Mid-term Notes

Medieval Agriculture and Power*W. society's dominance has been predicated on techn. transformation*basic question: what happened in the Middle Ages which set W. Europe apartTimeline:

1) collapse of Roman Empire via barbarian invasions:= end of antiquity= European decline: the Dark Ages

-dark b/c very little evidence regarding the society-very little built-very few surviving manuscripts-scant archaeological evidence

2) ~800, things start to change:-invasions of Europe

-Saracens, Muslims-Central Asian invasions (Magyars)-Vikings (793 to 1000): constant invasion

*but: more centralized authority and social structures which emphasized security and stability

= (1) feudalism: simplistic until 1200-socio-political arrangement b/t those w/ military might (the Lord), and vassals

...in exchange for working the land, vassals got:-protection-means and resources for survival

= (2) Catholic Church: entrenched Christendom (occurred throughout the Dark Ages)-over course of Dark Ages, went from minority religion to majority religion =>

conversion of pagan tribes*by 1000: very few pagans in Europe (Norsemen, Prussians, Balkans)-Christianity provided firm basis for society predicated on doctrinal beliefs and morality

3) by ~1100: very stable society-very hierarchical (into three general levels)*what caused change in this stable society:

= agricultureAgricultural Revolution

-mostly in Northwestern Europe (Belgium, England, France, Luxembourg, W. Germany)= huge increase in food production

-allowed for experimentalism, but w/ stability(failed experiments != death necessarily)

-drivers of change:[Scratch ploughs:

Description:-primitive: a wedge that goes a couple centimetres into soil (stick w/ sharpened edge)-used throughout antiquity

Problems:-made out of wood, so broke repeatedly: tilling a field was arduous

-attaching plough to animal required wood, so broke a lot-inrequired trained/controlled draft animals (to keep a straight line): but animals rarely kept straight line (so meandering lines)

= inefficient use of land]1) Mouldboard ploughs:

Description:-shaped w/ a point which was set into soil and had planks on the side to drive plough into ground and turn more soil

= deeper cuts-knife in front of plough to keep a line going

= straighter lines = more efficient use of field-wheels on the front to regulate depth of cut

2) Use of metal:-metal used on planks

= less susceptible to damage3) Use of the horse:

...from ox:Pro: very powerful, used in teamsCon: unwieldy; couldn't turn 180% (so had to turn 90%)

-so arable land had to be square-shaped...to horse:

-fairly rare[used since antiquity for:

a) means of transportationb) military => fast, large groups in formations

-but largely ineffective until the stirrup was introduced (didn't have to keep balance w/ legs)*so: horses become powerful, b/c it becomes harder to unseat the rider

= use of horses by military elitePros:

a) as powerful as ox, but more maneuverable*so: could turn 180%

= allowed for more elongated fields (recti-linear)4) furlong: 1/8 mile in length (220 yards x 22 yards wide = 1

acre)-only took a day to half a day to plough a field

b) could travel faster than ox => transportation-use to transport wares to market towns: no longer took a day to get there w/ oxen)Effect:...isolated places in N. Europe could find a market for their excess

goods-join the monetary economy

...security of supply for towns: towns could prosper -> were not solely dependent on local farmers

Con: horses could pasture, but not as well as oxen*so needed additional crops for horses: more acreage for the horses=> but most people were willing to dedicate extra land and productivity

to horse feedEffect of the horse:

= made land more productive, and made marginal land more productive (fens, marshes, grub-land)-marshes drained, shrubs/trees cleared => became useful for production

= per acre use of land became more productive-European population double or tripled from 1000 to 1300= only possible w/ secure food supply

6) three-field rotation:...before 1100: 2 field rotation, with one left fallow...after 1100: 3 field rotation

*introduced by the Cistercian order (by Bernard of Clairvaux in 1115)-Monastic order: wanted to maintain their privacy against the temporal world= went to the most isolated and harsh areas in Europe: not great for

agricultural production*managed to make all their monasteries productive: and since their monasteries were throughout all Europe => innovations spread)

= process: Field 1: a crop like wheat

-harvest in springField 2: nitrate neutral or allowed build-up in nitrates

(e.g. alfalfa or turnips, beans, lentils)-crop of choice = oats, alfalfa (food for horses)

*previous centuries = very little value-harvest in autumn (so spring and autumn harvests)

Field 3: fallow (weeded, or animals allowed to graze on)Result: two harvests instead of one

= greater food security:*likelihood of famine decreased-urban centres had year-long supply of food (allowed cities to grow)-more food for horses = more horses could be bread

Effect: by 1200, agricultural revolution b/c of 3-field rotationWater Mills:

= harness inanimate power: non-muscle/non-living power= one of the first machines which allowed for wide-scale labour savingsbefore 1100: use of water mills rare

-existed in antiquity:-Greeks and Romans had water mills (fairly rudimentary, but still worked)*used for grain-collapse of Rome: water mills survived even throughout the Dark Ages

*but: inefficient, crude, rareby 1100: increase in use of water mills

Types:1) sideways, horizontal mill:

-resistor is horizontalDifficulties:

-gap in the centre which caused some grain to be lost-strength of the flow sometimes not strong enough to do the

grounding2) vertical, grinding mill:

-vertical resistor (used gears)Benefits:

-grain lost in the gap could be collected (b/c water wasn't directly below)-use of gears could increase power of spin

Types:-undershoot: water comes from below the wheel

-largely seasonal b/c the water might not flow in the winter-overshoot: water comes from above the wheel

-water hits wheel coming out of chute (could change chute to get more or less power)

Conversions of power:-circular power to back and forth power = saws-circular power to reciprocal power = saws, smash ore, pound cloth

Locations:Initially: only by flowing bodies of waterLater: mobile mills

= floating barge-mills w/ wheel on the side-found in cities (cities usually bisected by fast-flowing rivers)*output could be sold right awaye.g.: 1200: 70 mills in Paris

Later: bridges:-made of stone, would restrict the flow of water-put a mill by the fast-flowing water which moves around the bridge

(initially float mills, but later more permanent, efficient mills)Later: tidal mills (on coastal areas)-coastal communities starved for power*so: use a dam which allows tidal water to be forced through a small area to drive a mille.g. Toulouse, mid-1300

-dammed up river to...create a reservoir...manage flow of water

-very expensive, but millers pooled their money to build a 1/4-mile wide dam

...couldn't afford the entire cost-so issued shares worth 1/8 of the value of their mill (kept 5/8 of the stocks)-over time they sold shares/stocks in their mills to merchants= rise of capitalist mentality:

-people w/ money can buy productive resources-millers become employees of capitalists

Wind Mills:-limited use (didn't have power of water mills)

-moving water (for irrigation, drainage)Netherlands: opened up a lot of farmland

-grinding things

...but could be put anywhere w/ wind*horses plus mills

= European desire for power:1) change agricultural production to sustain horsesplus2) inanimate power: use of mills

*no equivalent to this outside of EuropeDoomsday Book (1080s):

= record of peoples' holding across EnglandImportance:

-vast amount of information about the population and economics of 11c. England-allowed for more rational tax collection

Buildings:1) Cathedrals:

-rise of the master craftsmen, particularly the master mason...from Romanesque:

-rounded arches-thickness of walls limited to span of wooden beams-not very tall-very dark inside

-change in Church: not browbeat people, but convince them= needed a diff. type of building: light and airy

...to Gothic (around 12c.)3 central characteristics:

1) pointed arches (ogives)= stronger, so didn't need such thick and big walls

*weight diffused downwards, instead of outwards2) buttresses

= allowed more windows, b/c the walls didn't have to support so much weight

3) ribbed vaults= allowed for wider, taller ceilings

Effects:*more light

= dispelled the gloom and doom of Dark Age churches= stained-glass windows allowed for more colours w/in Churches

*craftsmen:!= part of Church or part of nobility*but: b/c of skill, acquired a position of renown and authority in medieval world

Construction-masons would discover cracks and defects over time

...designed innovations to get around these problems-developed an artistic aesthetic:

1) aesthetic: make things look nicer2) practical: make the buildings stronger and cover up/fix defects

2) Stone bridges3) Castles

*designed to keep people out

= thick, high walls-had to be built w/in a year or two

= army of masons, craftsmen at a site, built throughout an entire season*so: very functional, not artistic, over-engineered (so very sound)

...but still advances, innovationsTextiles (cloth), paper, iron

Textiles:Prior to European development:

-Europe bought goods from the East (China, Asia): east to west trade pattern-imported ideas from the East (e.g. gunpowder)*best routes:

1) through the Balkans!= a good trading route: very insecure

-Ottomans started invading from 13c. on-various kingdoms being established

2) through Iberian Peninsula*b/c controlled by a Muslim kingdom!= great

-b/c relatively isolated3) Italy/Central Mediterranean

= city states: so: competitive and entrepreneurial*intermediaries, due to their central location-in the process of contacting and dealing w/ Arabs and Middle Easterners

...developed trade patterns: sold goods to N. Europeans (paid premium b/c not avail. domestically)

-Europe had to pay in gold = gold flowed out of Europe*so Europe had to make things in order to get gold to use to buy for things from the East

...devised their own industriesCharacteristics of European textiles:

1) a necessity: not enough animals to clothe everyone2) almost exclusively woolen:

Until 1100: made by women*received wool, spun into yarn, pushed into loom to be woven into cloth, cloth had to be pounded to make it more supple and tighten threads, then cleaned, dyed, and made into garments

After 1100: textile industry becomes an industry = more demand for textiles*innovations which increased supply:

1) Spinning Wheel:= allowed more yarn to be produced

-thread from wool twisted into yarn, regulated w/ two hands*modifications:

-foot pedal to spin wheel (instead of arm)= so could use both hands to form the yarn

= increased productivity (by perhaps a factor of 3 or 4)-flyer and a bobbin:

(when yarn was created, run through flyer and bound onto bobbin)= allowed storage onto spool

2) Horizontal Loom:

*improvements:-more broad (wider)-pedal

*b/c of size and amount of cloth it could produce:= used by men instead of women

-broadcloth/broadloom: 3m wide and 30m in length*standard unit taken to market

*then: had to pound the cloth: to clean and to make the threads more intertwined= fulling (pounding done by mills)

*then: had to dye3) Dying:

-weavers altered patterns of weaves (in order to brand their cloth and differentiate themselves)

*weavers had dyers dye their cloth in particular ways:-dyestuffs:

-woad (blue)-madder (red)-kermes (purple) = a bug from N. Africa, imported into Europe, crushed, and the

blood was used for dye-saffron (orange)*kermes and saffron only avail. to Italians: monopolized this colour, making it more valuable

Division of textiles market:1) vast majority = woolen*but there were also:

2) silks (silkworms imported into Italy in order to make silk farms)3) cotton (especially for undergarments)4) linen:

-very intensive to isolate fibres from non-fibres*became almost as attractive as cotton:

-plus: didn't have to be imported*wanted to mix clothes to make blends:

= quality of textile manufacture increased throughout Middle AgesPaper:

-prior to paper:-recording done on vellum:

-goat/calf/sheep (sheep more labour intensive) hide stretched, hairs removed= semi-transparent material, on which ink didn't run too much

= laborious and costly:-a lot of labour-only so much hide which could be used for this

*Chinese brought over paper manufacture, derived from plants= especially from mulberry bush:

-pounded, mushed-when dried properly = create a sheet

*Europeans didn't have access to mulberry bushes:= an alternative = fibres from which linens were made-linen rags:

-put in a vat w/ vinegar and water

-allowed to rot for months*then cleaned, and the remnant settled-during process of drying: fibre intertwined w/ other fibres= good paper*drawback:

-relied on linen production (i.e. could not use wool)*but linen production increases and cost goes down in Europe throughout Middle Ages

...price had dropped to point where paper became more economical than vellum:= Gutenberg and printing= price became so low that could be used for non-essential things

-first paper plant:-Valencia: when occupied by Arabs

(paper entered Europe via Arabs)Iron:

*3 types:1) Wrought-iron: produced since antiquity

-often pure iron-very malleable, could be shaped in many diff. ways*downside:

-not particularly hard*solution: immerse hot wrought-iron in very cold water

= create a stronger outside-but still not very hard

-mainstay for over 2000yrs2) Steel: 0.5 to 1.5% carbon content

= harder than wrought iron*but difficulties in manufacture:

-how to measure that you're carbon content was 0.5 to 1.5%?*originally: only done by touch/feel and look= so needed expertise of a master blacksmith

-avg blacksmiths couldn't do this3) Cast Iron: 1.8 to 4.5% carbon content (any higher content = too brittle)

(didn't exist prior to Middle Ages: might have been produced ~800 in China, but not conclusive...probably developed in Europe)

-brittle (couldn't stand much stress), but easier to make:= became most popular b/c it could meet demand:

e.g. plows begin to have iron partse.g. wheels covered in irone.g. axles reinforced w/ irone.g. transition from heavy, chainmail armor pieces to full sets

-knights carrying around armour sets which are equal to their own weight*plus, if could afford it: riding on a horse, which also might be armoured

12c.: chainmail easy to manufacture13c.: full sets of chainmail = a lot of iron needed

*process of getting iron:-melt ores: at certain temperature thresholds, diff. contents of ore will melt and float to top

*problem: iron ore didn't melt too easily-if increase temperature: chemical reaction takes place

...bonds to neighbouring elements (phosphorus, silicates, etc.)= impure forms of iron

*blacksmiths: pound impure ore until impurities are beaten out of it= wrought iron

-furnaces:-heat wrought iron in charcoal (which is carbon)

= bloomery furnace:-produce iron ore w/ carbon: didn't take a blacksmith so long to pound out impurities

*but: supply couldn't keep up w/ demand...development of blast furnace:

-relatively contained furnace, in which air was pumped in to create a more intense fire

*how? => use water wills to pump in a steady stream of air-upshot of blast furnace:

-stable temperatures = lower temperatures needed to melt iron= lower temp.s => less impurities bonding w/ the wrought iron

*mould wrought iron into ingots:-to medieval mind: channel leading to moulds looks like piglets suckling on a sow= pig iron:

-derogatory term, despite being able to be produced in much greater quantities

-a lot of carbon, so had to be hammered more to remove impurities-not very useful-not as malleable (fairly hard)-very brittle: cracked fairly easily

*but still became more plentiful than other types of iron*used in:

-nails-fasteners-tools*larger iron products: cannons

-couldn't be made of wrought iron; but pig iron could be melted and poured into a brass mould*required a lot of iron b/c were very large

*not used in:-body armour

GunpowderHistory:

-through Italy via China*Chinese used it for many things:

-make noise, fireworks-medicine-incendiary devices (flamethrowers)-to hurl stones

-propulsive force*Europeans used solely as a means of explosion

-used by Italians to ward off invaderMake up:

-1 part charcoal, 1 part sulfur, 2-4 parts potassium nitrate (true saltpetre)Initial supply problems:

*huge demand quickly developed-had a lot of charcoal and sulfur, but didn't have a lot saltpetre

*had to import (but very expensive)*how to make domestically?

-for over a century: experimented on how to manufacture it-occurs naturally in rotting material (dung, organic waste)...but how to isolate?

-end of 13c: learn how to isolate it-can make a lot of it

When supply can meet demand: = use of it takes off*forced changes in Medieval military tactics:

1) fortifications:-prior to gunpowder: large stones had to be hurled at walls-after: castles become more vulnerable

2) knights:-cannon ball could overturn a knight, no matter how armoured

Issues:-moisture would alter the chemicals and make it inert

= corning gundpowder:-dry gunpowder mixed w/ oil into paste and set into moulds, then broken into chunks*made it more stable and useful

New weapons:a) cannons:

-challenges:-how to prevent cannon from exploding?

-use of wrought iron: but at a certain size, couldn't stand the stress b/c it was only welded...use of pig iron: moulded cannons

-huge, very expensive, not very mobileb) smaller hand-held guns: more mobile

-at first: 2 people required-later: arquebus = only 1 person required

-could hurl ball 300-400mWho could afford new iron weapons?

(still very expensive)...centralized gov'ts...kings*so: only avail. to political units w/ the resources

-strategy, willpower becomes less important= rise of money

Printing and Early Machinery

Glass:-known since Roman and maybe Egyptian times

-glaziers had a high status due to the difficulty of making it*but: didn't know how to make great clear glass (more accident than design)

-why was clear glass in high demand?1) windows: to see clearly out windows2) eye glasses

-purest materials = less colours, but never completely clearBeginnings of glass industry: started in Venice

Why?-at head of Adriatic, on one of the main shipping lines from Mediterranean to Europe

*also recognized that their own industries could produce exports-close to really white beaches

Clear glass:-ash had mineral salts in it -> local ones were too impure

-but could import purer ash from Middle East= couldn't get purely white glass b/c of impure ash

*later: could purify the ash to the extent that the glass was clearer-but: still had some iron in it

*eventually learned that adding magnesium could neutralize the effect of the iron= consistent clear glass

Murano island:-glass furnaces plaed on this island:

-dangerous furnaces could start fires-urban planning[not entirely sure]

*Murano glass became important to Venice's econ.-made plate glass:

-very hard to make large sheets-but even a small sheet was very valuable

-nature of the industry:= Murano workers regulated by the state and a guild

-regulated production, price, quality level*to ensure that demand would always exceed supply: workers laid off for 5mo.s of the year

(to keep supply level up)-could only do this b/c profits in 7mo.s were high enough to deal w/ no work fo r 5mo.s[worked w/ lead = died prematurely; 5mo.s off was a good deal, they needed

it to recuperate]-on their vacation: glaziers would travel across Europe and assist other countries in setting up their own industries (even though this was against the law)

-all products transferred except for: crystal glass-never transferredOR-could not be reproduced

Eye-glasses:Invention:

-don't know who invented it

-legend that a monk had the idea-first references: 1200-1300

Importance:-many people had bad eyesight-could prolong good eyesight*perhaps the first invention which advantaged people as individuals

= benefits of innovation could be direct*so: perhaps change could be beneficial in a very direct, personal way

Silk:-Europeans didn't naturally have silkworms

...imported silks from the East*Venetians understood that if they could produce silks domestically, they could make more money as producer than just as intermediary

-Ottoman Empire also wanted to set up their own silk facilities*but the Sultan got angry at his silk workers and expelled them...they were enticed to Venice, and established an industry there

Production...-not very large, but employed several hundred people

*couldn't meet demand w/ their supply...so tried to create a new cloth to differentiate themselves from other forms of silk= the silk brocade:

-luxuriant clothSea vessels:

-had to carry enough to carry cargoes across Med.Early vessel: roundship

*characteristics:= about 3 times long as it was wide= 2 decks, 2 masts= sails were lateen (triangular)= powered by side oars= slow:

-lateen sails couldn't go into the wind (had to go on a zig zag)-didn't have compasses (so had to stay close to shore)-shape not conducive to speed

*but: could carry large amounts of cargo*Venetians realized they had to change the design:

-pirates were multiplying and much quicker-unfriendly states were multiplying

Creation of a better ship: cog*characteristics:

= stern-mounted rudder (instead of side oars) for steering*rudder maneuvered via pulleys: which allowed one man to steer it

= square sails[from N. European ships]-could go straight into the wind

= introduction of the compass:-not unique to Venetians: Norsemen and Chinese had used them before*but: Venetians started using them in all their vessels-advantages:

-could know where they were in relation to the N. => could venture farther from shore-create maps of the Med. => good for locating places for future reference

Creation of an even better ship: galley= ship of war in the Med.

-ensured Venice's trading dominance*characteristics:

= powered by both sails and ores*ores gave speed over short distances: so highly maneuverable

-200-400 oarsmen per ship: no slaves like the Romans, but men from Venice doing their military service

= a reliable force: would fight, would ram the other ship, etc.= sleeker: length was 8x the width

*used as escorts: Venetian navy = escort navy-would lose fewer merchant ships

the Arsenale:-purpose: build ships quickly

= rudimentary industrial techniques-not an assembly line, but close-more specialized workers-use of accounting to keep track of costs-standardized parts: ships much less unique

*could build ships in a matter of days/weeks (vs. months)Time:

-no use for time pieces in the early Middle Ages:-sun told them when to get up-appetite told them when to eat-shadows told them when to get home

*a need for more accurate time developed:= development of a regular, time-keeping mechanism*specifically: the Catholic Church

-primarily to determine when prayer should take place*previously: kind of guessed-Catholic Church wanted a way to regulate this

-probably happened at a monastery where idea for a time-piece occurred-sometime in the mid-13c.: first mechanical device created

Early time pieces:-gravity is the propelling force:

-weight attached to pulley, which attached to toothed wheel, which rotates, but is regulated and caught at a regular interval

...eventually: length of the cord would determine how long it had run-short lengths at first: seconds, minutes, hours

= basic mechanism throughout the entire middle ages:-wouldn't be replaced until 16c. and development of coils

-principle used in other innovations:mid-14c.: Astrarium device

*made during the Bubonic plague-functions:

-tells time

-shows orbits of the 5-known planets, the sun, the moon, some stars(which are irregular)

By 16c.: discovered springed coil which could substitute for gravitational pull-advantages: clock didn't have to be in a particular position to make use of gravity (spring could work in any position-disadv.: spring would lose force as it unwound

= fuser: chain attached to a device to ensure that the spring maintained a constant force*allowed for miniaturization of clocks = watches

= a personal device-only affordable by the aristocracy:

-but the middle class wanted them too: want trinkets and stuff = fueled an industry eventually

Clocks led to measuring other things:...like temperature*measuring nature => transforming, controlling nature

*man no longer at mercy of nature => master of naturePrinting press:

-initially: wood blocks used for type...but not hard enough

*needed something harder: Gutenberg was a goldsmith-as a goldsmith: accustomed to delicate work*developed type made of metal which could be re-used

-so:-decrease in price of paper + new type which could last longer= massive spread of ideas

Mining and improvementsEarly Middle Ages: replication of Ancient Rome

-belief that the Romans could transform matter (alchemy: transform base metals into precious metals)Alchemy

-more than just amateurs trying to get rich= philosophy behind it:

-more harmonious society: presence on earth in sync w/ heavenly bodies/heavenly reality would allow you transform minerals into other minerals

*being an alchemist: certain prestige w/in society*b/c if one could only harmonize society, one could build something better

-thought alchemy was possible b/c they were observing mining:-could separate precious metals from ore and baser metals= so why could not do this w/ other material?

Paracelsus:-most doctors at the time held that alignment of the stars had an effect on the human body

*conducted experiments: if you do x, then y will happen to the bodyMining:

*technique still primitive:-resusing Roman mines-digging from the surface (shallow mining/surface mining)= but couldn't satisfy demand for minerals (like iron)

Deeper mines

*which led to some problems:1) drainage: if below the water line, then how to get rid of water which accumulates

= use of mills (initially animal-powered, later water and wind)= vacuum pumps= Archimedean screws (less effective though b/c of limits on tightness of seal b/t

outer casing and screw)2) ventilation: how to get air down into deep mines

= use of mills to power bellows3) how to get ore out of deep mine shafts

*separation of smelters and mine shafts:-initially: smelters right by mines

*but then would run out of fuel (like wood) to keep them running*needed water power: had to be located by water source

-rise of more complex machinery (to save on human and animal power)*mining booklets (1500-1520):

-first made in Germany b/c most early mining was in Germany (very hilly, so could get at ore easier)Bergbuchlein (1500) = showed how process of mining worked

-show to potential investors:-like business-owners who had excess money

Probierbuchlein (1520) = guide to quality of minerals-so investors could tell if they were getting good value for their investment

-two books:Pirotechnia (1540):

-written in Italian: showed how mining was conducted by midpoint of 16c.De Re Metallica (1556): by ___ Agricola

= more important book-written in Latin by a German: set standard for minings

= guides to mining industry:-description of what took place-illustrations of what mining was: what machines, who did what, what things were used for, etc.

by mid-15c.: could reach depths of 50m-through rock, so had to be picked by hand

by 1540s:= massive amounts of silver being imported from the New World

-Silver Mt. found in Bolivia= reduced demand for precious metals in Europe: inflation during the 15c

*silver was important b/c:-Europe bought more than it exported (mainly to Middle East)-made up the difference w/ silver and gold (but mainly silver)= spurred mining industry to acquire more precious resources

-but: by 1540s and influx of silver from Bolivia= demand for silver decreased

-mining went into small decline (just a few decades after Agricola's book)Mining sector: didn't see huge improvements in technology

*but scale was huge:-a lot of capital (money)-a lot of labourers to run the equipment, etc.

= single Dukes or Counts couldn't afford it*needed several Dukes or Counts= rise of companies w/ shares

-shares in mines could be exchanged by mutual agreement: this occurred quite a lot, and a lot of people made money off of the exchange of shares

Ceramics-everyone wanted glass (very highly valued)

*but not everyone could produce it= so an alternative was developed which was almost as attractive:

= ceramics/pottery-best pottery came from China: cost quite a lot if it came from China

*attractive property: strong gloss-Venetians borrowed techniques from the Chinese

-discovered cobalt blue-found out a tin-based glaze gave Chinese pottery its lustre= used it to fuel their own pottery industry

-Dutch took pottery to the next step:-end of 16c.: considered equal to Venetian ceramics

-closer to more of Europe: so gradually gained market share-around this time: porcelain from China started coming to Europe

*used for decorative but also functional things= challenge for Europeans to emulate

-took 2 centuries (until 18c.) before Euro.s could match the porcelain of the Chinese (Br. person)

The Expansion of KnowledgeJoachimsthal, Saxony: mine w/ really good silver (very pure)

*used for coins= becomes thaler

= later becomes dollar*country that benefited most from innovations = Netherlands

-surprising though:-economic backwater for quite some time

*Flanders (its neighbour) was much more advanced and innovative= b/c subject to periodic flooding

-made life difficult*only became a populated region in Middle Ages

-able to suppress flooding tendencies:-canals-drainage systems= use windmills to do the drainage*took excess water and put it elsewhere

*eventually: able to reclaim land from ocean= very fertile land[called Polders]

16c. = eventually: Netherlands develops a surplus population*gravitate towards the towns, which focus on trade for survival-at this time: Euro.s had gone all the way around the world

= could bypass Italian, Muslim middlemen

-Dutch develop a trading empire:-circumnavigate globe, Africa, etc.-claim trading colonies from Portuguese*concentrate on spices: nutmeg, mace, cloves

= in high demand*effects:

1) maritime power2) organizational structures:

Dutch East India Company-no owners, traded in shares:

*stock exchange located in Amsterdam*in Netherlands where propensity for innovation starts:

= urban middle class-willing to gamble on ventures; invest in enterprises; buy goods

[at this time: Spain controls the Netherlands-Dutch fighting a war of Independence (early 17c.)]

*early 17c.: Dutch Golden Age-world traders-embraced certain industries for export: food, textile, lenses, fine mechanics (e.g. watches)*Dutch became a modern nation:

-reorganize to meet market needs-willingness to innovate-risk-taking

-by 1630: only have 2m people, but are the envy of Europe1630: tulip craze

*attracted to diverse colours= bidding war

-got to a point where price of one tulip = price of a house*ultimate goal: manufacture a black tulip-bubble crashed eventually, causing a three-year economic collapse

Effect of change in technology on families in European society:= some sort of correlation b/t increase of technology and decrease in role for women

*more technology = fewer opportunities for womenWhy?

1) women's education lagged behind men's: men educated more than women[some women went to school/university thoughvery little]*so:

-less literate-less able to write= not able to keep up w/ innovations

2) traditional role of women:= domesticate labour and child-rearing-before being married:

-do all the work that men do-once married: principle duties = get pregnant and raise children

= so had to stay in home: couldn't adapt to labour markets, etc.*so: once industries move far from the home, women can't join-in b/c they don't

have the mobility3) changing attitude of men:

-over 2 centuries: guilds progressively, incrementally started to limit opportunities of women to work and train

Why?-physicality increased?-roles changed?-more skill required, which women couldn't develop to to their domestic

duties?*women still had some role though:

-if a man belonged to a guild, his wife could carry on the business if he died or was away (but had to follow guild restrictions)-but outside of kinship: no opportunity

Case: producing cloth*initially: women's work-w/ introduction of looms: women get pushed out by men

1) created huge pieces of cloth: heavier than what considered appropriate for women to carry

2) men see opportunity for making cloth: sell in markets away from the homeCase: beverages (e.g. ale)

-in England: beverage of choice = ale-three ingredients: water, yeast, malted barley (germinated barley seed)

*till end of 14c. = exclusively female's job-made in small batches: b/c ale didn't last very long

-w/ introduction of beer:[imported from Continent]=> ale ingredients + hops

-effects of hops:-made it bitter and nicer to the palate-made it last longer (months to years)-sped up fermentation process (didn't need as much barley malt to make the same strength of beer as you did w/ ale)

= price level decreased-5-7% alcohol content vs. 2-3% alcohol content of ale

= beer becomes more popular: ale industry almost wiped out by mid 15c.*Henry dictated that hops would be used in ale (in order to save the traditional industry)-beer has cachet (the urban beverage)

= women find themselves out of the beverage trade in England:-beer could now be sold in market

Case: obstetrics (giving birth)-w/ introduction of forceps, greater specialization, trained physician = men start to take over*initially: birthing was done by midwives

= solely a woman's job:-oversee births-how to take care of newborns

-midwives were very esteemed: passed down from mother to daughter14c.: arrival of trained physicians

= educated, knowledgeable, could read => had status

*gradually start to muscle into the job of the midwife[midwives couldn't do surgery, etc.]

Scientific Revolution*science = study of nature

-didn't start in Middle Ages: goes back to Greece and Rome*Medieval conception of the natural came from Antiquity

-greatest scientists of Antiquity:-Ptolemy and Aristotle:

-natural world understood in turns of hierarchy*clerics in medieval times:

-suspicious of these pre-Christian works*but Aristotle had cachet: so attempt to marry the ancients w/ Christian doctrine

= God establishes hierarchy of the universe=> seemed to be true by observation + was claimed to be true by authorities

*seemed to be a uniformity of understanding1543: Vesalius's Concerning the Fabric of the Human Body

-previous to this: mystical understanding of how the body worked= body affected by the heavens and circles, etc.*couldn't be understood

*Vesalius: took the body apart-looked at skeletal structure, organs, etc.

= improved understanding of the body, etc.Copernicus (book came out in 1543)

-probably from Poland-questioned the Ancient model of the universe

= thought it couldn't work:-the math didn't make sense: too many errors

*reoriented things: from earth in centre, to sun in centre-still had errors in the math: but he thought these errors weren't as bad as the other errors

-interesting things:1) heliocentric notion of the universe2) cautious dude: knew that going against doctrine was really serious

= allowed his work to be published only a year before his death3) justification of his view = mathematical

*took a while for other astronomers took notice of this= late 16c. to early 17c.

Brahe (late 16c.)-Dane who convinced his ruler to build a sort of telescope

*determined that:1) the moon had shape to it:

-had mountains and valleys-wasn't just a flat thing

2) discovered stars which hadn't been registered or known before3) tracked three comets4) Jupiter: discovered moons which rotated around Jupiter= questioned the static nature of the universe:

-universe was changing: heavens weren't just stable things moving around

*his model:-earth at centre of universe, more things orbitted the sun than around the earth (sun orbitted around the earth)

Kepler (1571-1630)*book: New Astronomy

-defended the heliocentric universe-orbits weren't spherical: were eliptical

*acceleration: planets started moving faster the closer they came to the sun in their orbits= could make better sense of things (corrected Copernicus' errors)

*academic: his work designed for scholarly crowd-isolated in N. Germany

Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)*book: Starry Messenger

*same understandings as Kepler:-using mathematical proof, one could defend the heliocentric model= could predict, using mathematics, how things would turn out in the universe

-published work in Italian: so avail. to way more people, not just scholars= got him into trouble:

1) challenging Catholic doctrine w/in Italy itself in the Italian language2) engaged in experimentation: tested theories

-repeated experiments could create quantifiable results which could substantiate or unsubstantiate a theory[challenged basic Aristotelian physics]

-this occured during counter-reformation:= Catholic Church trying to save Catholic doctrine

-thinks he's trying to undermine Catholic doctrine-seminal figure:

1) thought that science could have a wider audience: common people could benefit from it2) experimentation could teach us fundamental truths about nature

= starts revealing laws about how the world functioned: led to...-uniformity-settled evidence-nature wasn't as organic as the medievals thought

= more like a piece of equipment: operated along mechanistic lines-experimentation could reveal consistencies or laws

=> led to Englishmen taking this further:e.g. Francis Bacon (1561-1626): polymath, writer, Chancellor, scientist/experimenter*English started to develop a school of thought

= world is mechanical, not organic-culminates w/ Isaac Newton (1642-1727): Principia Mathematica

-calculus-laws of nature: gravity, etc.

*technology becomes entwined w/ science and mathematics= not just meant to improve life*professionalization of technology, science

The wealth of the Dutch:

= receptive to innovation and change:-windmills helped reclaim fertile farm land-innovation and commerce-oriented economy:

-traded overseas-colonized areas: Spice Islands in Indonesia

-shareholder-oriented ownership: could raise large amounts of capitalChristian Huygens' pendulum clock (1656-57)

-until this time: clocks depended on gravity*pendulum clock: narrowed down the error of clocks over 24hrs to ~15s

-developed in HollandScientific Revolution:

*beginning: publication of Copernicus' work (1543)-importance:

1) introduction of the sun-centric universe[away from a man-, and therefore, earth-centric universe]

2) buttressed his arguments w/ mathematics-observation, theology, mathematics= use of numbers: at the time, math was considered immutable

*had some inaccuracies, but more accurate than the old model*Brahe, Kepler, Galileo: continued on this work

*Galilean refinements:-elliptical orbits-variation in orbits as bodies came closer to the sun-fluidity to the universe: not as static as the Christian model*wrote his works in Italian

-for more common people*Francis Bacon:

-emphasized experiment: nothing could be substantiated w/out experimentation= the Royal Society (est. 1662, but roots go back to 1640s)

-group of learned men who desired to establish a learned society which could engage in experimentation-motto: nullius in verba ('no one's word alone')

= authority would not be sufficient to establish something; would have to be experimented on

*Isaac Newton:-gravity

*mechanistic universe:-universe governed by observable and predictable behaviours-experimental knowl. could lead us to knowl. of these laws

*and then these laws could be exploited or used= this interpretation of universe was religiously dangerous

*but it took root in England and established a diff. sort of mindset-most societies did not like change (was disruptive)

*technological, economical, social change which meant a change in the ordering of society mean...

...unemployment

...underemployment-econ. model from 1500-1800: mercantilism

= wealth should be acquired and maintained w/in the state

*fear of technology => that you would get more imports...so change meant worse

*this started to break down first in Holland and then in England, but especially in Engl.-related to scientific revolution:

-if science meant useful knowledge about the world expressed in mathematical terms and this was good

...then: technology, which is based on science expressed in mathematics, must be positive as well

English Economic Development-late 16c. to around 1720s/1730s = Engl. is transformedMonopolies:

-Statute of Monopolies (1623-24)-granted to anyone who had a useful idea and could pay a fee to the Crown-one case: Elizabeth I gave a monopoly on the manufacture and importation of playing cards

*sued another person doing the same= the other person won

-the Court thought that......to give a monopoly on something which wasn't a demonstrative improvement was against common law

= denied royal perogative to grant Monopolies*James I later disagreed:

-Parl. determined that monopolies could only be granted...a) if was a demonstrative improvementb) lasted for only 14yrs

-twice the time of the average apprenticeship: prevented apprentices from taking the idea-allowed ideas to spread for a time

= patents-granted an originator an exclusive right to produce something

*for a ltd. time*resented by much of the population:

-but by 19c.: largely supported by the population...b/c were only granted for unique developments-patent-holders considered as positive: were doing something positive

Agriculture:-Br. had reclaimed much land, especially in East Anglia, just like the Dutch*desire by landowners to increase productivity of land:

-usually land rented out to crofters: small land-renters controlled 5-7 acres, and produced just above subsistence levels

*had a small surplus w/ which to purchase commodities=> not particularly efficient

-mid 17c.: desire for increased productivity from land= caused by inflation, which was caused by New World silver:

-landowners needed a new source of money:-kicked-off marginal renters-enclosed/fenced the land

*new use:1) intensify and rationalize production on the land2) create more land for livestock

-by early 17c:-3-field system of land: 2 crops + fallow*but fallow land started to be used:

-for growing turnips, clover, etc.= livestock would feed off this

= very important for land-owners: made more money-market price of cattle/horses/etc. was higher than that of crops or rents from crofters

-by end of 17c: owners starting to breed animals rationally= convertible husbandry:

-breed sheep to produce a particular type of wool-breed cattle for a particular type of milk

Improvers:= people who went town to town selling equipment to improve productivity of land

e.g. Jethro Tull (1674-1741)-automatic seeders-hand-tools for farming

e.g. Walter Blith-wrote: The English Improver: or, A new Survey of Husbandry (1649)*didn't just describe best practices etc.

-actually suggested ways to change current practices to improve productivity= changing mindset:

-could change the world for the betterSocieties

-formation of agricultural societies:1) for social reasons, but had the effect of...2) disseminating improvements

= productivity increased rapidly*many countries had more favourable land and environment than England:

e.g. France: which developed a lot during the same period...but not as much as Engl.-b/c of religious wars, developed a hugely centralized, absolutist state-very conscious of desirability of enhancing itself relative to other countries: use of ponds to replace flows (since little natural flow in canals)= improved domestic transport network b/t cities

[at the time, Europe had a horrible transportation network:-best roads were still Roman roads-most roads were rutted, dirt paths= transportation took a long time and effort]

*used water-ways (since they had so many)-Louis XIII wanted to connect all of these rivers via canals:

a) for commerceb) for military-purposes

*huge undertaking:-pound locks: dedicated water basins

= developed schools in order to advance knowl.:Academie Royal des Sciences (1666)

-development of engineers:-originally engineer meant: someone who used military equip.

-later: people who could construct thingse.g. Sebastien de Vauban

-designed fortifications which were very difficult to assault-people who graduated: developed specializations

...bridge-builders

...road-designers= true professionals:

-educated-obtained degrees after formal training-theoretical, mathematical, practical training

*somewhat of a Fr. specialty until other countries started doing the same= Engl. did things differently:

-builders in Engl. were skilled craftsmen:= saw ways to use their skills in new ways in order to construct something else*not the same educ. level as Fr., Sp., Germ.s

= but had a skill and were able to transfer their knowl. to something new*canal system:

-Br. had extensive river- and water-systems[very navigable b/c Engl. relatively flat]-sufficient for transporting food, timber, etc. from interior to coastal regions until 18c.

= bottlenecks:1) roads can't take more traffic

-particularly disastrous:-decentralized system (parish system) vs. France's centralized system-local men provided x # of hours/year to work on roads

-but diff. standards in each region*and thoroughfares (roads which connected regions) not given as much attention as local roads

= became essentially useless at certain times of year2) rivers were too busy

*construction of Br. canal-building from 18c-19c:= privately-constructed:

*solely commerce-directed (Br. not as susceptible to invasion as Fr.)-private indiv.s put up money, hired all the workers in the expectation of profit at the end

-one of the first:-16km from Macklesfield to Manchester*built by Duke of Bridgewater (had a mine)

-recognized potential of a mill-wright: had him design a canal= halved the cost of transfer b/t the two cities

-made Duke's mine hugely profitable*by 1830s: very extensive canal network

-linked up all parts of Engl.:-even isolated, interior areas were close to canals

-biggest: Grand Trunk Canal-linked up Mersey, with Trent, w/ Severn river

= future industrial heart-land of Br.-engineers:

= untrained: had other skills which they applied to engineering= learned on the job

= motive: commercial-make money for their employers

Coal and Iron Production:-Engl. had excess demand: demand could never be satisfied

= made up scarce supply w/ imports from...Sweden

-good iron: easily smeltRussia

-went to war against some Baltic regions, to acquire a port, to export its iron= St. Petersburg

*Br. wary of its dependence on foreign sources of iron:-huge tariffs on imports-Abraham Darby (1678-1716):

-fiddled around w/ new ways of smelting iron*wanted to lower costs of production= realized that the highest variable cost was fuel:

-charcoal: derived from lumber-timber resources become scarce in Engl.*what to replace w/?

[Br. sits on a bunch of coal mines:-coal couldn't at first be used for iron production b/c it had impurities (like sulphur)

= made the iron too brittle]= Darby thought to use coke coal: baked coal to eliminate impurities, particularly

sulphur[had been used by others: brewers used it so that sulphur didn't hurt taste of their

brews]= eventually: use of baked coal for iron production

*Swedes and Russians lost their marketBritain didn't have something that others lacked:

= had a mixture of characteristics which together, set Br. apart:1) agricultural revolution:

= more food2) demographic revolution:

= more food = more children3) escalating demand

= more food = more children = more people4) geographyproximity

= island nation; quite small; interior regions relatively accessible5) supply of abundant materials (coal and iron)

= Br. has huge reserves of coal (even to this day)6) large # of financial institutions (banks) w/ surplus capital

= large # of exports = a lot of money, which was placed into banks = which loaned out the money

7) culture of entrepreneurialism= willing to innovate, trade, etc.

*indiv.s, rather than states, seen as the unit of worth

-even nobility engaged in business, unlike nobility on the Continent[nobility was encouraged to be in business]

= a culture which was in favour of the new, the scientific, the technological

Britain:= at the forefront of innovation and techn.

*weird though: other countries were in similar position and had more advantagese.g. France:

-more resources: had resources to take control of development-centralized state: took a leading role in econ.--top-down approach-higher population= where first engineers appeared:

-state needed skilled indiv.s who could solve problems discerned by state= Academie Royal des Sciences (1666)

-kind of like the Royal Society in Engl.-but: more of a school w/ practical and theoretical teaching

-graduates were given stature w/in society:-able to design important things, like the canal system

*Fr. improvements:-not for econ. reasons; for strategic reasons

= military*but no Fr. techn./industrial revolution before Br.

Br. characteristics:1) strategic needs of country not as important as in Fr.

= more resources, thought placed on econ. reasons-focus was on inanimate power

2) for historical reasons, Br. state not as centralized as Fr.= room for people w/ no political affiliation

-more independence and latitutde for ppl to seek their own interests3) ppl were aware of scientific discoveries, notion of mechanistic universe

= fueled appetite for change + entrepreneurship: harness laws of nature-not so much status, but wealth which motivated entrepreneurs

4) agric. improvements:= more food = more people = more demand [for food + clothing + shelter + etc.]

5) geography (which set it apart from others, esp. Netherlands):= an island, w/:

-navigable rivers for transportation-a lot of navigable coasts-not too hilly-relatively flat-a lot of coal-accessible metals= all parts of Engl. were relatively accessible = lower price of transport

6) avail. of capital:= a lot of banks to provide capital:

-centralized banks which served a particular locality-capital loaned out to risky + non-risky ventures

*capital came from foreign trade7) culture: diff. than the rest of Europe (except perhaps the Dutch)

-being a noble in Europe = didn't sully hands w/ work or desire for money-not involved in commerce; reaped rents*Engl. was diff.:

-aristocracy had no problem w/ making money= had no problem w/ showy materialism

= bottom-up econ. + techn. development:-ppl could find capital-ppl weren't prevented by culture from seeking wealth

Steam-engine= evolved over the 18c.

-took decades to develop into a functional, efficient, reliable thingGenesis:

-end of 17c.-pressing need: difficulty keeping mine-shafts dry w/ wind/water/horse mills

e.g. 500 horses at one mind to prevent it from filling w/ water[huge cost, ate into profits]= needed something to more effectively get rid of water

-Thomas Savery:-known as an inventor, captain, gentleman, improver (tinkerer/dabbler/etc.)

*improvers were kindof dying out= had a shady reputation as an improver

*developed the Miner's Friend= designed to displace and raise water to another lvl so it could be moved elsewhere

-probably got the idea from ppl he knew-very crude: vacuum effect created by turning gaseous water into liquid water-drawbacks:

-required a skilled operator to work valves-required a skilled operator to keep the boiler going*biggest problem:

-water could only be pumped 6m= some mineshafts were over 100m deep

*so needed a network of these things or larger ones-if made it too large = boiler would explode

-metal not good enough yet to prevent this-went to the Royal Society and presented it

...they liked it-Royal household gave him a 14yr patent (later extended) to 1730s

Atmospheric engine (vacuum principles):-late 18c.: had an understanding of atmospheric pressure, and how to change it in local

conditionsThomas Newcomen:

-came from Dartmouth, Devonshire-metalsmith; but almost amateur scientist

1712: Newcomen engine came out= the atmospheric engine

-used the vacuum effect for propulsion-similar to Savery's machine:

-use steam engine w/ enhanced method of condensation to move piston, attached to cross-beam (lever), which pumped another piston to draw water

*devised a method later to control valves w/ the crossbeam= only needed one operator

*perfectly suited to coal mines:-could move a lot of water:

-huge pistons= almost 40L/stroke, w/ around 12 strokes/minute

-could move water at 100m depths-advantages:

1) basically self-running by 1720s (only need an operator to keep the boiler going)2) coal mine owners already had a bunch of fuel (coal) to power it

-drawback:1) not very efficient:

-condensation took place w/in the cylinder: needed high heat= a lot of energy to heat the water past boiling pt.

2) recipricoting:= pistons moved up and down

= Newcomen tried to fix these problems:-tried circular motion vs. recipricating motion*but: no one could fix:

-efficiency problems-movement problems

-other uses:-pump potable water from outside cities to inside cities

Instrumentation:-shipping:

-seafarers could determine latitude*but had difficulty determining longitude, b/c of earth's rotation = no stable reference pts

1707: major accident-part of Engl. navy ran aground, and 2000 men were lost= Admiral had no idea where he was in terms of longitude:

-thick fog obscured the coast*after the inquiry:

1714: Parl. issued the Longitudinal Act-offered 20 000 pounds for anyone who could invent a way to determine longitude

*inventors started trying to do this:-need a way to keep time in order to determine speed, in order to determine direction in any direction

= John Harrison: chronometer (four models of it)*device which measures time w/ extreme accuracy-first model: 1735

-didn't accept money-second model: about 4mo.s later

-still not acceptable to him-third model: about 19yrs later (1760)

= undergoes trials, very accurate-took the money, and used it to create fourth model

*in use for 2mo.s: only off by 5.2s= by 18c.:

-Brit. technology had evolved:-very refined and technical in all respects

James Watt:-father was jack-of-all-trades: gifted w/ hands, metal-working, wood-working, math, fine mechanics*apprenticed as a boy w/ an instrument maker:

-lived very close to Glasgow*later apprenticed in London: learned more advanced stuff-returns to Glasgow to work as an instrument worker

= employed indirectly by the Uni. of Glasgow-repaired broken things

= became aware of:-vacuum, steam, etc.

*met Joseph Black:-theory of latent heat= had Watt repair a mini, educational Newcomen engine:

-kept breaking down:-so: figured out that efficiency problem related to a volume problem

1764: spends time observing and experimenting w/ optimal volume relationships-discovered the most efficient ratio, but still too much energy loss*no matter how much he tinkered => there would always be a problem

= discovered that the problem was in cooling and heating the cylinder*so: needed to keep the cylinder hot

-but then how do you get a vacuum effect?= 2yrs later: discovered a solution

-had the water condense in a neighbouring device, and not in the cylinder= connect them w/ tubes

*so: didn't need enough energy to get the same effect-improved efficiency such that only 1/4 or 1/3 fuel was needed for the same effect

*Watt's steam engine becomes economical outside of coal mines:= b/c doesn't need as much coal fuel*by 1780s: first Watt steam engine is produced

*later developed a way to convert the power to rotational power*his steam-engine innov.s:

1) sun and planet gearcrank system= recipricol to rotational power

2) double-action propulsion-double action: introduced another condensor on the other end of the piston

= more fuel required, but efficiency still increased*needed a help in order to make money off of this:

a) professors in Glasgow introduced him to entrepreneurs:-they funded him through the 1760s and early 1770s

*but didn't have enough cash to bankroll a factoryb) on a trip to Birmingham, introduced to Matthew Boulton:

-blacksmith who had married a rich wife= bought a factory w/ the dowry:

-had to convince Watt to come to Engl. to manufacture them= 1773: Watt joins Matthew Boulton

-Boulton buys 2/3 of the patent

= 1780: Watt and Boulton engine is first sold to a coal mine-by 1800: 500 of these steam engines produced

-marketing:-Newcomen engine was very expensive*but Watt engine was twice as expensive:

-more complex mechanics= but sold it on the basis of its efficiency: didn't require as much fuel

-but demanded that a buyer purchase a royalty for the fuel savings (royalty to Watt and Boulton)

*cost-benefits were so positive, that most buyers went along*by 1800: Watt-Boulton had 1/3 of market

*1500 around Br.:500 in mining500 in textiles500 in a variety of uses

-Watt always concerned w/ the boiler blowing up:*Oliver Evans (US) and Richard Trevithick (Br.) designed bigger and more efficient boilers

Textiles:-four types of material, in order of initial popularity:

1) wool (over 80% of market)2) linen: made from flax fibre3) silk4) cotton

-textile process:1) spinning: spinning fibres into threads (intertwine fibres)2) weaving: take fibres to create cloth3) dying

-wool couldn't breath as well as cotton= cotton became more interesting to the public

= Calico cottons:*from India:

-Br. set up trading outposts in Madras and Calcutta (to Indians: Calicote)= cheap cottons made by ppl in subcontinent

-imported to Br.-adv.s:

-cheaper than Near Eastern cottons-could be patterned-could be used as undergarments:

-before: made of linenbut too expensive for most people-so poor people didn't wear undergarments

-after Indian cotton: could be used for cheaper undergarments*increased in popularity = pushed out more traditional textile industries:

-people beat up for wearing cottons-wool and silk manufacturers resented influx of cotton= Calico Riots of 1719

= led to Calico Act:*ban on cotton cloth

= but could still import raw cotton

-cotton fibre was more uniform than other materials (sheep all produce different lengths of wool fibre)*more conducive to mechanization

William Lee's knitting machine (1589)Jedediah Strutt's ribbed hosieryJohn Kay's flying shuttle (1733)

*added a feature to a loom, increased productivity by about 100%-single operator could operate a loom single-handedly (didn't need someone on other side of loom to throw shuttle-cock back)

= increased output of loom significantly-created a problem: not enough supplies for the loom (threads, etc.)

Lombe brothers silk spinners (1718)Lewis Paul and John Wyatt (1730s)

*created spinning prototype machine which prepared cloth for spinning-took batch of raw material and organized it in a way which allowed for easier spinning-worked w/ a series of spaced out rollers

-each roller operated at a higher speed than the one before it= elongated the raw material

*never lived up to expectations though:-would either tear the fibre, or make it too thick

*but: introduced the idea that a machine should be invented which stretched raw material to make spinning easier

-3 men from Lancashire:*Liverpool is in Lancashire:

-most accessible to Atlantic-East India Company had main port their: Indian imports came there-drove innovation in cotton

James Hargreave's spinning jenny (1765)-way to get around shortage of yarn/thread/weavers = increase the number of spindles

*but spinsters (usually women) only had two hands= invented machine which automatically twisted thread:

*but: could never make thread as strong as manually-spun thread-but productivity increased substantially

-his neighbours didn't like that he was making so much money and increasing the supply of yarn on the market

= mob destroys all of his machines-spends rest of his days perfecting the machine

Richard Arkwright's water frame (1769)-spinning machine which used water

Samuel Crompton's spinning mule (1774)= improvement on the spinning jenny + the water frame

-could spin more than one thread (improved water frame)-ran on tracks in massive arrays (more thread than the spinning jenny)

-spinner placed on rails; carriage placed on railscycle would end when carriage reached end of rail-line-not limited to 8/12/16 spindles:

= could have an infinite # of spools/spindles*no physical limitations to the device= massive, massive factories

= better quality yarn than spinning jenny and water loom-more consistent-as strong as manually-spun yarn

*revolutionary: thread flooded the market-by mid-1780s, when the machine had been perfected: price of thread started to plunge

[especially cotton thread]*from Bolton:

-reclusive; didn't cultivate contacts= didn't have networks to rely on for capital

*started producing a lot of yarn: slowly divulged that he had invented a new machine= might have been coerced by Cartwright to give up secret of the invention-couldn't take-out patent b/c it was too close to Cartwright's patent-never got license money

= cotton had a natural consistency that lent itself well to mechanizationEdmund Cartwright's power loom (1785)

[clergyman-no experience w/ textile industry= saw opportunity and created a power loom]

-invents a mechanical loom to create cloth-run by steam (Watt-Bolton steam engine)

-by 1789: Watt engine not particularly smooth though; very jerky-also: engine made out of metal, and loom made out of wood= wood would crack

*took 25 years before he could construct a machine which could absorb a machine that could handle the power of the steam engine-by 1810: created a metal loom

*advantages:-smaller-could withstand power of steam engine

Ludditesanti-technologists*as soon as Napoleonic wars are over: less gov'tal demand for cloth for soldiers, etc.= a lot of weavers put out of work by mechaniz. (which had been tolerated so that demand

could be met)-men weavers are affected = they get mad (didn't care when female weavers were thrown out of work though)-General Ned Ludd: Robin Hood-type figure of legend who was purported to live in Sherwood forest

Effects:-destroyed many mechanized looms-clashed w/ British Army

Why:-reaction by the working class against:

1) loss of skilled jobs to relatively unskilled jobs + mechaniz.2) tough working conditions during the Napoleonic wars

*other varieties of cloth couldn't keep pace w/ cotton:= huge supply in US: creation of US cotton culture

Artisans and Traders

Encyclopedie:= general encyclopedia published in France in mid-1700s (editted by Diderot and d'Alembert)*importance:

1) meant for common people: editors wanted to spread the world's knowl. to everyonewanted to change the way people think

2) codified/represented thought of the Enlightenment:= the importance of reason to shape human life

-contributed to social issues which lead to Fr. Revolutione.g. refused to recognize the authority of political or religious figures on aesthetics,

politics, etc.3) put emphasis on the mechanical arts: product of the industrial/scientific/technological

revolutionJosia Wedgwood:

= started the industrializ. of pottery-improvements in the production of pottery: factories, techniques, etc.

*working conditions were the best in Engl.-inspired by archaeological findings of pottery: tried to copy them

*also helped finance a canalQuakers (non-conformists):

-Quakers initially persecuted in Engl.*denied access to official positions and Oxbridge

= eventually: many families created dynasties in many industries-disciplined-believed in hard work-importance of trust between owner + workers, business + customer, etc.-fixed prices: less haggling

Scratch ploughsMouldboard ploughsDesmesneCistercian orderUndershot watermillOvershot watermillBridge millsTidal millsArchitecture:

Romanesque styleGoth style

Ogive (pointed arched)Flying buttresses

Textiles:Flyer-and-bobbin: increase consistency of hand-spun threadBroadloom

VellumCorning gunpowderPig ironBlast furnaceMurano Island

Lateen sailCog shipArsenaleVerge-and-foliot clock: clock which used a balance wheel instead of a pendulum for regulating clock

speedGiovanni de Dondi: built the astrarium (14c.)

= planetarium= astronomical clock*constructed less than a century after the first mechanical clocks had been constructed

Filippo Brunelleschi: architect-Florentine churches-Dome of Florence's cathedral

Relief printing: moveable type is a kind of relief printing= more efficient that hand-printing

Vannoccio Biringuccio: metallurgist= wrote De la Pirotechnia

*technical manuscript-book on foundry practice-details about:

1) mining2) refining of metals3) creation of alloys (mixtures of metals)4) compounds used in explosives, etc.

Georgius Agricola: German scientist= wrote De re metallica

*book about mining and metallurgy-how to find mineral veins-techn. relevant to mines: bellows; mills-mining techniques

Polders: reclaimed landDutch East India Co.: chartered, monopoly company

-first company to issue stocksSmock-mill: octagonal mill with rotating head to direct fans in the windJohannes KeplerRoyal Society of LondonLand enclosureConvertible husbandryDuke of Bridgewater canalAcadmie Royal des SciencesMatthew Boulton: Watt's partnerAbraham Darby: use of coke instead of charcoal to produce pig ironThomas SaveryThomas NewcomenJoseph Black: Scottish chemist

= friend of Watt= theory of latent heat: influenced Watt's attempts to make the steam engine more efficient

*keep the temperature of the cylinder at a constant heat by keeping the condensor separate

Longitudinal Act

Calico RiotsLudditesSamuel Crompton: the spinning muleEdmund Cartwright: the power loomEncyclopdieJosiah WedgwoodQuakers (non-conformists)