.
The competition of the tank armor
with antitank ammunition continuedunt i l the ear ly 1980s. Fur ther
upgrading of fillers ensured the pro-
tection against HEAT projectiles from120mm rifled guns.
At the same time, the arsenals of
all countries continued to accumu-late antitank guided missi les with
HEAT warheads whose penetrating
ability was 1.2 to 1.5 times higherthan that of HEAT projectiles and,
hence, exceeded the pro tec t i ve
properties of tank armor.In the late 1970s, the Soviet Union
pract ica l l y obta ined HEAT-proof
armor, whose original developmentdated back to the 1950s, and was
based on the principle of counterex-
plosion. Its installation onto tankswas hampered by the psychological
unpreparedness of some brass hat-
ters in both the army and industry.But the emergence of exp los ive
reactive armor (which was developed
by Doctor M. Held for the M48 andM60 tanks in service with the Israeli
army) during the 1982 Arab-Israeli
war finally removed any objectionsfrom the project’s opponents. Only
the availabil ity of completely pre -
pared technical, structural and tech-nological approaches made it possi-
ble to equip the main tank fleet of
the Soviet Union with this explosivereactive armor (ERA) within shortest
time, i.e. within one year. The instal-
due to the purpose-oriented and
well-coordinated work of a host of
fundamental and appl ied scienceinstitutes working under the supervi -
sion of talented scientists and spe-
1. Condition of cumulative jet after penetration of ceramics2. Condition of cumulative jet during ERA penetration3. Condition of APDS projectile core after penetration of new-generation ERA
lation of ERA on T-64A, T-72A and T-
80B tanks, that already had suffi -ciently powerful armor plating, virtu-
ally depreciated at once the existing
arsenals of antitank guided weaponsof potential adversaries and brought
to the foreground the armor-piercing
f i n -stabilized discarding sabot projec-
tiles. However, they were on a par
with the frontal armor of the Soviettanks, while the protection against
more powerfu l APDS project i les,
such as the M829 (USA) , wasensured by installing the Kontakt-V
universal ERA complex which virtually
neutralized even this threat.The use o f ERA t r iggered the
intensified development of new anti-
tank weapons throughout the world,that is, it marked a qualitatively new
step in the projectile-versus-armor
competition. A real possibility aroseto influence an emerging destruction
weapon as actively as it had previ-
ously acted upon passive armor. Inwas a great leap forward in terms of
the concentrated blast resistance
tha t subsequen t l y modern i zedATGMs (TOW, ITOW and even TOW-
2 of a larger caliber) failed to over-
come. The M829 APDS projecti lefailed as well.
However , i t would be na ive to
think that the development of ammu-nition will stop. Not at all, and the
analytical assessment of destruction
weapon development test i f ies tounprecedented efforts in creating
new threats to tanks. The expert
es t imat ion o f APDS Pro jec t i l es ,developed by the Olin Company for
the guns of the M1 and Leopard-2
tanks, is indicative of virtually lineargrowth of their armor penetrating
ability with a proportionality coeffi-
cient of about 36 mm per year.New problems for the developers
of protective armor were set up by
the technological breakthrough inthe creat ion o f tandem shaped-
charge ammuni t ion for TOW-2A,
HOT-2T, PARS-3 antitank missilesand others, capable of penetrating
1,000 to 1,250 mm of steel armor
behind an apron ERA. Along with theintensified development of ammuni-
tion for penetrating a tank’s frontal
a rmor , new concepts a re be ingdeveloped to incapacitate tanks by
unconventional methods. The power
is increased and the range i sextended for a relatively new class of
ammuni t ion based on the round
impact-shot principle and intendedto defeat the tank from the l ight
armor surfaces such as the roof,
sides and bottom.The complexity of resolving this
problem is that an increase in the
equivalent light armor thickness perconvent iona l un i t leads to an
increase in tank weight several times
more than the identical increase infrontal armor. However, the «defend-
ers» are ready to meet new chal-
lenges. Thus, at the Abu Dhabi ‘99show we are going to exhibit to our
potential clients the complex of third-
generation explosive reactive armorwhich ensures the survivability of the
T-90 tank f rom the M829A2 and
DM43A1 APDS projecti les for theguns of the American M1 and Ger-
man Leopard-2 tanks. The offered
ERA package, in add i t ion toincreased res is tance to s ing le
shaped-charge warheads, features
antitandem properties, which allowstank protection from ATGMs of the
TOW-2 and HOT-2 type. The techni-
cal problems pertaining to the pro-tection against particular weapons
attacking the tank from the top are
also resolved.As for antimine protection, we are
ready to offer a package of electro-
magnetic protection causing prema-ture explosion of mines with magne-
tometric fuzes.
I n a package o f measu res t oupgrade Russian tanks, the offered
reinforcement of their protect ion
imparts principally new combat qual -i t ies and considerably increases
their combat efficiency. The projec-
tile-versus-armor competition con-tinues.
Steel Research Institute81A Dubninskaya St.,
Moscow 127411, Russia
Phone: (095) 484-6361Fax: (095) 485-4395
34 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
T-80U tank with built-in ERA
Oleg Bochkarev, Director General of the Electromashina JSC
R e l a t e d t o a r m o r m a t e r i e l ,
these requirements assume rais -ing the automat ion leve l o f the
combat and work ing p rocesseswhich can only be provided by the
increase in quantity and quality ofautomatic and electronic systems.
The imp ro vemen t o f weapon
systems and mi l i tary equipment,increase in their tactical capabili-
t i e s , t echn ica l pa ramete rs and
operat ing performance (speci f ica nd we i gh t - t o - v o l ume i n d i c e s ,
effectiveness and reliability, mobil-ity, survivability and fuel efficiency)
are directly depend on the devel-opment of new-generation powersupply systems and their compo-
nents.Currently, up to 40 percent of
weight and size, up to 90 percentof electric power losses and up to
50 percent of al l probable trou-bles and fa i lures are re lated to
e lectr ica l and power generat ionsystems of the weapons and mili-t a r y e qu i pmen t . T he se f i g u r e s
prove the importance of electricalequ ipment and ind ica te tha t i t s
upgrade i s the co r rec t way fo rmodernization of armor materiel.
A huge fleet of obsolete battlet anks ( T -54 , T -55 , T -62 , T -72 ,etc.) is still in service with armies
of many count r ies . The E lect ro-m a s h i n a J S C a n d t h e R o t o r
Design Bureau offer the modern -
36 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
The all-round modernization of existing models and the development of new-generation weapon systems and military equipment are among the most important aspects of the Russia’s military and technological policy for the years immediately ahead.
MODERNIZATION OF BATTLE TANKS ANDINFANTRY COMBAT VEHICLES VIA
UPGRADING THEIR ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT
IDEX’99
T-55 battle tank
371 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
i z a t i o n o f t h e s e v e h i c l e s b yupgrading their electr ical equip -
men t de ve l oped and manu f ac -tured at their enterprises.
Fo r examp le , rep lacemen t o fobsolete firefighting equipment bythe ZETs13-type modern qu ick-
act ing systems ensures not onlyquick f i re ext inguishing but also
detonat ion suppress ion ensuredby a more than ten-fold decrease
in time needed for fire detectionand extinguishant discharge.
Another important trend in the
modernizat ion of batt le tanks isequipping them with the following
addi t iona l systems ( insta l led onfollow-on models):
— system intended for automat-ic smoke screening against laser-guided weapons;
— antiaircraft machine gun sta-bilization and control system;
— a m m u n i t i o n l o a d i n g g e a rautomatic control system;
— other systems and electricalequipment components.
M a n y B M P - 1 a n d B M P - 2
i n f an t r y comba t v eh i c l e s ( I CV )need upgrad ing to the modern
l e v e l i n t h e s i m i l a r w a y b yinstalling:
— ZETs15 f i r e f i gh t i ng equ ip -
ment which provides for fire extin-guishing and detonation suppres-
sion in the engine and personnelcompartments;
— a m m u n i t i o n l o a d i n g g e a rautomatic control system;
— automatic smoke-screen lay-
ing system, etc.The E lec t romash ina JSC and
the Rotor Design Bureau (electri-cal equipment developer) wil l pro-
v i d e t h e m o d e r n i z a t i o n o f t h earmored vehicles, their guaranteea n d p o s t - g u a r a n t e e s e r v i c e ,
SPT&A supply, training of person-nel, etc. For 50 years now these
enterprises have been involved inthe development and product ion
of electrical equipment for militaryand transport vehicles which havebeen exported to the former War-
saw Treaty countries, India, Iraq,Syria, Algeria, Kuwait, United Arab
E m i r a t e s , L i b y a , F i n l a n d ,Yugos l a v i a , Sou th Ko rea and a
number of other countries. The E lec t romash ina JSC and
t h e R o t o r D e s i g n B u r e a u a r e
steadily raising the technologicalleve l o f the i r products and are
ready to expand their productionand commercial contacts with al l
interested parties.
TShU-1S automatic smoke-screen laying system components
T-80U battle tank and automatic ammunition loader control panel
BMP-3 ICV and ZETs15 firefighting equipment components
Anatoly Ilyin, Staff Editor
Modern combat operations are char-acterized by high dynamics and compli-
cated road conditions owing to a great
number of artificial and natural obsta-cles and barriers. Their negotiation may
involve construction or laying of bridges
and ferries for heavy combat materiel(battle tanks, prime movers, motor vehi-
cles, etc.). Since the construction of
bridges requires time and materials, it isfrequently unacceptable in a rapidly
changing situation.
The solution of the problem lies inthe use of mechanized bridges. A
heavy mechanized bridge (designated
TMM-6), developed by the OmskMachine-Building Design Bureau and
manufactured by the Transport
Machine-Building Plant, provides onesuch solution.
The TMM-6 heavy mechanized
bridge is designed for laying bridgesover water barriers and dry-valley
obstacles of up to 100 m wide and up
to 5 m deep to be negotiated bytroops and wheeled and tracked
materiel weighing up to 60 t. The
mechanized bridges are used duringcombat operations, evacuation activi-
ties and elimination of the aftermath of
accidents and natural disasters.The TMM-6 heavy mechanized
bridge consists of a bridge layer and
bridge members. The bridge layer is across-country (8 x 8 wheel configura-
tion) all-wheel-drive truck carrying
38 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
TMM-6 HEAVYMECHANIZED BRIDGE
IDEX’99
391 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
equipment and mechanisms to trans-
port and lay the bridge members. The
bridge laying mechanisms are provid-ed with a hydraulic drive and power
takeoff from the chassis engine. The
bridge layer is equipped with a systemto protect the crew from dust when
moving over a radioactively contami-
nated terrain and furnished with com-munication facilities: a radio set and
an intercom system.
The bridge member consists of afolded-in-two double-track span and a
spur leg. The unfolded span is 17 m
long; the spur leg can be self-adjustedto a height of 2 to 5 m. The span fold-
ing/unfolding mechanisms are hydrauli-
cally driven from the bridge layer’shydraulic system which can automati-
cally be coupled to (uncoupled from)
the hydraulic system of the bridgemember. The bridge member design
and the bridge layer-mounted special
mechanism enable the crew todecrease, if required, the width of the
bridge member for transportation. The
bridge laying procedure is controlled byone crewmember from the control
panel arranged in the rear part of the
bridge layer or remote-controlled withthe use of a 30 m long cable. The time
to lay one bridge member is 5 min. The
bridge is assembled by subsequentlylaying several bridge members.
When there is no more need for the
bridge, i t is disassembled by thebridge layer and carried to another
place where it can be laid again over
an obstacle. The bridge can be disas-sembled from either end.
The TMM-6 heavy mechanized
bridge may be completed with a non-hydraulically operated bridge mem-
ber. In this case, provision is made
for a cable-pulley drive to unfold thebridge member halves. The cost of
the br idge member of i ts k ind is
lower than that of the hydraulicallyoperated one.
Basic Characteristics
Crew 2Bridge length, m 17 to 102Bridge capacity, ts 60Depth of obstacle to be negotiated, m up to 5Time to lay 102 m long bridge, min 50Speed, km/h:bridge crossing by transport means 20 to 30bridge layer:
average 35 to 40maximum 70
Fuel distance, km 1,100
The bridge layer is environmentally
safe since the bridge laying is carried
out without river bed blocking, earthmoving and bottom work.
Mikhail Dragunov, Leading Design Engineer of the Izhevsk Mechanical Plant
In the late 1980s and early 1990s,Russian small arms designers faced a
problem to find a replacement for the
battle-tested production model of theMakarov pistol. First, a need arose in a
more powerful pistol cartridge owing to
the spread of individual body armor.Second, during this time a number of
armies fielded pistols with enlarged
capacity magazines rated for 13 to 15rounds, such as the Glock 17, Beretta
92F and P7M13 Heckler and Koch. In
this setup, the Makarov, with its eight-round magazine and a cartridge consid-
erably inferior to the 9mm Parabellum
cartridge in terms of power, turnedobsolete.
The Makarov pistol was modernized
by the design bureau of the world’slargest pistol manufacturer, the Izhevsk
Mechanical Plant. It was chambered for
the modernized 9mm cartridge, and themagazine capacity was increased to
contain 12 cartridges, which, of course,
was a temporary way out of the situa-tion. Therefore, designers at the Izhevsk
Mechanical Plant set out to develop a
new pistol model chambered for power-ful cartridges.
At present, the world witnesses a host
of pistol cartridges differing in overalldimensions and power. Therefore, the
tempting idea to create a gamut of mod-
els chambered for different cartridgesand based on the same design is
fraught with internal contradictions: a
model chambered for low-power car-tridges may appear excessively heavy
or, vice versa, a model chambered for
enhanced-power cartridges may haveinsufficiently long life. Experts note in
particular that the Glock model cham-
bered for the 9x17mm cartridge pos-sesses excessive weight and dimen-
sions.
With these considerations taken intoaccount, it was decided to develop two
basic models that may be conventionally
called light and heavy.Both models operate on short recoil
principles. Locking is obtained by
engaging the barrel lug, located abovethe cartridge chamber, with the ejection
opening of the slide. Both basic models
are provided with plastic frames. Mainloads are received by steel inserts that
are connected to the frame by means of
detachable joints.The MR-444 Bagira model is con-
ceived as a basic model for the family
of light pistols chambered for 9mm car-tridges from the 9x19 Luger to less
powerful 9mm Makarov and 9x17
Browning.The pistol frame is made of highly
strong molded thermoplastic. To guide
the slide, stamped front and rear guidesare inserted into the pistol frame. The
front guide is locked in position by the
slide stop pin, and the rear one by thescrew. During locking and unlocking,
the barrel is moved by interaction of the
bevel on the lower barrel lug with thebevel on the base of the recoil and
buffer mechanism. The latter absorbs
the shocks of the barrel and slide in therearmost position. The striker-type per-
cussion mechanism is provided with a
special striker cocking device whichresembles the hammer of a usual pistol.
This design feature enables the shooter
to manually cock the striker and thus
42 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
BAGIRA AND VARYAGTO REPLACE MAKAROVIn terms of handling qualities and technical characteristics the new models of pistols produced by the Izhevsk Mechanical Plant are on a par with and in some respects outperform their foreign counterparts.
IDEX’99
Bagira
431 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
fire by single or double action. The trig-ger mechanism is arranged in the front
and rear guides.
The function of a loaded chamberindicator is performed by the extractor
whose contour during aiming is easily
discernible even in the twilight.The safety device comprises the
non-automatic safety catch located on
the slide and the automatic strikerinterlock which prevents the striker to
transmit the blow to the cartridge
primer when the trigger is not com-pletely squeezed. The safety catch in
the lowermost position permits delivery
of fire. When in the upper position, itinterlocks the firing mechanism without
uncocking the striker; therefore, one
can carry the weapon in the cockedcondition and, if necessary, rapidly
open aimed fire at a light trigger pull.
The safety lever can be moved beyondits fixed position; in this case, it oper-
ates as a lever to uncock the firing
mechanism. The safety catch isreturned to its locked position by the
spring.
The magazine catch is located
behind the trigger guard and is dis-
placed laterally. It can be installed forright- or left-handed use.
The magazine has a double-row steel
body with two-position feed arrange-ment of cartridges.
The fixed sights bear three contrast
dots (one dot on the foresight and twodots on the backsight).
The pistol design embodies a num-
ber of rational approaches from thepoint of view of ergonomics: an elastic
protrusion on the rear end of the grip
with embossed serrations transmitting arecoil pulse to the hand, a minimum
perimeter of grip grasp and arrange-
ment of the main control elements ofthe pistol within an arc described by the
thumb.
The family based on the MR-445model (which may be conventionally
classed as heavy) comprises three
modifications: MR-445 chambered forthe .40 Smith & Wesson cartridge,
MR-445S compact version of the same
caliber and MR-446 version chamberedfor the 9x19 Luger cartridge.
During locking and unlocking, the
barrel is moved by interaction of the
cam slot on the lower barrel lug with the
lock secured in the base of the firing
mechanism.The base of the firing mechanism is
locked in position by two pins in the
frame which is manufactured fromhighly strong plastic. The base of the
firing mechanism limits recoil and coun-
terrecoil of the moving parts and is pro-vided with front and rear guides for the
slide.
The hammer-type firing mechanismis designed for double action firing and
provided with a helical mainspring. The
pistol safety catch is not automatic. Ithas an ambidextrous control lever locat-
ed on the frame. When engaged, the
safety catch interlocks the sear, trigger,hammer and slide. The hammer can be
blocked in the cocked or released con-
dition. When the safety catch is applied,the hammer does not go off cock,
which enables one to carry the weapon
in the cocked condition and, if neces-sary, to rapidly open aimed fire at a light
trigger pull.
The function of the loaded chamberindicator is performed by the extractor
which noticeably protrudes from the
slide surface when a cartridge is cham-bered.
The two-sided lever-type magazine
catch is located at the front wall of thegrip near the trigger guard.
The magazine has a double-row steel
body with single-position feed arrange-ment of cartridges.
The MR-445 model has sights click-
adjusted in deflection and elevation,while the MR-445S and MR-446 model
have fixed sights.
In terms of handling qualities andtechnical characteristics the new models
of pistols produced by the Izhevsk
Mechanical Plant are on a par with andin some respects outperform their for-
eign counterparts. In particular, the MR-
444 and MR-445 models have a non-automatic safety catch which is absent
on Glock pistols, and the MR-444 is pro-
vided with the manual striker cockingdevice.
IZHEVSK MECHANICAL PLANT8 Promyshlennaya St.,
Izhevsk 426063,
Udmurt Republic, RussiaPhone: +7 (3412) 76-4433
Phone/fax: 76-5830
(Marketing Department)+7 (3412) 75-3829
Phone/fax: 76-3360
(Sales Department)Fax: +7 (3412) 76-4590
Basic Characteristics
Model MR-444 Bagira MR-445 Varyag MR-445S MR-446
Caliber 9x19mm Luger .40 S & W .40 S & W 9x19mm Luger
Overall dimensions, mm 186x126x35 210x142x38 188x132x38 196x140x38
Barrel length, mm 101 125 103 111
Empty weight, kg 0.68 0.9 0.85 0.9
Magazine
capacity, rds 15 15 13 17Trigger pull, N:
single action firing <25.5 <24.5 <24.5 <24.5
double action firing <57.0 <57.0 <67.0 <57.0
Varyag
Vyacheslav Krygin, Chief Designer
AV IAT ION
The helicopter can carry a riflesquad with full combat gear in its
passenger cabin which features a
volume of 9.8 m3. Two sliding doors(one on each s ide o f the cargo
cabin) measuring 1,250 x 1,300 mm
make i t poss ib le to per formembarkat ion/debarkat ion of n ine
troopers within 5 to 6 seconds.
In the ambulance vers ion, the Ka-60 he l icopter can carry s ix
stretchers with wounded persons
and three medical attendants, aswell as up to 14 sitting patients.
The maximum internal load-carrying
capacity is 2,000 kg.
The maximum takeoff weight is6,500 kg.
In the search and rescue version,
the hel icopter is equipped with asearchlight and a LPG-300 hoist with
a load-carrying capacity of 300 kg
that is able to lift two persons orcargo. For operat ions over water
areas, the hel icopter is equipped
with inflatable ballonnets.The Ka-60 may be used in other
capacities when provided with spe-
cial equipment and weapons.A c iv i l i an vers ion, des ignated
Ka-62, is being developed on the
basis of the Ka-60 helicopter.
The hel icopter ’s performance,
reliability and power-to-weight ratiohas been considerably improved in
comparison with its counterparts due
to an updated aerodynamic configu-ration of the airframe.This helicopter
also includes retractable landing
gear and two RD-600 engines. Thehelicopter can fly in a wide range of
contrasting temperatures, at alt i-
tudes of up to 6,000 m and highcruising speeds to a range of 600
km.
The engines, specially created forthe Ka-60 by the Rybinsk Motors
company, develop a takeoff power of
1,300 hp each and are the most up-to-date Russian engines. The modu-
lar design features and promising
techno log ica l /des ign so lu t ions
46 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
MEET THE KAMOV Ka-60KASATKA HELICOPTERThe Kamov company has set out to test a new Kamov Ka-60 multirole armyaviation helicopter designed for accomplishing various combat missions.
471 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
ensure a high fuel eff iciency and
maintainability of the engines. Thedigital two-channel automatic control
system provided with the backup
hydromechanical channel and devel-oped monitor ing and diagnost ics
system, considerably increases the
operat ing rel iabi l i ty of the powersource.
Should one engine stop during the
takeoff or during regular flight, out-put to the other engine increases
automatically (without pilot’s inter-
vention) thus enabling the flight tocontinue.
The helicopter is not susceptible
to ice and high dust content. Themain rotor blades are provided with
an electrical anti-icing system, while
the engine inlet devices are alsoequipped with a hot-air anti-icing
system. The engine inlet duct is fur-
nished with a dust-protection device.
The leading edges of the main rotorblades are provided with an erosion-
resistant coating.
If required, the engine and themain-rotor gearbox can operate in
emergency power cond i t ions
exceeding the takeoff power by 20to 25 percent. Its gearboxes can
operate without oil for an apprecia-
ble length of time.The control system rods and drive
shafts have been proven to continue
funct ion ing when pierced by the7.62mm and 12.7mm bullets. The
main-rotor blades, made of compos-
ite materials, retain their survivabilitywhen hit by a 23mm projectile. Its
main systems and units are duplicat-
ed; the main and backup systemsare arranged on different sides of
the airframe to prevent their being
damaged by one projectile. The self-
sealing fuel tanks are provided with
an explosion-proof system.In the pilot’s cabin two sets of
controls enable the crew to fly the
hel icopter from either of the twoseats. This makes it ideal for the ini-
tial training of pilots, as well as for
improving one’s flying technique.In case of an emergency landing
whi le f ly ing on low al t i tudes, the
safety of the crew and passengersis ensured by an additional (emer-
gency) stroke of the landing gear
shock struts, and by the energy-absorbing seats for the crew and
passengers. The strong fuselage
and heavily secured units excludeinjuries to the crew and passengers
possibly caused by the airframe and
equipment during crash impact. Thedesign of the personnel compart -
ments allows for injury-free impacts.
The helicopter’s standard equip-ment includes navigational facilities,
fl ight control equipment and data
display systems. Provision is made inthe fuselage nose section for the
installation of a radar and a night
vision system.I ts main ta inab i l i t y , up- to-date
diagnostics methods, and ease of
servicing make it possible to sustainthe required level of combat readi-
ness. I ts high operat ing qual i t ies
have been achieved due to a wideuse of composi te mater ia ls , the
employment of maintenance-free
bear ings, and a system-or ientedarrangement of equipment in main-
tenance zones . An au tomated
onboard monitoring system alongwith the powerplant control unit,
make it possible to promptly detect
problems and represent the requiredin fo rmat ion v ia the onboard or
ground-based display system.
One of the Russ ian hel icoptermanufacturing plants has set out to
begin serial production of the Ka-60.
For our customer convenience, theKamov company is committed to
provide helicopter sales, a guarantee
of continuous after-sales servicing,logistic support, training of f l ight
personnel and technical staff, as well
as training facilities, etc. Having a wide experience in the
development of various-class and
various-purpose helicopters, theRussian certificate for the devel-
opment and production, as well as
the foreign certificate for produc-t ion of av iat ion mater ie l , the
Kamov company is ready, togeth-
er with cooperating productionplants, to offer high-quality ser-
v ices for users of the un ique
Kamov helicopters.
One of the crit ical tasks of theNavy of any state is to maintain thetactical performance of its marinespecialists at a highly professionallevel. This can be primarily achievedvia integrated exercises in which sur-face ships, submarines, maritime avi-ation, shore-based radars, headquar-ters of fleets and task forces, as wellas the Main Naval Headquarters, par-ticipate. Such exercises are effectivebut very costly. Consequently, animportant question arises: how canone maintain high combat readinessof naval units at a lower cost? Theanswer is: personnel must maintainand develop their skills by means of
simulator-trainers.The Russian company Transas is
one of the world’s leading producersof simulator-trainers where navalspecialists from virtually all profes-sions can undergo training. Trainingdevices manufactured by Transas arecurrently operational at more than200 training centers worldwide. InFebruary 1998, the famous maritimenewspaper, Lloyd’s List, awarded theworld’s first prize to Transas for itsnotable contribution to the develop-ment of marine training devices.
The fo l lowing t ra in ing dev ices are currently available for naval spe-cialists:
— surface ship (submarine) con-ning tower simulator designed totrain naval personnel in navigatingthrough nar row waters , leav ing/entering a naval base, mooring avessel, maneuvering within a forma-t ion, and performing an at tackmaneuver;
— ship propuls ion and electr icpower plant simulator;
— communicat ions tra iner ( forexample, i t may inc lude dev icesdesigned to train naval personnel inoperating the Global Maritime Dis -tress Signal System);
— sonar simulator-trainers;— specific weapon type simulator-
trainers;All shipboard simulator-trainers
are networked. They operate within acommon information field, making itpossible to conduct tra in ing in acommon time and space environ-ment, and to simulate a surface shipor a submarine. To train conningtower personnel in maneuvering their
52 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
NAVY
TRANSAS:ELECTRONIC TECHNOLOGIES
TAKE EFFECTThe Russian company Transas is one of the world’s leading producers of simulator-trainers where naval specialists from virtually all professionscan undergo training.
Yevgeny Komrakov, captain
531 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
vessel within a formation of ships,Transas offers an inexpensive single-computer trainer. Every ship can beequipped with a combination of oneintegrated training system and a fewsingle-computer trainers (each play-ing the role of another ship), whichcan view one another on their dis-plays and on a radar display, as wellas hear one another over radio com-munication channels.
Transas offers a trainer for navalpilots. This trainer can also be inte-grated into the naval network.
Moreover , th is company a lsooffers the following devices for thetraining of specialists at shore-basedinstallations:
— shore-based surveillance radaroperator trainers;
— headquarters duty officer trainers;— oil pollution response center
trainers.These trainers are also networked
with the naval and maritime aviationtraining assets, which provides possi-bil i t ies for holding joint exercises in common t ime and space environment.
The naval and maritime aviationtrainers are available in the followingtwo basic versions:
— versatile trainer designed forinstallation on board a certain classof ship. This version features differentmathematical support models, showsdifferent ship bow shapes, and pre-sents various naval base and waterarea visualization scenes. All controlsand control consoles, as well as theradar, navigation system, sonar andother equipment simulation methodsare identical and conventionalized forall ship classes. These trainers arecomparat ive ly cheap and can bedelivered to the customer within ashort period of time;
— spec ia l -purpose t ra inerdesigned for a specific ship or air-craft. This trainer provides maximumsimulation of the equipment of allbatt le stat ions of a speci f ic shipclass. The price of this trainer ish igher and the de l i very te rm islonger. The trainer is designed andmanufactured with the participationof the developer of a real ship or air -craft. Generally, a greater effect islikely to be achieved if the trainer isordered together with a new ship(aircraft) or a group of ships or air-craft. In this case, the delivery termwill depend on the ship constructiondates, and the price of the equip -ment will insignificantly change thecontract value.
In the event of the versatile train-er, the advantages stemming from itseconomic viability are enhanced bythe possibility for training the crewsof different ships and aircraft.
If the special-purpose trainer is
preferred, one shouldbear in mind that ,although the effective -ness of the personnel’smotive skill developmentis higher, this trainer issu i ted most ly for thetraining of a crew of aspeci f ic sh ip c lass.Shou ld the t ra iner beordered wh i le a sh ip(submar ine) i s underconstruction, there is agood chance for thecrew to undergo trainingwell before the construc-t ion is completed andthe ship (submarine) iscommissioned.
T ransas has deve l-oped a tra iner for theProject 1241 ship, andanother trainer intendedfor submar ines underdevelopment.
Transas can developnew designs of trainingsystems to customerspecification.
Current ly, Transassupplies the equipment tothe navies and coastguard units of over 25states. The marketedequipment list includesnavigation and surfacesurvei l lance systems,shore-based surveillanceradar stations, and head-quarters- level surfacesurveil lance radar sta-tions. Trainers manufac-tured by Transas aredesigned to simulate thisequipment, and shouldthe naval and coast guardunits operate the above-ment ioned systems,Transas’s trainers wi l lprove to be the r ightchoice.
For more deta i l s ,please contact:
TRANSASPhone: +7 (812) 325-3131Fax: +7 (812) 567-1901e-mail:[email protected]
Ships leaving their base
Training scenarios
Employment of weapons
Passing through narrow waters or between skerries
Defense of military installation
Vadim Makashev, Director General, Ratep JSC
NAVY
In 1998, the Ratep JSC, the for-mer radio engineering factory, and
currently the prime manufacturer ofcon t ro l s ys tems fo r sh i pbo rnegun/missile complexes, turned 60.
The company has an impress ive
reco rd . Founded i n 1938 as an
instrument-making factory, its pri-mary objective was to provide theNavy with shipborne armament con-
trol devices.Before and during WWII, as well
in the first years after the war, the
factory produced electromechani-cal control systems for large-cal-iber shipborne gun mounts (Soyuz,
Soyu z -30 b i s ) ; s u r f a ce t a r ge tdetection and torpedo firing data
radars (Zarnitsa); coastal artillerycontrol radars (Redan-3); coastal
and sh ip-borne surve i l lance andtarget designation radars (Lin, Lot).
I n the l a te 1940s and ea r l y
1950s , the fac to ry focused ondevelopment of shipborne artillery
cont ro l radar sys tems fea tur ingimproved automation, increased fir-
i ng range and enhanced no i se
56 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
PRIME MANUFACTURER OF CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR UNIQUE
NAVAL WEAPONS COMPLEXESRatep company has built up a powerful production and engineering potential covering virtually all kinds of manufacturing and adjustmentfacilities, metrological support, mature tool production, and a testing center. These facilities allow the company to carry out almost all types of mechanical and weather tests of various items ranging from miniature devices and instruments to the control systems of whole complexes.
Main assembly shop
571 9 9 9 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
immunity. At that time, production ofsuch fire control radars as the Fut-B
and MR-105 was launched. Theseradars are still in service with the
navies of some countries.In the late 1950s, one of the first
cruise missile onboard control and
homing systems (developed by theAlmaz Design Bureu) rolled off the
factory’s production line. Concur-rently, the factory launched pro-
duction of a radar control systemfor the f i r s t sh ipborne c lose- in su r f a ce - t o - a i r ( SAM) comp l e x ;
gyroscopic s tab i l i za t ion systemsand the Musson radars designed to
guide antisubmarine rocket-assist-ed torpedos.
These complexes and cont ro lsystems, as wel l as the MR-105radar undergo regular upgrades and
have become the principal weaponso f t he Navy ’ s comba tan t sh i ps
(Grozny and Admiral Zozulya classmissile cruisers; Soobrazitelny and
Provorny class large antisubmarineships, etc.).
Production of shipborne passive
jamming control systems (Tertsiya,1960 - 1986; Smeta, 1984 - 1998),
which entered service with manyRussian and foreign warships at dif-ferent times, is among the compa-
ny’s main lines of business.In the 1980s and 1990s the com-
pany j o i ned t he A l t a i r S ta teResearch and Production Associa-
tion (the prime contractor) in thedevelopment and ass imi lat ion ofseries production of control sys-
tems for modern shipborne multi-channel SAM complexes, such as
the Rif, Klinok, and Shtil, capable ofproviding protection to both individ -
ual ships and formations of shipsagainst aircraft and missiles underdense a t tacks . Genera l l y , these
SAMs are not inferior to their for -eign counterparts while in terms of
some basic parameters they out-perform them.
Assimilation of series productionof control systems for these com-plexes encompassing the elements
of radio location, microelectronics,precision instrument making, radio-
frequency units and components, aswell as large shipborne structures,
such as antenna stations, called forthe radical retooling of the enter-prise and construction of new pro-
duction capacities.The company has built up a pow-
erful production and engineeringpotential covering virtually all kinds
of manufacturing and adjustmentfac i l i t i es , met ro log ica l suppor t ,
mature tool production, and a test-ing center. These facilities allow thecompany to carry out a lmost a l l
types of mechanical and weathertests of various items ranging from
miniature devices and instrumentsto the cont ro l sys tems of who le
complexes.Until now, the optimized produc-
tion models of the Rif, Klinok andShtil SAM complexes continue to bethe key defensive weapons of Russ-
ian naval ships. In acknowledgment of the com -
pany’s contribution to the develop-ment of sophist icated e lectronic
systems for the Russian Navy, thecompany was awarded the higheststate orders: the Order of the Red
Banner (1963) and the Order ofLenin (1984).
Before and after the disintegra -tion of the Soviet Union the compa-
ny has been giving much considera-tion to the establ ishment of eco-nomic ties with foreign partners.
The sh i p s e xpo r t ed t o Sy r i a ,Egypt, A lger ia, Indonesia, L ibya,
Ethiopia were equipped with theSoyuz, Soyuz-30 bis, Zarnitsa, and
Fut-B sys tems manufac tured byou r company . The MR-105 f i r econ t r o l s y s t ems u sed w i t h t h e
Volna SAM complexes are opera -tional on board the Project 61ME
warships now in serv ice with theIndian Navy. The system operatestrouble-free under various climatic
conditions.Cons ide r i ng tha t t he p resen t
portfolio of orders for the manufac-ture of new armament systems for
the Ministry of Defense of the Russ-ian Federa t ion has dramat ica l l ydried up, the only way of maintain-
ing the military hardware currently inservice with the Navy up-to-date is
its modernization. To this end, thecompany p rese r ves and fu r the r
develops its fleet-based productioncapacities, overhauls and servicesthe control systems of missile and
Assembly of radio projectors for the Shtil SAM complex5P10 multipurpose multitarget electronic system
Antenna station of the Klinok SAM complex
gun/missi le complexes, includingthose manufactured by the ship -
bu i l d i ng i ndus t r y o f t he fo rmerUSSR. Ratep has been actively par-
ticipating in the development of theKlinok complex fire control systemupgraded by Al ta ir and wi l l soon
complete construction of the firstunit in this series and the Moskit
system for export.The expanded production capaci-
ties have allowed Ratep to launchproduction of the Podacha multi -purpose fire control system (devel-
oped by the Ametist Design Bureau)designed to equip the Bereg self-
propelled artillery complex (devel -oped by the Titan Central Design
Bureau) and other artillery systemscurrently in service with the armedforces.
On the basis of advanced tech -nologies the company has launched
production of fundamentally new firecontrol systems built around multi-
layer microstrip antenna moduleswith a digital beam formation mech-anism.
Recen t l y , a f i r s t o f t he c l ass5P10 Amet ist-designed mult ipur-
pose multitarget system intended to
control f ire of shipborne guns ofvarious calibers at surface, shore-
based and air (including low-flying)targets has come out of the pro-
duction line.In partnership with the Altair State
R&P Associat ion, Amet ist Design
Bureau and Tula Instrument-MakingDes ign Bureau , the company i s
preparing fire control systems of theShti l-1 and 5P10 SAM complexes
and of the Kashtan gun/miss i lecomp lex f o r t he P ro j ec t 11356frigates in service with the Indian
Navy.For greater confidence and sta-
bility under the present conditionsand with a view to converting the
production to civ i l ian output, thecompany’s engineers have devel-oped design and technological doc-
umentat ion to manufacture con-sumer goods, along with the main
production items.As part of the Russian Federa -
tion’s city transport developmentprogram, the company has beenproduc ing eco log ica l l y f r iend ly ,
energy saving equipment for con-trol of the electric drives of sub-
way c a r r i a ge s i n Moscow . Thecompany i s p repared to l aunch
production of satellite communica -
tions equipment (antenna devices,rad io conversa t ion and channe l
communication devices) designedby the Radio Research Institute.
I n add i t i on to soph i s t i ca teddefense-oriented equipment, thecompany produces k i tchen tools
(food processors, electric meat min-ce rs ) under l i cense o f I t a l y ’ s
Rachetto S.P.A. The design of theseitems was developed by the Italian
f i rm G ju ig ia ro Des ign . TheEMSh35/130 electric meat mincerhas been issued an internat ional
certificate (CB).The high-quality household appli-
ances manufactured by Ratep wereawarded the gold medal at the exhi-
b i t ion, The Wor ld o f Househo ldApp l i ances ‘98 ( Yeka te r i nbu rg ,November 1998).
To broaden the capabilities andbe able to produce designs of vari -
ous kinds of high-quality domesticappliances and other civilian prod-
ucts quickly, the company has pur-chased the CAD/CAM equipment todeve lop end- to -end des igns o f
products. The company has alsoacquired the Codick electroerosion
machines and signed contracts withthe Dutch firm NMA for the delivery
of modern technological equipmentfor the production of printed circuitboards of high accuracy class and
density.Ratep is continually building
up its production potential and isready to export armament, mili -
tary equipment and commercialproducts.
58 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
Equipment for end-to-end designing of products Household appliances produced by Ratep
The Kashtan gun/missile complex
Gennady Chernenko, Historian
H ISTORY
In Russia, development of these
unusual vehicles is associated with the
name of Vladimir Levkov who was bornin the industrial city of Rostov-on-Don
in 1895. In the summer of 1921,
Vladimir Levkov graduated from theDonskoi Polytechnic Institute (DPI) in
Novocherkassk. Eight years later he
was appointed professor at the AppliedAerodynamics Department.
How did the young Levkov come up
with the radical notion for air-cushionvehicle? Unfortunately, history does not
provide us with any definite answers.
He might have been inspired by Tsi-olkovsky’s work, Air Drag and ExpressTrain which was published in Kaluga in
1927 and immediately sent to the DPIlibrary where Levkov spent much of his
time.
The young researcher set for himselfa simpler and more realistic task. In
1927, he began research into the
dynamics of air-cushion vehicles by
testing a symmetric model, circular inplane, with a diameter of only 700 -
800 mm. His miniature model was built
according to what is now referred to asa chamber configuration design.
In 1932, trials of a new air-cushion
vehicle model began. The new modelfeatured an elongated, oblong shape,
rather than circular one, and hand-
somely equipped with two propengines—one mounted in the nose sec-
tion and the other in the aft section of
the hull. Tests of this model were alsoa success. Work was immediately
begun for the construction of a larger
model of craft which was about 2.5 mlong.
In retrospect, it seems that Levkov
specifically pursued his air-cushionhovercraft to be used as a fast «flying»
naval ship, for example, an attack tor-
pedo craft. In May 1934, Vladimir Lev-
kov was transferred to the Moscow Avi-ation Institute (since at that time the
Novocherkask Aviation Institute was
closed) where he became a professorof experimental aerodynamics. In
December of that year Professor Lev-
kov was put in charge of a specializedtechnical department at the MAI; here
Levkov and his team began preparing
blue-prints for the L-1 air-cushion vehi-cle. The first hovercraft was built at the
Institute’s workshops and prepared for
trials by the summer of 1935.The first prototype was a very simple
design which consisted of two small
wooden catamarans that were poweredby three prop engines. Two M-11 radial
aero-engines were installed horizontally
in the funnel-shaped wells on the plat-form which connected the catamaran
hulls together. The third engine, also
an air-cooled M-11, was placed in theaft part of the craft on a removable
four-strut pylon. Air cushion was pro-
duced by the horizontally-placedengines.
62 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
LEVKOV’S HOVERCRAFT The British engineer, Christopher Cockerell, is popularly considered to bethe founding father of air-cushion vehicles. In June of 1959, his experimentalhovercraft successfully crossed the English Channel between the ports ofDover and Kalais. This historical event was given great publicity by the worldpress, however, it failed to acknowledge that the first hovercraft was actuallylaunched in the Soviet Union long before Cockerell’s maiden voyage.
The first ever air-cushion vehicle L-1 before trials,the Pleshcheyevo Lake, Russia, October 1935
631 9 9 8 M A R C H ✩ A P R I L
On October 2, 1935, state trials of
the L-1 air-skimmer (this was the offi-cial term adopted for the craft) began
on the Pleshcheyevo Lake (the
Jaroslavl Region, Russia). The testslasted for 10 days.
At that time nobody had experience
in operating such vehicles. Overwaterruns were performed using either two
horizontal engines (with the pylon-
mounted engine shut down) or all threeengines running simultaneously. Trials
were conducted in calm and windy
weather, crosswind and downwind,over flat shore and swampy areas cov-
ered with sedge. Once the hovercraft’s
engines failed and the vehicle landedin a deep swamp. However, soon the
engines were restarted, the boat
ascended and recovered itself from theswamp. The maximum speed of the
first hovercraft was approximately 60
knots when powered by three engines,and 38 knots when powered by two.
Trial results of this first prototype hov-
ercraft were acknowledged as satisfac-tory. It was indicated in the report that
the «principle for air-cushion vehicles
has been proven feasible.» This reportwas approved by the Deputy People’s
Commissar of Defense, M.
Tukhachevsky. He wrote that the 1936Prototype Construction Plan should
encompass the production of two such
skimming boats: one to be used as afast attack torpedo craft and the other
as a marine landing craft.
Building on previously gained knowl-edge, a full-metal (duralumin) fast tor-
pedo craft, designated L-5, was built in
1937. The craft had a good shape,glazed cabin, turret machine-gun
mount and large tail fins. This was truly
a unique naval boat.In the midship area there was a
streamlined pilot house/cabin for the
pilot and mechanic followed by a troop
compartment and then by a turret
equipped with a ring for a twinmachine-gun mount. Torpedo attach-
ment points were arranged under the
center section in the dome space. Thehovercraft could also carry eight depth
charges. Over a distance of one mile,
this hovercraft accelerated to a speedof over 70 knots (about 130 km/h).
In December 1938, M. Frinovsky, the
People’s Commissar of the Red Navy,reported to the Chairman of Defense
Council, V. Molotov, that the Chief Mili-
tary Council of the Red Navy had dis-cussed the results of trials of the fast
attack craft built according to Professor
Levkov’s design. Frinovsky wrote: «Thetrial results indicated that the tactical
and technical characteristics of this
new attack craft significantly surpassedthose of fast torpedo craft in service
with the Red Navy... To introduce this
type of fast attack craft into service,
the Chief Military Council of the Red
Navy considers it necessary to build thefirst prototype series of nine such craft
and distribute them among all fleets to
train personnel and develop techniquesof tactical employment of this new
weapon system...»
On March 11, 1939, by the order ofthe People’s Commissar of the Ship-
building Industry, I. Tevosyan, Profes-
sor Levkov was appointed Head andChief Designer of the newly established
TzKB-1 (Central Design Bureau #1).
Plant #445 in Tushino near Moscow,previously involved in glider production,
was chosen as the new hovercraft pro-
duction facility.Following the commencement of
construction of combat craft, a need
Vladimir Levkov (first row, second right) among DPI students, Novocherkassk, 1924
Performance trials of the L-5 fast attack craft, the Gulf of Finland, 1937
for the manufacture of training boats
emerged. A training boat, designated
L-9, soon appeared. It was designedfor the training of its commanders,
pilots, mechanics and gunners, and
could also be used for liaison, patrol,ASW and troop landing missions.
Despite apparent success, Vladimir
Levkov realized that his hovercraft hadsome serious shortcomings. Both
good and discouraging reports were
coming from the Baltic Fleet, whichhad already received about a dozen of
various types of air-cushion vehicles.
The discouraging reports stated thatpressure under the craft was low due
to air escape through the vessel’s
open extreme ends which reduced thecraft’s load-carrying capacity; sprays
produced by the powerful engines lim-
ited visibility; vessel’s operation waslimited to sea state 4; the impact of
the craft with waves changed the set-
ting of louvers and occasionally dam-aged them. However, the main prob-
lem involved the aeroengines. In vary-
ing maritime conditions, they oftensputtered and stalled when water pen-
etrated into the exposed carburetors.
And since the engines were positionedhorizontally, they were not sufficiently
air-cooled and would subsequently
overheat if run for long periods oftime. Arrangement of water-cooled
engines in a row required the introduc-
tion of angled reduction gear units todrive propellers. Designers worked on
these units, but the task turned out to
be too complicated for the time.Finally, it was World War II which
ultimately brought Levkov’s ambitious
project to the ground. In October 1941,as enemy forces penetrated Russia,
Levkov’s Design Bureau and Plant
#445 were evacuated to Alapayevsk,
an old city in the Urals. Levkov wasappointed Chief Engineer of the plant
which was ordered to produce troop-
carrying gliders.Hovercraft built before the war were
assigned to the Baltic Fleet. In 1941, as
the German forces continued theiradvance, all of these craft were trans-
ferred to the Kronshtadt’s Litke base
and remained there until 1947. In 1947,they were considered obsolete and
subsequently scrapped. The same sad
fate took the only six-engine hovercraft.An attempt to transport it from Moscow
to Gorky unfortunately failed. As fierce
fighting approached Moscow, theunique craft was destroyed.
From 1944, Vladimir Levkov held one
of his posit ions at the HydraulicsDepartment of Moscow Food Industry
Institute (MTIIP). In May 1952, he left
the shipbuilding industry to start work-
ing permanently at the MTIIP as a pro-
fessor, remaining a consultant of theCentral Design Bureau involved in the
development of hovercraft. On the eve
of 1954, Levkov suffered an apoplecticattack at his institute and two days
later, on the 2nd of January, he died of
a hemorrhage of the brain. VladimirLevkov was buried at the Golovinskoye
cemetery in Moscow.
This was just the time when Christo-pher Cockerell began experimenting
with his first elementary hovercraft
models.
64 M I L I T A R Y P A R A D E
Pilot house cross-section of the L-9 fast attack craft, 1939
Assault hovercraft proposed by V. Levkov in 1935