Middle English Syntax and Vocabulary

Middle English Syntax: Within Phrases

• Adjectives usually before nouns

an erþely servaunt

an earthly servant

• occasionally after the noun in poetry

shoures soote

showers sweet

Syntax in Phrases (cont’d)• With more than one adjective, sometimes one

before the noun, the rest after ita gode wyt and a retentyffa good wit and a retentive

• in possessive, no apostropheoþer mens prosperite

• the ‘s sometimes became -isgo to þe raven is nestego to the raven’s nest

• ME: first occurrence of of for possessiveaftyr þe lawes of our londeaccording to the laws of our land

ME Possessive Phrases

• possessive + noun + noun modifiers

the Dukes place of Lancastre

the Duke of Lancaster’s place

• double possessive (both of and possessive pronoun) came in with ME

the capteyn…toke awey .j. obligacion of myn

the captain…took away one obligation of mine

Adverbial Modifiers• Adverbs & adverb phrases came before the words

they modified more often than in MnEye shul first in alle youre werkesyou must first in all your worksmekely biseken to the heighe Godmeekly beseech to the high God

• the negative ne always came before the main verb, and often contracted with itI nolde fange a ferthynge for seynt Thomas shryneI would not take a farthing for St. Thomas’ shrine

• as in OE, double negatives very commonHe nevere yet no vileynye ne sayde / In all his lyf unto no maner wight (Chaucer)

Preposition Phrases

• Prepositions still occasionally followed their objects

he seyde him to

• in relative clauses, prepositions usually came at or near the end of the phrase

the place that I of speke

the place that I of speak

preciouse stanes þat he myght by a kingdom with

precious stones that he might buy a kingdom with

Verb Phrases

• Perfect tense (have + past participle) developed in ME

þou hauest don oure kunne wo

You have done our family woe

• Progressive tense (be + pres. participle) also developed (sometimes with in or on)

For now is gode Gawayn goande ryʒt here

For now is good Gawain going right here

I am yn beldynge of a pore hous

I am (in) building of a poor house

Verb Phrases (cont’d)

• ME saw the beginning of shall and will to mark the future tense

Quan al mankinde…Sal ben fro dede to live broʒt

When all mankind…shall be from dead to living brought

and swiche wolle have the kyngdom of helle

and such will have the kingdom of hell

• note that shall still had a degree of obligation (“must”), and will of volition (“want to”)

Auxiliary Verbs

• Developed in ME, began to replace subjunctive

þat y mowe riche be

that I may rich be

• but the subjunctive is still more common in ME than MnE:

how lawful so it were

however lawful it might be

why nere I deed!

why am I not dead!

The ‘do’ explosion1. Substitute for a previous verb

camels may forbere drynk and so may not the hors do

camels can forgo drink and thus can not the horse do

2. As a causative (like make or have)

al hys halles I wol do peynte with pure gold

all his halls I will have painted with pure gold

3. Next to a main verb (emphatic? Not really)

unto the mayde that hir doth serve

to the maid that her does serve• Negative and interrogative clauses began in ME, still not

as common as simple verb

my maister dyd not graunt it

Fader, why do ye wepe?

Syntax Within Clauses

• Trend toward modern word order• SVO still the most common• SOV occasionally found

þat ðu þis weork naht ne forlatethat you this work not (not) neglect

• VSO regular for questions and commandsGaf ye the chyld any thyng?Gave you the child any thing?Bryng ye the horsBring you the horse

Syntax Within Clauses (cont’d)

• OSV used to emphasize the object

This bok I haue mad and wretyn

The book I have made and written

• OVS was still common for the same thing

Clothis have they none

Clothes have they none

Syntax Within Sentences

• Coordinated (“and/so”) more than subordinated (“when/while”): “run-on” sentences

Than sir Launcelot had a condicion that he used of custom to clatir in his slepe and to speke oftyn of hyls lady, quene gwenyver. So sir Launcelot had awayked as long as hit had pleased hym, and so by course of kynde he slepte and dame Elayne bothe. And in his slepe he talked and claterde as a jay of the love that bene betwyxte quene Gwenyver and hym, and so as he talked so lowde the quene harde hym thereas she lay in her chambir. And whan she harde hym so clattir she was wrothe oute of mesure, and for anger and payne wist not what to do, and than she cowghed so lowde that sir Launcelot awaked. (Malory, Morte d’Arthur)

used of custom was accustomed to clatir chatter

kynde nature wist knew

Middle English Vocabulary

• Beginning of huge English vocabulary, susceptibility to borrowing

• Layering of vocabulary: colloquial/formal, everyday/technical, general/specialized - English became more cosmopolitan

• Loss of inflectional system made it easier to borrow (no worries about gender, declension); cf. Russian, Japanese

• Also, English has many phonemes - not hard to say foreign words

Scandinavian Influence• Scandinavian/Norse• Some borrowed in OE, written in ME (North & East Midlands), then

spread• 1150-1250: anger, bag, band, bloom, both, bound (going to), bull,

cake, call, carp (complain), cast, clip (cut), club, die, egg, fellow, flit, gad gape, gear, get hit, husband, ill, kid, kindle, loan, loft, loose, low, meek, muck, raise, ransack, rid, root, rotten, sale, same scab, scale, scare, scathe, score (20), seat, seem skill, skin, sky sly, snare, swain, take, thrall, thrive, thrust, thwart, trust, ugly, wand, want wassail, window, wing

• 1250-1350: awe, bait, ball, bark (of tree), bat (the animal), birth, blend, bole, bracken, brad, brunt, crawl, dirt, dregs, droop, flat, flaw, geld, gift, girth, glitter, leg, lift, likely, midden, mire, mistake, odd, race, rag, rive, rugged, skate (the fish), slaughter, sleight, slight, snub, stack, stagger, stem, teem, weak, whirl

• 1350-1500: awkward, bask, bawl, bulk, down (feathers), eddy, firth, flag, freckle, froth, gap, gasp, keel, keg, leak, link, raft, reef (sail), reindeer, scant, scrap, steak, tatter, tether, tyke

Scandinavian (cont’d)• Why borrow both, call, take? (common words)• Norse loans replaced English words

hātan > callbā > bothniman/fōn > take

• partial replacementhēofon > skyNorse crawl, English creep

• cognate doublets:Norse raise, skin, skirtEnglish rear, shin, shirt

• -son in personal names (Nelson, Anderson) - extended to English names (Edwardson, Edmundson) and French names (Jackson, Richardson)

French Influence• By far the most important• Slow until 1200 - why?i. several bilingual generations to get

comfortable with French wordsii. Very few English texts before 1200• French loans in all fields• cf. Italian (music, architecture, painting, not

much else)• cuisine: bake, sauté, serve, plate, casserole,

fork, stir, mince, roast, fry (lasagne, spaghetti, pizza, pesto)

French loans (sample of 1000 words)

<1050 2 1301-1350

108 1601-1650

61

1051-1100

0 1351-1400

198 1651-1700

37

1101-1150

2 1401-1450

74 1701-1750

33

1151-1200

7 1451-1500

90 1751-1800

26

1201-1250

35 1501-1550

62 1801-1850

46

1251-1300

99 1551-1600

95 1851-1900

25

French Loans by Semantic FieldRelationships and RanksParentage, ancestor, aunt, uncle, cousin, gentle(man), noble, peer,

peasant, servant, villein, page, courtier, squire, madam, sir, princess, duke, count, marquis, baron

The House And Its FurnishingsPorch, cellar, pantry, closet, parlor, chimney, arch, (window)pane,

wardrobe, chair, table, lamp, couch, cushion, mirror, curtain, quilt, counterpane, towel, blanket

Food and EatingDinner, supper, taste, broil, fry, plate, goblet, serve, beverage, sauce,

salad, gravy, fruit, grape, beef, pork, mutton, salmon, sugar, onion, cloves, mustard

FashionFashion, dress, garment, coat, cloak, pantaloons, bonnet, boots, serge,

cotton, satin, fur, button, ribbon, baste, embroider, pleat, gusset, jewel, pearl, bracelet

French Loans by Semantic Field (cont’d)

Sports and EntertainmentJoust, tournament, kennel, scent, terrier, falcon, stallion, park, dance,

chess, checkers, minstrel, fool, prize, tennis, racket, disport, audience, entertain, amusement, recreation

Arts, Music, LiteratureArt, painting, sculpture, portrait, color, music, melody, lute, tabor,

hautboy, carol, poet, story, rime, chapter, title, romance, lay, tragedy, rondel, ballad

EducationStudy, science, reason, university, college, dean, form, train, grammar,

noun, subject, test, indite, pupil, copy, pen, pencil, paper, page, chapter, tome, lectern, dais

MedicineMedicine, surgeon, pain, disease, remedy, cure, contagious, plague,

humor, pulses, fracture, ague, gout, distemper, drug, balm, herb, powder, sulfur, bandage, ointment, poison

French Loans by Semantic Field (cont’d)

GovernmentGovernment, state, country, city, village, office, rule, reign, public,

crown, court, police, tyranny, subsidy, tax, counselor, treasurer, exchequer, register, mayor, citizen

LawJudge, jury, appeal, evidence, inquest, accuse, proof, convict, pardon,

attorney, heir, state, broker, fine, punish, prison, crime, felony, arson, innocent, just

The ChurchChapel, choir, cloister, crucifix, religion, clergy, chaplain, parson,

sermon, matins, confession, penance, pray, anoint, absolve, trinity, faith, miracle, temptation, heresy, divine, salvation

The MilitaryEnemy, battle, defense, peace, force, advance, capture, siege, attack,

retreat, army, navy, soldier, guard, sergeant, captain, spy, moat, order, march, trophy

French Loans: “Little” Words

• Seem native• Age, blame, catch, chance, change, close,

cry, dally, enter, face, fail, fine, flower, fresh, grease, grouch, hello, hurt, join, kerchief, large, letter, line, mischief, move, offer, part, pay, people, piece, place, please, poor, pure, rock, roll, save, search, sign, square, stuff, strange, sure, touch, try, turn, use

Areas less affected by French

• Shipping and seafaring (German/Dutch)• Farming, agriculture (farm Fr., agriculture Lat.),

but:• Acre, loam, field, hedge, furrow, sow, till, reap,

harvest, plough, sickle, scythe, shovel, spade, rake, seed, what, barley, corn, beans, oats, grass, hay, fodder, ox, horse, cow, swine, sheep, hen, goose, duck, sty, pen, barn, fold (all English)

• No place-name elements (no all-French settlements)

Parts of Speech

• Almost all nouns, verbs, adjectives• No change to grammar (cf. they etc. < ON)• Prepositions/conjunctions:

in spite of, because, during, regarding, in case

• borrowed as nouns/verbs, then made into function words when naturalized:

cause (early 13th c.)

by cause of (mid-14th c.)

because (late 14th c.)

Norman vs. Parisian French• earlier loans from Norman French, by 14th c. from

Parisian French• Sometimes hard to tell which, but:• Germanic loans into French: /gw/ became /w/ in

Norman, /g/ in Parisian• Wile/guile, warranty/guarantee, war/garrison,

wage/gauge• In Norman, /k/ before /a/ remained, in Parisian changed

to /č/• Canal/channel, cattle/chattels, catch/chase, car/chariot• Quite a few French loans were originally Germanic

loans into French - more doublets:• Equip/ship, soup/sop, grape/grapple (OF grape = hook)

Latin influence• Tended to be learnedReligiousApocalypse, dirge, limbo, purgatory, remitLegalTestament, confederateMisc.Admit, divide, comprehend, lunatic, lapidary,

temporal• real flood in Early Modern period

Celtic Influence

• Not many

Bard, clan, crag, glen, loch

• maybe:

Bald, bray, bug, gull, hog, loop

• through French:

Car, change, garter, mutton, socket, vassal

Dutch & Low German Influence

• Later ME, lots of trade (wool)• Several dozen loansSeafaringHalibut, pump, shore, skipper, whitingContainersBundle, bung, cork, dowel, firkin, tubTrade: trade, hucksterWool Trade: nap, selvageMiscClock, damp, grime, luck, offal, scour, speckle,

splinter, tallow, wriggle

Other Languages

Greek through French: squirrel, diaper, cinnamonGreek through Latin: philosophy, paradigm,

phlegm, synod, physicArabic (all through French or Latin)Azimuth, ream, saffron, cipher, alkaliPersian (through other languages)Borax, mummy, musk, spinach, taffeta, lemonHebrew (French/Latin): jubilee, leviathan, ciderSlavic sable, Hungarian coach (French)UnknownBicker, big, boy, clasp, junk, kidney, las, noose,

puzzle, roam, slender, throb, wallet

Formation of New Words: Compounding

• Mostly nouns and adjectives

Nouns:

Noun + noun cheesecake, toadstool, bagpipe, nightmare

Adjective + noun sweetheart, wildfire, quicksand

Adverb + noun insight, afternoon, upland

Noun + verb (new to ME) sunshine, nosebleed

Verb + noun (also new) hangman, pastime, whirlwind

Verb + adverb (new) runabout, lean-to

Adverb + verb (new) outcome, outcast, upset

French and Latin compounds (noun + adj) knight-errant, heir-apparent, sum total

Compounds (cont’d)

Adjectives

Noun + adjective threadbare, bloodred, headstrong

Adjective + noun (rare) everyday

Verbs

Adverb + verb outline, uphold, overturn, underwrite

Noun + verb (new) manhandle

‘Invisible’ Compounds

Cockney (cock + egg), gossamer (goose + summer)

Compounds treated as single words

Dismal (Lat. Dies mali ‘evil days’)

Porcupine (Fr. Porc espin ‘spiny pig’)

Affixing

Lost OE affixes

Ed- (again) replaced by re-

With- (against) replaced by counter-

El- (foreign), ymb- (around), to- (motion toward), -end (agent nouns)

• survival in preexisting words: withstand, forsake, motherhood

New Affixes From French

Prefixes

Counter-, de-, in- (‘not’), inter-, mal-, re-

Suffixes

-able, -age, -al, -ery, -ess, -ify, -ist, -ity,

-ment still used, but not likely for native roots (discernment, containment, but not understandment, knowment)

Minor Sources of New Words

Clipping (removing syllables)

Fray/affray, squire/esquire, stress/distress, peal/appeal, mend/amend

Back Formation (coining a word by mistakenly assuming that an existing word is derived from it)

Latin aspis (sing.) > asp

ON foggy >fog

OE dawning > dawn

Minor Sources (cont’d)

Blends (Portmanteau Words)

• deliberate in MnE (smog)

• unconscious in ME:

Scroll (escrow + roll)

Scrawl (sprout + crawl)

Quaver (quake + waver)

From Names

Jay (Lat. Gaius)

Jacket (Fr. Jacques)

Magnet (Magnesia)

Scallion (Ascalo)

Damson (Damascus)