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Microbiology of Fermented Foods
Microbiology of Fermented Foods
Second edition Volume 1
Edited by
Brian J.B. Wood Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology
University of Strathclyde Glasgow, UK
BLACKIE ACADEMIC &. PROFESSIONAL An Imprint of Chapman & Hall
London· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras
Published by Blackie Academic and Professional, an imprint of Thomson Science, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt 8HN, UK
Thomson Science, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEI 8HN, UK
Thomson Science, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA
Thomson Science, Suite 750, 400 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19106, USA
Thomson Science, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
First edition published by Elsevier Applied Science Publishers 1985 Second edition 1998 © 1998 Thomson Science Softcover reprint of the hardcover 2rd edition 1998
Thomson Science is a division of International Thomson Publishing I ® p. Typeset in 10/12 pt Times by Best-set Typesetter Ltd, Hong Kong
ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-7990-4 e-ISB N-13: 978-1-4613-0309-1
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4613-0309-1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publishers. Applications for permission should be addressed to the rights manager at the London address of the publisher.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-73963
§ Printed on acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSI!
NISO Z39.48-1992 (Permanence of Paper)
To the memory of my parents, who encouraged and supported me
through a long education
Contents
Preface xix B.l.B. Wood
Volume 1 1 Vinegar 1
M.R. Adams 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Origins of vinegar production 1 1.3 W orId production of vinegar 3 1.4 Uses of vinegar 4 1.5 Raw materials 9 1.6 Production of vinegar stock 12 1.7 Acetification 15 1.8 Processing of vinegar 31 1.9 Vinegar standards, composition and analysis 33 References 37
2 The microbiology of vegetable fermentations 45 L.l. Harris 2.1 Introduction 45 2.2 Sauerkraut 47 2.3 Cucumbers for fermented pickle production 54 2.4 Fermented olives 59 2.5 Future research 67 References 68
3 The silage fermentation 73 M.K. Woolford and G. Pahlow 3.1 Introduction 73 3.2 Microbiology of silage 75 3.3 Chemistry of silage 83 3.4 Control of fermentation 91 References 96
4 Fermentative upgrading of wastes for animal feeding 103 S. Neelakantan and K. Singh 4.1 Introduction 103
viii MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS
4.2 Fermentation of lignocellulosic crop residues 104 4.3 Lactobacillus/yeast fermentation of animal waste
and com (maize) 112 4.4 Other microbial fermentation of wastes 120 4.5 Conclusion 123 References 123
5 Cocoa, coffee and tea 128 M.S. Fowler, P. Leheup and J.-L. Cordier 5.1 Introduction 128 5.2 Cocoa 128 5.3 Coffee 136 5.4 Tea 140 References 145
6 Thickeners of microbial origin 148 L.M. Harvey and B. McNeil 6.1 Introduction 148 6.2 Traditional thickeners used in the food industry 149 6.3 Xanthan gum (E415) 150 6.4 Gellan (E418) 158 6.5 Gellan-related polysaccharides 162 6.6 Exopolysaccharides from the lactic acid bacteria 163 6.7 Pullulan 164 6.8 Scleroglucan 165 6.9 Conclusions 166 References 167
7 Bread and baker's yeast 172 l. Jenson 7.1 Introduction 172 7.2 Bread 175 7.3 Microbiology of breadmaking 180 7.4 Production and microbiology of baker's yeast 187 7.5 Improvement of yeast strains 194 References 195
8 Sourdough breads and related products 199 W.P. Hammes and M.G. Giinzle 8.1 Introduction 199 8.2 Microbial ecology of sourdough 200 8.3 Technological effects of sourdough lactic acid bacteria 205 8.4 Physiology of lactic acid bacteria in sourdough 207 References 214
CONTENTS ix
9 The microbiology of alcoholic beverages 217 G.H. Fleet 9.1 Introduction 217 9.2 Wine 218 9.3 Cider 234 9.4 Beer 236 9.5 Sake 248 9.6 Distilled alcoholic beverages 251 References 255
10 Cheeses 263 G. Stanley 10.1 Introduction 263 10.2 Cheese types, production and nutritional aspects 265 10.3 Lactic acid bacteria (LAB): historical review 267 10.4 Microbiology of starter LAB 270 10.5 Microbiology of secondary flora 274 10.6 Functions of starter LAB 278 10.7 Functions of secondary flora 284 10.8 Selection, production and use of LAB 285 10.9 Microbial defects and quality problems 293 10.10 Technology of cheese production 299 10.11 Conclusion and future trends 304 References 304
11 Fermented milks 308 H. Oberman and Z. Libudzisz 11.1 Introduction 308 11.2 Traditional fermented milks 310 11.3 Non-traditional ('new') fermented milks 328 11.4 Chemical composition of fermented milks 331 11.5 Starters for fermented milks production 336 11.6 Nutritional and physiological aspects of fermented milks 339 References 345
12 Fermented protein foods in the Orient: shoyu and miso in Japan 351 T. Y okotsuka and M. Sasaki 12.1 Introduction 351 12.2 History 353 12.3 Fermented soybean foods in the Orient: shoyu, miso,
tempeh and natto 361 12.4 Manufacture 370 12.5 Recent progress in shoyu and miso production in Japan 374 12.6 Discussion 408 References 411
X MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS
13 Fermented fish and fish products 416 C. G. Beddows 13.1 Introduction 416 13.2 Fish sauces 417 13.3 Fermented fish pastes 429 13.4 Salted fish 432 13.5 Conclusions 434 References 434
Volume 2 14 Fermented sausages 441
F.-K. Lucke 14.1 Introduction 441 14.2 Ingredients and additives 443 14.3 The manufacture of fermented sausages 447 14.4 Biochemical and microbiological changes during
sausage ripening 449 14.5 Public health aspects 464 14.6 Future developments 472 References 474
15 Protein-rich foods based on fermented vegetables 484 B.J.B. Wood 15.1 Introduction 484 15.2 The soybean (Glycine max) 484 15.3 Tempeh production: an outline 486 15.4 Other ingredients 489 15.5 Applications of tempeh in the Western diet 491 15.6 Microbiology of the process 492 15.7 Effects of fermentation on substrate composition 494 15.8 Anti-oxidants 495 15.9 Enzymology 495 15.10 Tempeh bongkrek and other problems 496 15.11 An overview of tempeh 497 15.12 Oncom; ontjom (fermented peanut press cake) 497 15.13 Sufu 498 15.14 Red rice; ang-kak 499 15.15 Conclusion 499 References 500
16 Food flavour from yeast 505 H. Stam, M. Hoogland and C. Laane 16.1 Introduction 505 16.2 Active yeast-derived flavours 506
CONTENTS xi
16.3 Inactive yeast-derived flavours 517 16.4 Perspectives and future developments 537 References 538
17 Biology and technology of mushroom culture 543 R.I. Scrase and T.I. Elliott 17.1 Mushrooms: an overview of the product 543 17.2 Production of Agaricus bisporus 561 17.3 Pests and diseases of Agaricus and their control 571 17.4 Species grown commercially in an Agaricus growth
system or requiring 'casing' 575 17.5 'Wood-rotting'species 577 17.6 Mycorrhizal species 579 17.7 Future prospects 582 References 582
18 Algae as food 585 M.A. Borowitzka 18.1 Introduction 585 18.2 Spirulina - food and health food 585 18.3 Dunaliella salina - production of beta-carotene 590 18.4 Chlorella 592 18.5 Other algae 593 18.6 New culture systems 595 18.7 Conclusion 597 References 598
19 Bio-enrichment: production of vitamins in fermented foods 603 K.H. Steinkraus 19.1 Introduction 603 19.2 Enrichment/fortification 604 19.3 Sources of vitamins 606 19.4 Bio-enrichment with protein 618 19.5 Summary 618 References 619
20 Production of industrial enzymes and some applications in fermented foods 622 A. Godfrey 20.1 Introduction 622 20.2 Brief history of industrial enzymes 622 20.3 Modem approach to enzyme production 625 20.4 Enzymes from animal materials 626 20.5 Enzymes from plant materials 629 20.6 Principal steps in extraction of animal and plant tissues 630
xii MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS
20.7 Enzymes from microbial sources 634 20.8 General principles for industrial production of
microbial enzymes 634 20.9 Industrial enzymes - applications in fermented food
production 641 20.10 Endogenous enzymes in fermented food materials 656 References 657
21 Koji 658 N. Lotong 21.1 Definition and scope 658 21.2 Soybean koji 659 21.3 Rice koji and similar products 669 21.4 Seed inocula 677 21.5 Conclusion 688 References 689
22 Food fermentation in the tropics 696 W.R. Stanton 22.1 The decade of the mycotoxins 696 22.2 Antiquity of food processes involving fermentation 697 22.3 Classification and uniqueness 700 22.4 Technology transfer; geographical restriction 700 22.5 Distribution of existing fermented foods 702 22.6 How they evolved 706 22.7 Differentiation by environment and substrate 706 22.8 Discussion 709 References 712
23 African fermented foods 713 S.A. Odunfa and O.B. Oyewole 23.1 Introduction 713 23.2 Fermented non-alcoholic starchy foods 716 23.3 Fermented alcoholic beverages 727 23.4 Fermented vegetable proteins 739 23.5 Fermented animal proteins 745 23.6 Summary 746 References 746
24 Fermented foods of the Indian subcontinent 753 R. Sankaran 24.1 Introduction 753 24.2 Classification 754 24.3 Fermented milk products 755 24.4 Cereal legume or legume foods 764
CONTENTS xiii
24.5 Cereal foods 775 24.6 Fermented fruits and vegetables 778 24.7 Meat and fish foods 779 24.8 Miscellaneous 780 24.9 Conclusion 781 References 783
25 Fermented weaning foods 790 M.R. Adams 25.1 Breast-feeding and weaning 790 25.2 Weaning, diarrhoeal disease and malnutrition 791 25.3 Lactic fermentation 797 25.4 Fermented weaning foods 800 25.5 Monitoring and challenge studies 801 25.6 Epidemiological evidence 803 25.7 D- and L-Iactate 804 25.8 Nutritional improvements 805 25.9 Germination/malting 805 25.10 Conclusions 807 References 807
26 Potential infective and toxic microbiological hazards associated with the consumption of fermented foods 812 N.J. Rowan, J.G. Anderson and J.E. Smith 26.1 Introduction 812 26.2 Fermented foods and opportunist microbial pathogens 813 26.3 Acid resistance of some foodborne pathogens 816 26.4 Spoilage of popular fermented foods 817 26.5 Factors increasing susceptibility of the consumers of
fermented foods to microbial hazards 822 26.6 The role of fungal toxins (mycotoxins) in fermented
foods 825 References 833
27 The impact of genetic engineering on food and beverage fermentations 838 J.E. Smith 27.1 Introduction 838 27.2 Applied genetics and recombinant DNA technology 839 27.3 Genetically engineered plants and microorganisms 841 27.4 The safety of genetically engineered foods 843 References 851
Index 1-1
Contributors
Martin R. Adams School of Biological Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 5XH, UK
J.G. Anderson Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
C.G. Beddows Faculty of Health and Social Care, Leeds Metropolitan University, Calverley Street, Leeds LSI 3HE, UK
Michael A. Borowitzka School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia 6150, Australia
Jean-Louis Cordier Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland
T.J. Elliott Horticultural Research International, Wellesbourne, Warwick CV35 9EF, UK
Graham H. Fleet Department of Food Science and Technology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
Mark S. Fowler Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland.
Also at Nestle R&D Centre, PO Box 204, York YOIIXY, UK
Michael Ganzle Universitat Hohenheim, Institut fur Lebensmitteltechnologie (ALT), Garbenstr. 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany
A. Godfrey E.T. Consulting, 'Glenview', Upper Common Road, Gilwern, Abergavenny, Gwent NP7 ODR, UK
W.P. Hammes Universitat Hohenheim, Institut fUr Lebensmitteltechnologie (ALT) , Garbenstr. 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany
Linda J. Harris Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
xvi MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS
Linda M. Harvey Department of Bioscience and Technology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Martin Hoogland Quest International, PO Box 2, 1400 CA Bursum, The Netherlands
Ian Jenson Burns, Philp and Company Limited, PO Box 219, North Ryde, NSW 2113, Australia
Colja Laane Agricultural University Wageningen, Dreijenlaan 3,6703 HA Wageningen, The Netherlands
Patrick Leheup Nestec S.A., Vevey, Switzerland
Zdzislawa Libudzisz
Napha Lotong
Friedrich-Karl Lucke
B. McNeil
S. Neelakantan
Helena Oberman
S.A.Odunfa
O.B. Oyewole
Giinter Pahlow
Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Technical University, L6dz, Poland
Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, 50 Paholyothin Road, Jatujak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
Fachbereich Haushalt und Ernahrung, Fachhochschule Fulda, Marquardstrasse 35, D-36039 Fulda, Germany
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Dairy Microbiology Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Kamal, Haryana 132001, India
Institute of Fermentation Technology and Microbiology, Technical University, L6dz, Poland
Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Off Agege Motor Road, Oshodi, PMB 21023, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria
Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Off Agege Motor Road, Oshodi, PMB 21023, Ikeja, Lagos, Nigeria
Institut fUr Grunland - und futterpflanzenforschung, Bundesalle 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
N.J. Rowan
Rugmini Sankaran
Masaoki Sasaki
Richard J. Scrase
Kishan Singh
John E. Smith
Hein Stam
Glyn Stanley
W.R. Stanton
K.H. Steinkraus
Brian J.B. Wood
Michael Woolford
Tamottsu Yokutsuka
CONTRIBUTORS xvii
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
89 Gokulam II Stage, Near J.K. Nursing Home, V.V. Mohalla, Mysore 570 002, India
Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Co. Ltd, 339 Noda, Noda-Shi, Chiba-Ken, 278 Japan
38 Eastbourne Avenue, Bath BAI 6EN, UK
Dairy Microbiology Division, National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana 132001, India
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Quest International, PO Box 2, 1400 CA Bursum, The Netherlands
R.P. Texel Ltd, Poleacre Lane, Woodley, Stockport, Cheshire SK6 IPQ, UK
73 Main Street, Stanbury, Keighley, West Yorkshire BD22 OHA, UK
Institute of Food Science, Cornell University, 15 Cornell Street, Ithaca, New York 14850, USA
Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, University of Strathclyde, 204 George Street, Glasgow GIIXW, UK
Alltech UK Ltd, 15-17 Abenbury Way, Wrexham Industrial Estate, Wrexham, Clwyd LL13 9UZ, UK
Research and Development Division, Kikkoman Co. Ltd, 339 Noda, Noda-Shi, Chiba-Ken, 278 Japan
Preface
When I undertook the production of the First Edition of this book it was my first foray into the world of book editing, and I had no idea of what I was undertaking! I was not entirely alone in this, as in asking me to produce such a book the commissioning Editor, Mr George Olley of Elsevier Applied Science Publishers, had pictured a text of perhaps 300 pages, but on seeing my list of chapter titles realized that we were talking about a 20-chapter, two-volume work. We eventually decided to go ahead with it, and the result was more successful than either of us had dared to hope could be the case. It was therefore with rather mixed emotions that I contemplated a second edition at the suggestion of Blackie Press, who had taken over the title from Elsevier. On the one hand, I was naturally flattered that the book was considered important enough to justify a second edition. On the other hand, I was very well aware that the task would be even greater this time. Indeed, so much had changed in the decade since the first edition, it appeared that this would be in many ways a totally new book. The subject matter has grown greatly in that period, and so has my knowledge of it. The appearance of glossaries of names associated with fermented foods (by Hesseltine & Wang, and by Campbell-Platt) had helped to place the subject on a much firmer foundation, but had compelled me to recognize the true extent of the subject. Moreover, it was clear that the regional dimension would warrant fuller consideration this time. The appearance of Dirar's 552-page text devoted to the indigenous fermented foods of one country, The Sudan, was a further reminder that the subject is immensely complex. Dirar subtitled his book A Study in African Food and Nutrition, and it is easy to justify this, but in fact he demonstrates that The Sudan's geography means that the country's food fermentations, and its food in general, is a rich mingling of African, Mediterranean, Islamic, and even British (from the time of the colonial mandate) influences. I therefore planned that the two specifically 'regional' chapters in the first edition (Odunfa on African food fermentations, and Stanton on the Tropics in general) should be accompanied by chapters on India, the Middle East and South America, but in practice I only succeeded in adding India to the list. However, so many other topics presented themselves that there is a nearly 50% increase in chapters in this edition, and I am already aware that there is adequate scope for reviewers to chide me for omissions from the subjects covered here.
xx MICROBIOLOGY OF FERMENTED FOODS
Despite this, I hope that the finished book will be seen as rather more than just an updating of the first edition.
Some of the contributors to that first edition were able to contribute to the second edition, and in all cases the changes have been such that the new chapter is considerably expanded over the first version. In other cases, retirement from active involvement in scientific work or, sadly, the death of contributors has required me to find new authors. In all cases my authors have exceeded all that I could reasonably ask of them, and one or two of them did so at very short notice moreover. I am therefore greatly indebted to all of the authors who have contributed chapters to this book. It also gives me great pleasure to record my sincere gratitude to Dr Lesley Anderson of Blackies in Glasgow, who began this process, and to Ms Rose Gilliver who has seen it through to the end. Both of them have exhibited great patience and forbearance when faced with what must have seemed like endless prevarication on my part.
I conclude with some pleas to the Reader. First, I point out that I have deliberately used authors from many countries and cultures. As always, I am amazed at the fine English which they command, even when it is not their first language. I want to retain the vigour and diversity which their individual styles of writing bring to the book, so I have tried to exercise restraint in editing, limiting myself to changes which I considered to be demanded on grounds of clarity or the rules of English grammar. If the result is less harmonious than you might wish, then I accept full responsibility for that, and hope that you will understand the reasons for it; of course I also hope that you will share my pleasure in the authors' individuality. Secondly, if you find factual errors or you feel that there is some significant omission from the materials covered herein, please feel free to communicate with me. I am responsible for the Index to this edition, and have tried to model it on the Index which was prepared professionally for the first edition. However, indexing is an art, and I admit to lacking skill in that art, so bear with me please if I fall short of your standards. Finally, I hope that you will find working with this text rewarding, interesting, and even enjoyable.
Brian J.B. Wood, Lenzie, Scotland
April 1997
Microbiology of Fermented Foods
