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MigrantsMigrants, , labourlabour andand povertypoverty in the EUin the EU
UNIVERSITY OF OVIEDOUNIVERSITY OF OVIEDODepartment
of
Sociology
Hans van den BroekHans van den Broek20 October
2010
•
Virtually
all
studies
demonstrate:
–
More difficult
for
migrants
to
find
a job•
High
incidence
of
informal activities
–
If
employed, they
tend
to
have
lower
earnings
than natives
–
Worse
housing
conditions
than
natives•
Higher
incidence
of
extended households
WorkingWorking, , poorpoor andand immigrantimmigrant??
•
To
what
extent
and
in what
ways
are working
(and housing) conditions
of
migrant
workers
more
disadvantageous
than
those
of
natives?
•
What
specific
barriers
and
other
challenges
do migrants
encounter
with
respect
to
labour
market
integration?
•
How do they
cope
?
•
Different
(cat. of) migrants different policies ?
WorkingWorking, , poorpoor andand immigrantimmigrant??
•
Main
literature
on
South
–
North
migration
•
But
(de Haan
& Yaqub, 2009) –
“The poorest
[migrant
families] tend
to
migrate
less
to
high-income
countries”–
They
migrate
within
national
borders
or
within
the
region
(i.e. SouthSouth
––
SouthSouth
migrationmigration)–
Most
do not
appear
in statistics
•
(Paradoxically, development
and
lifting
people
out of
poverty, has in some
cases led
to
an
increase
in out-migration)
StudiesStudies onon MigrationMigration andand PovertyPoverty
•
What
interests
us
here
: Migration, Poverty
and In-Work
Poverty
in Europe
•
Factors
that
go
against
social inclusion, equal opportunities
?
•
High
% of
immigrant
workers
: in labour-intensive, low-income
jobs, with
temporary
contracts
–
Unstable
employment
situations
that
are the result of
flexible employment
practices
used
by employers
StudiesStudies onon MigrationMigration andand PovertyPoverty
•
Factors
that
go
against
social inclusion, equal opportunities
?
–
Pay
gap
(20 -
40 %)–
Job // qualification
gap
–
‘Glass
ceiling’
effect–
Exploitation
(esp. of
seasonal
workers)
–
Ethnicization
of
the labour
market
StudiesStudies onon MigrationMigration andand PovertyPoverty
On
the whole: •
Few
studies
on
Migrants
and
InIn--WorkWork
PovertyPoverty
in Europe. –
Eurofound
studies
•
More in USA •
…
and
especially
Canada
StudiesStudies onon MigrationMigration andand PovertyPoverty
Fleury, Dominique (2007): “A Study of Poverty and Working Poverty among Recent Immigrants to Canada”. Human Resources and Social Development Canada.
CanadianCanadian literatureliterature onon WPM WPM (1)(1)
•
CanadianCanadian literatureliterature onon WPM WPM (2)(2)
Disposable
income
of
recentrecent immigrants
was
significantly lower
than
that
of
natives
and
earlier
immigrants
–
Family
income
of
recent
immigrants: 76 % of
native-born Canadians
RecentRecent vs. vs. earlierearlier migrantsmigrants
Living in poverty
Working poor
Recent immigrants 21.5 % 7.7 %Earlier immigrants 11.2 %
2.7 %Native Canadians 9.3 %
(Fleury, 2007)
Factors
that
“predict”
the risk
of
in-work
poverty
: –
(lower) level
of
education
–
(fewer) years
of
labour
experience–
work
limitations
(physical
or
mental conditions)
•
Thus:
Human Capital >
=> risk
of
(in-work) poverty
<
For
natives
and
earlier
immigrants
,
BUT NOT FOR RECENT IMMIGRANTS
InIn--workwork povertypoverty amongamong migrantsmigrants
Charcteristics
of
recent
immigrants
in (in-work) poverty
:
–
Mainly
30 –
44 years
old–
No work
limitations
(disabilities)
–
Many
with
university desgree
(1:3)–
Member
of
a ‘visible minority’
group
•
“There
is
evidence
that
the poorest, least
skilled, least physically
capable
and
those
without
networks
tend
to
migrate
less”
(de Haan
& Yaqub, 2009: 6)
InIn--workwork povertypoverty amongamong migrantsmigrants
Only ‘unfavourable’ characteristic
Factors
that
contribute
to
in-work
poverty
among
immigrants
(in Canada) :
–
Being
head
of
a lone-parent
family
(single mothers)
–
Not
working
sufficient
nº
of
hours
/ wk, mth, yr
–
Being
of
Asian
or
Arab
origin
InIn--workwork povertypoverty amongamong migrantsmigrants
•
(Fleury, 2007) In the past, migrants
caught
up with rest
after
10-15 years
•
But
what
about
today?
•
Recent
migrants: higher
educational
levels•
But
: Higher
percentage
of
low-incomes
•
Newly
arrived: greater
difficulties
to
catch
up with natives
Hence: problems
seem
to
have
become
worse
for migrants
Are Are thingsthings improvingimproving forfor immigrantsimmigrants ??
•
Also
Shipler
(2005) : –
Especially
for
low-skilled
migrants, today
there
are
more barriers
to
upward
mobility
than
30 years
ago–
Even
for
next
generation(s), upward
mobility
is
not
certain
•
OECD Report
(2010) –
Children
of
immigrants
have
lower
employment
outcomes
than
children
of
natives
BetterBetter perspectivesperspectives forfor nextnext generationgeneration ??
•
But
: –
Educational
performance
and
labour
market
position
of
immigrant
children
≥
EP & LMP of
native
children in : USA, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand
–
In most
European countries, their
situation
is
worse
!
–
Labour
market
perspectives
are worst
for
: immigrantimmigrant
femalefemale
youthyouth
in European OECD countries
WhatWhat aboutabout migrantsmigrants’’ childrenchildren??
•
Barriers
?
–
Discrimination
(of
immigrant
job
seekers)
–
Less
access
to
networks
with
people
linked
to
LM (thus, to
informal recruitment
channels)
–
Lack
of
knowledge
about
recruitment
and
selection norms
WhatWhat aboutabout migrantsmigrants’’ childrenchildren??
US studies:
•
High
population
density
in down-town
areas•
Housing
deterioration
•
20% lived
in housing
that
was
too small
for
the size
of
the family
•
Hence, high
population
turnover
HousingHousing conditionsconditions
Danish
study
(Ejrnaes
et al., 2001) :•
In Denmark, also
in USA, immigrants
have
higher
self-employment
rates
than
natives
…•
… and rising
(among
natives: falling)
SelfSelf--employmentemployment andand WorkingWorking poorpoor
wage-employment
non-employment self-employment
Danish
study
(Ejrnaes
et al., 2001)
:•
In Denmark, also
in USA, immigrants
have
higher
self-employment
rates
than
natives
…•
… and rising
(among
natives: falling)
SelfSelf--employmentemployment andand WorkingWorking poorpoor
wage-employment
non-employment self-employment
N (M)M
•
Due
to:–
Discrimination
in regular labour
market
–
Official
qualifications
(diplomas etc.) not
recognized–
Non-acceptance
of
cultural symbols
in wage
employment
•
For
a group
of
migrants
: ‘employment
of
last
resort’–
(Not
so for
natives)
•
If
stuck
in self-employed
(no possibility
to
return
to wage-employment), self-employment
may become
poverty
trap
SelfSelf--employmentemployment andand WorkingWorking poorpoor
Co-residence
with
certain
degree
ofeconomic
cooperation
•
Extended households
/ compound
households*–
Constant
readjustments High instability of
household structure
•
Income
pooling–
But
limited
to
sharing
rent
and
other
living expenses
cont.
How do WPM How do WPM copecope??
Poorest
segment, made up of
single single mothersmothers•
Living in extended households
is
absolute
necessity: –
to
share
expenses
–
to
share
child-care
responsibilities
How do How do theythey copecope??
•
Informal economic
activities–
i.e. combining
wage
employment
with
jobs
‘under
the
table’–
Or
as alternative
for
regular jobs
(if
hard
to
find,
pay
less
or
are highly
discontinuous)
•
Dense social networks–
Important
to
have
access
to
information
on
:
employment
opportunities, housing, charity, legal help, education, etc.
How do How do theythey copecope??
•
Assistance
from
charities, Gov’t
institutions
–
(in Canada) Among
recent
immigrants
who
did
NOT
live
in poverty, 60% were
only
able
to
avoid
poverty through
family
and
Government
support
•
Men: 45 % ; women: 75 %
How do How do theythey copecope??
•
Often
: multiple
roles played
by womenwomen
enable families
to
cope
–
Regular job, informal activities, household
chores,
child-care, maintaining
social network and
contact with
public
institutions
How do How do theythey copecope??
•
George
Borjas
(Harvard
Univ. Labour
Economist) :•
…
relation
between
illigal
immigration
and
‘native’
Working
Poor
–
Influx
of
(low-skilled, low-paid) immigrants pullsdown wages
–
Greatest
impact
on
entry-level, low-skilled
workers
MigrationMigration andand ((nativenative) ) WorkingWorking PoorPoor
•
Jennifer Gordon
(2007) –
Most
“undocumented
immigrants
accept
whatever
wage
is
offered”–
(…
and
also
many
documented
migrants)
–
Even
more so in times of
crisis
•
Solution
: enforce
workers’
rights
Transnational Labor Citizenship
MigrationMigration andand ((nativenative) ) WorkingWorking PoorPoor
•
Jennifer Gordon
(2007) Transnational Labor Citizenship
– “Imagine if the United States began admitting migrants on the condition that they join a network of workers’ organizations here and in their home countries — a sort of transnational union. Migrants could work here legally. They could take jobs anywhere in the country and stay as long as they liked. But they would have to promise to report employers that violated labor laws. They could lose their visas by breaking that promise.”
MigrationMigration andand ((nativenative) ) WorkingWorking PoorPoor
•
How can Gov’t
policies help
to
avoid
the generation of
areas
of
concentrated
poverty?
–
Combat
exploitation
of
undocumented
immigrants
*
–
Policies to
assist
low-income
immigrant
communities
–
Youth
: •
early
education
•
information
on
labour
market
functioning
(school
!)•
mentorship
programmes
GovernmentGovernment policies policies ((StateState & local) & local)
•
High
populationpopulation
turnoverturnover
in extended immigrant households thwarts implementation of
programmes that need stable population
•
Economic
stratification
within
extended household(differentdifferent
living living standardsstandards
among
members)
normally ignored by public policies
•
Situation
of
single single immigrantimmigrant
mothersmothers, often masked
in aggregate
census
statistics
Hence, invisible to public policy officials
ImpedimentsImpediments forfor GovGov’’tt policiespolicies
•
More research
on
Migrants
and
In-work
Poverty needed
•
Treat
migrants
NOT as a homogeneous
category–
In-family
differentiation
: genderadults
vs. childrenchildren
nationalities–
Fleury
(2007) demonstrates
the usefulness
of
differentiating
between
recent
and
earlier
migrants–
(probability
of
recent
immigrants
to
belong
to
the
working
poor
is
twice
as big)
ConclusionsConclusions / / RecommendationsRecommendations
ThankThank youyou !!
• De Haan, Arjan & Shahin Yaqub (2009): “Migration and Poverty. Linkages, Knowledge Gaps and Policy Implications”. Social Policy and Development, Programme Paper Number 40, UNRISD.
• Ejrnaes, Mette, Kraen Blume Jensen, Helena Skyt Nielsen & Allan Würtz (2001): ”Self-Employed Immigrants in Denmark – The Working Poor?”
• Eurofound (2010): Working Poor in Europe.• Fleury, Dominique (2007): “A Study of Poverty and Working
Poverty among Recent Immigrants to Canada”. Human Resources and Social Development Canada.
• Gordon, Jennifer (2007): “Transnational Labor Citizenship”, Southern California Law Review, Vol. 80.
ReferencesReferences
• Liebig, Thomas & Lena Schröder (2010): “Main findings”, in OECD: Equal Opportunities? The Labour Market Integration of the children of immigrants.
• López Peláez, Antonio (2005): “Excluidos pero trabajadores: el círculo vicioso de los ‘trabajadores con bajo salario’ en España”. Cuadernos de Relaciones Laborales, vol. 23, nº. 1.
• OECD (2010): Equal Opportunities? The Labour Market Integration of the Children of Immigrants.
• Shipler, David K. (2005): The Working Poor: Invisible in America.
• Zlolniski, Christian and Juan-Vicente Palerm (1996): "Working but Poor: Mexican Immigrant Workers in a Low- Income Enclave in San Jose" (November 1, 1996). Center for Latino Policy Research. CLPR Working Papers: Paper ZlolniskiPalerm1996.
ReferencesReferences