Microbiology, Mycology and Plant Pathology

7/22/2019 Microbiology, Mycology and Plant Pathology

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Dkyh`k's ^fk`l ^h`l

Ge`gmpt dhsmn ètms

Akgredkeiejy Aygeiejy h`n

Rih`t Rhtfeiejy

\D.Wg. Rhrt-KQ

Nr. Hùphah Jeyhi

Imgturmr

Nmptt. ec Wgkm`gm

Dkyh`k Jkris Geiimjm, Ohkpur



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy 7

Rudiksfmn dy ?

^fk`l ^h`ls

Dkyh`k Jreup ec Geiimjms

Ge`gmpt & Gepyrkjft ?

Dkyh`k Wfklsfh` Whaktk

Wmgter-7, Sknfyhnfhr @hjhr,

Ohkpur-724 247 (Thohstfh`)Rf ? 28>8-47767:8, 4776=;8-;= Chx ? 28>8-477622:

M-ahki ? hghnBdkyh`kgeiimjms.erj

Zmdsktm ?www.jurulpe.gea< www.dkyh`kgeiimjms.erj

KWD@ ? ;:6-;7-677>7-74->

Mnktke` ? 4288

Rrkgm ?

Imhsmr ^ypm Wmttmn dy ?

Dkyh`k Geiimjm Rrk`tk`j Nmphrtam`t

Zfkim mvmry mccert ks thlm` te hvekn mrrers er eaksske`s k` tfks Rudikghtke`, h`y

aksthlm er eaksske` tfht ahy fhvm grmpt k` ks èt k`tm`tke`hi. Kt ahy dm thlm` ètm ec tfht

`mktfmr tfm pudiksfmr èr tfm hutfer wkii dm rmspe`skdim cer h`y nhahjm er iess ec h`y lk`n

hrksk`j te h`ye`m k` h`y ah``mr e` hggeu`t ec sugf mrrers h`n eaksske`s.



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Rrmchgm

K ha jihn te prmsm`t tfks deel, mspmgkhiiy nmskj`mn te smrvm tfm `mmns ec tfm

stunm`ts. ^fm deel fhs dmm` wrkttm` lmmpk`j k` ak`n tfm jm`mrhi wmhl`mss k`

u`nmrsth`nk`j tfm cu`nham`thi ge`gmpts ec tfm tepkgs. ^fm deel ks smic-mxpih`htery h`n

hnepts tfm ’^mhgf [eursmic‑ styim. Kt ks dhsmn e` qumstke`-h`swmr phttmr`. ^fm ih`juhjm ec

deel ks quktm mhsy h`n u`nmrsth`nhdim dhsmn e` sgkm`tkckg hpprehgf.

H`y curtfmr kaprevmam`t k` tfm ge`tm`ts ec tfm deel dy ahlk`j gerrmgtke`s, eaksske`

h`n k`giuske` ks lmm` te dm hgfkmvmn dhsmn e` sujjmstke`s crea tfm rmhnmrs cer wfkgf tfmhutfer sfhii dm edikjmn.

K hglèwimnjm spmgkhi tfh`ls te Ar. Thommv Dkyh`k, Gfhkrah` & Nr. Whòhy Dkyh`k,

Nkrmgter ( Hghn.) Dkyh`k Jreup ec Geiimjms, wfe hrm tfm dhglde`ms h`n ahk` ge`gmpt

prevknmr h`n hise fhvm dmm` ge`sth`t seurgm ec aetkvhtke` tfreujfeut tfks M`nmhveur. ^fmy

pihymn h` hgtkvm reim k` geernk`htk`j tfm vhrkeus sthjms ec tfks M`nmhveur h`n spmhrfmhnmn

tfm pudiksfk`j werl.

K ieel cerwhrn te rmgmkvk`j vhiuhdim sujjmstke`s crea precmssers ec vhrkeus mnughtke`hi

k`stktutke`s, etfmr chguity amadmrs h`n stunm`ts cer kaprevmam`t ec tfm quhikty ec tfm deel.

^fm rmhnmr ahy cmmi crmm te sm`n k` tfmkr geaam`ts h`n sujjmstke`s te tfm u`nmr am`tke`mnhnnrmss.

Hutfer



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy =

Wyiihdus



3

]`kt K

Dhgtmrkh h`n Skrusms

X8 Jkvm h nmthkimn hggeu`t ec tfm fhdkt , strugturm h`n Tmprenugtke` k` @esteg.

H`s Eggurrm`gm?

Kt ks ckiham`teus cera ec detf tmrrmstrkhi h`n hquhtkg fhdkthts . Kt nems èteggur k` sk`jim ckiham`ts dut jrews k` ihrjm geie`kms ec giesmiy phglmntrkgfeams madmnnmn k` h ckra ahtrkx ec jmihtkèus ahtmrkhi. @esteg geie`ytfus ceras h augkihjkèus iuap er tfhiius wfkgf eggurs ciehtk`j er htthgfmn.^fm tfhiik hrm ec vhrkeus skzms h`n sfhpms h`n ahy dm seikn er feiiew. ^fmyahy dm dhiis ec h omiiy ‗ iklm sudsth`gm er ahy dm krrmjuihriy sfhpmn. ^fmgeie`y ahy dm eikvm jrmm` er dium jrmm` h`n tfm surchgm ec tfm geie`y kswhrty h`n saeetf. ^mrrmstrkhi spmgkms, @esteg geaau`m jrews e` nhap sekih`n ceras imhtfmry er ruddmry sfmhtfs. Kt ks geaae` k` Hrgtkg h`n hipk`m

amhnews. Hquhtkg spmgkms eggur hs crmm ciehtk`j tfhiik k` tfm su``y peeis ,pe`ns h`n ihlms er iyk`j ht tfm dettea htthgfmn te sudamrjmn vmjmthtke`. Hcmw spmgkms chveur ru``k`j whtmr , mspmgkhiiy chst ciewk`j aeu`thk` strmhas.^fmrm tfmy hrm ceu`n htthgfmn te ste`ms hie`j tfm strmha dmns. @esteg hiseeggurs k` syadketkg hssegkhtke` wktf cu`jk te cera ikgfm`s. H gmrthk` spmgkmsec @esteg eggurs k` tfm tfhiik ec H`tfegmres. Weam spmgkms ec @esteg fhvmdmm` rmpertmn te ckx htaespfmrkg `ktrejm` h`n tm`n te ahk`thk` cmrtkikty ecphnny ckmins k` wfkgf tfmsm ceras rmjuihriy eggur.

Wtrugturm ec tfm Geie`y?

K`ùamrhdim gfhk`s ec dmhn ‗ iklm gmiis (trkgfeams) ec vhryk`j im`jtfs hrmk`trkghtmiy th`jimn k` h gepkeus jmihtkèus ahtrkx te cera h geie`y. Mhgftrkgfeam ks usuhiiy m`giesmn dy kts ew` augkihjkèus sfmhtf h`n ks ghiimn hckiham`t. ^fm ùamreus ckiham`ts k` tfm geie`y hrm fmin tejmtfmr dy h sectjmihtkèus m`vmiepm ceramn dy tfm cuske` ec tfm k`nkvknuhi trkgfeam sfmhtfsh`n hise smgrmtmn gepkeusiy dy tfm geape`m`t gmiis. ^fm augkihjm iuap ksdeu`nmn mxtmr`hiiy dy h ckra, teujf , pmiikgim ‗iklm deu`nk`j amadrh`m tecera h nmck`ktm geie`y. Mhgf geie`y hppmhrs iklm h diuksf jrmm` er ymiiewksf



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy :

ahss ec omiiy. [eu`j geie`kms hrm sahii h`n akgresgepkg. ^fm ahturm e`ms hrmihrjm. M`giesurm ec smvmrhi geie`kms jrewk`j k` tfm `mkjfdeurfeen , wktfk` hgeaae` jmihtkèus ahss rmsuits k` tfm cerahtke` ec h ahgresgepkg ,augkihjkèus iuap er tfhiius. Kt ahy dm ghiimn h geapeu`n geie`y.

Wtrugturm ec tfm ^rkgfeam?-

^fm trkgfeams hrm augf ge`tertmn , ae`kikcera h`n k`tmrtwk`mn. ^fmy wk`nhdeut k` mvmry nkrmgtke` k` tfm jmihtkèus ahtrkx. ^fmy hrm aerm grewnmntewhrns tfm pmrkpfmry ec tfm geie`y te cera h nm`sm ikaktk`j ihymr. Mhgftrkgfeam ks geapesmn ec ùamreus reu`nmn er evhi gmiis. ^fm gmiis hrm oek`mnieesmiy crea m`n te m`n k`te h trkgfeam seamwfht rmsmadik`j h strk`j ecdmhns. Ht crmqum`t k`tmrvhis hie`j wktf tfm trkgfeam hrm ceu`n geieurimss,mapty ieelk`j , spfmrkghi er dhrrmi sfhpmn gmiis ghiimn tfm fmtmregysts. ^fmyhrm sikjftiy ihrjm h`n fhvm tfkglmr whiis tfh` tfm vmjmthtkvm gmiis h`n hrmk`tmrghihry , seamtkams tmrak`hi.( @. ik`glkh). ^fmy eggur sk`jiy , seamtkamsk` smrkms. Mhgf k`tmrghihry fmtmregyst , wfm` ckrst ceramn fhs twe peihr perms.^freujf tfmsm perms gytepihsakg ge``mgtke`s hrm ahk`thk`mn wktf tfmhnohgm`t vmjmthtkvm gmiis.

Gmii Wtrugturm?-

^fm gmii ge`sksts ec tfm gmii whii surreu`nk`j tfm pretepihst. ^fm pretepihst ksvhjumiy nmck`mn k`te tfm eutmr pkjam`tmn gytepihsakg rmjke` ghiimn tfmgfreaepihsa h`n tfm k``mr geieurimss gm`trepihsa. ^fm gfreaepihsa fhstfm usuhi pkjam`ts (pfygegyh`k`, gfierepfyii h mtg) ieghtmn k` tfm ihamiihmwfkgf cera h systma ec wktfeut ihamiihm. Kt hise ge`thk`s tfm geieurimssjrhùims ec ayxepfygmh` er gyhèpfygmh` sthrgf h`n tfm gyhèpfygmh`jrhùims ec pretmk`hgmeus `hturm.



6



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;

Tmprenugtke`?-

@esteg rmprenugms m`tkrmiy vmjmthtkvmiy dy tfm ceiiewk`j amtfens?-

(8)

Geie`y Crhjam`thtke`?-^fm @esteg geie`y hs kt jmts ihrjmr crmqum`tiy drmhls k`te ciht mxph`smshs h rmsuit ec steras h`n etfmr nksturdh`gms. Mhgf ec tfmsm jrews up tetfm skzm ec tfm phrm`t geie`y.

(4) Feraeje`kh?-Feraeje`m cerahtke` ks vmry geaae` k` @esteg. ^fm trkgfeamrupturms ht pihgms wfmrm h fmtmregyst h`n tfm vmjmthtkvm gmiis hnoek`.^fks ou`gtke` ks tfm wmhlmst ik`l k` tfm gfhk`. K` chgt seam hijeiejkstsdmikmvm tfht fmtmregysts rmprmsm`t h amgfh`ksa cer tfm crhjam`thtkeèc tfm trkgfeam. K` tfks why sfert smjam`ts ec ikvk`j gmiis ghiimn tfmFeraeje`kh dmgham kseihtmn. ^fm Feraeje`kh sikp eut ec tfmm`giesk`j jmihtkèus ahtrkx h`n msthdiksf `mw geie`kms dy nkvkske`.^fm tmrak`hi gmiis ec tfm Feraeje`kh nkccmrm`tkhtm hs fmtmregysts. ^fmk`tmrghihry gmiis tfm` nkvknm k` h pih`m phrhiimi te tfm hxks ec tfmtrkgfeam cerak`j h ohglmt ec gmiis.

(7) Tmstk`j sperms er Hlk`mtms?-]`nmr gmrthk` ge`nktke`s h`y gmii er seam ec tfm vmjmthtkvm gmiis ec tfmtrkgfeam dmgeam mìhrjmn h`n mhgf smgrmtms h tfkgl , fkjfiy rmsksth`twhii hreu`n kt. ^fmy jmt jerjmn wktf rmsmrvm ceen ahtmrkhis. Wugf

spmgkhiiy aenkckmn vmjmthtkvm gmiis hrm ghiimn tfm Hlk`mtms er rmstk`jsperms. ^fmsm hrm wmii hnhptmn te survkvm u`chveurhdim ge`nktke`ssugf hs whtmr sferthjm h`n u`sukthdim tmapmrhturm. Kt ks èt uùsuhi teck`n hii tfm gmiis dmtwmm` twe fmtmregysts h`n egghske`hiiy tfm m`tkrmtrkgfeam ge`vmrtmn k`te Hlk`mtms. Zktf tfm rmtur` ec chveurhdim smhse`mhgf hlk`mtm jmrak`htms te cera h `mw ckiham`t ec @esteg.

(>) M`nesperm cerahtke`?-Drh`n (8;28) h`n Wprhtt (8;88) rmpertmn tfht tfm ge`tm`ts ec tfmfmtmregysts k` @esteg geaau`m h`n @esteg akgresgepkgua nkvknm te

prenugm m`nesperms. ^fm m`nesperms , e` ikdmrhtke` , jkvm rksm te `mwckiham`ts.

X4 Nmsgrkdm k` nmthki tfm Aerpfeiejy , rmprenugtke` h`n kaperth`gm ecEsgkiihterkh

H`s Eggurrm`gm?-.



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Kt ks h` mxgmmnk`jiy geaae` , crmsf whtmr ckiham`teus nhrl , dium jrmm` hijh.Kt eggurs k` h wknm vhrkmty ec fhdkthts. ]suhiiy kt ks ceu`n e` nhap seki , k`tmaperhry rhk` whtmr peeis h`n rehnsknm nktgfms. Rhtgfms ec m`th`jimnahssms ec ckiham`ts wktf tfm hnfmrm`t aun hrm ectm` ceu`n ciehtk`j e` tfmsurchgm ec crmsf whtmr gfh``mi. Detteas ec sfhiiew tmaperhry punnims h`nnktgfms , nrhk`s er smwmrs hrm usuhiiy gevmrmn wktf ihrjm phtgfms ecEsgkiihterkh.

^fhiius?-

^fm tfhiius ge`sksts ec crmm ikvk`j trkgfeams wfkgf ectm` cera h geaphgt ,th`jimn ciehtk`j ahss er eggur k` tfm cera ec sfk`y ahss e` aekst seki. Kt fhs hnkstk`gt ckiham`teus tmxturm. Egghske`hiiy , tfm trkgfeams eggur sk`jiy. Mhgftrkgfeam ks h ie`j , vmry ck`m tfrmhn iklm u`drh`gfmn strugturm. Aestcrmqum`tiy kt ks `hlmn er hppmhrs `hlmn dmghusm tfm sfmhtf hreu`n kt ks vmrynmikghtm h`n peeriy nmvmiepmn. ^fm trkgfeams hrm usuhiiy saeetf, seamtkamsge`strkgtmn ht tfm gresswhii, strhkjft h`n rkjkn er hggurhtm. ^fmy hrm smpthtm ,tfm smpth hrm chk`tiy vkskdim h`n ectm` ahrlmn dy rews ec jrhùims e` mktfmrsknm. Mxgmpt tfm m`n gmii, hii hrm hiklm h`n nksgekn. ^fmy hrm prmssmn cihtiyhjhk`st e`m hètfmr k` ie`j rews. Num te autuhi prmssurm tfm gmiis hrm sfertiygyik`nrkghi. Weam spmgkms ec Esgkiihterkh fhvm drehnmr trkgfeams tfh` tfmetfmrs. K` tfm spmgkms wktf `hrrew trkgfeams tfm gmiis hrm hs ie`j hs drehn erie`jmr tfh` drehn.

Aevmam`ts?-

^fm strklk`j gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec Esgkiihterkh ks tfm siew , rfytfakg dut hgtkvmaevmam`t ec kts trkgfeams. ]`nmr tfm mimgtre` akgresgepm , tfm aevmam`tshrm smm` te dm ec tfm ceiiewk`j tfrmm typms?-

(8) Jiknk`j er grmmpk`j aevmam`ts?- Ohresgf nmck`mn jiknk`j hs tfm ’ hgtkvm aevmam`t ec h` erjh`ksa k`ge`thgt wktf h seikn sudstrhtua wfmrm tfmrm ks `mktfmr h vkskdim erjh`rmspe`skdim cer tfm aevmam`t, èr h nkstk`gt gfh`jm k` tfm sfhpm ec tfmerjh`ksa. ^fmsm rfytfakg aevmam`ts thlm pihgm k` tfm nkrmgtke` ec tfmie`j hxks ec tfm trkgfeam. ^fmy hrm ghiimn tfm hxkhi aevmam`ts.

(4) Esgkiihtery aevmam`ts?-Esgkiihterkh hise mxfkdkts siew vhryk`j aevmam`ts. ^fmsm hrmseamwfht omrly , pm`nuiua iklm esgkiihtke`s ec tfm cre`t m`n , fm`gmtfm jm`mrkg `ham (esgkiihrm te swk`j) .




Gmii Wtrugturm?-

Hii tfm gmiis k` tfm trkgfeam hrm skakihr k` strugturm. ^fm gmii whii dmk`j sthdimtfmrm ks fhrniy h`y ge`spkgueus augkihjkèus sfmhtf mxtmr`hi te kt .

Hggernk`j te Fhicm` h`n Ghstm`feitz , tfm gmii whii k` E. prk`gmps uitrhstrugturhiiy ge`sksts ahkìy ec h tfkgl (4222 ǿ) strugturhi ihymr mxtmr`hite tfm pihsah amadrh`m. Eutsknm tfm strugturhi ihymr ks 832ǿ tfkgl hètfmrihymr. ^fmrm ks h tfkrn ;2ǿtfkgl amadrh`m ‗ iklm ihymr ieesmiy wrhppmnhreu`n tfm k``mr twe. ^fm 832ǿihymr h`n tfm eutmr amadrh`m hrm ge` tkùeusevmr tfm trkgfeam surchgm. ^fmy ne èt thlm phrt k` tfm cerahtke` ec tfm gresswhiis.

^fm gmii pretepihst sfews nkstk`gtke` k`te h` eutmr geieurmn gytepihsa, tfmgfreaepihsa wfkgf surreu`ns tfm geieurimss gm`trhi hrmh ghiimn tfmgm`trepihsa er gm`trhi deny . ^fm gfreaepihsa ks k`vmstmn dy h twe ‗ ihymrmn pihsah amadrh`m. ^fm pretepihst ihgls tfm pihstkns , aktegfe`nrkh ,m`nepihsakg rmtkguiua h`n nkgtyeseams. ^fm pkjam`ts hrm ieghtmn k` tfmcihttm`mn shg ‗ iklm strugturms ghiimn tfm ihamiihm er tfyihlekns cerak`j h`hrrhy ec phrhiimi phkrmn amadrh`ms madmnnmn k` tfm gfreaepihsa. ^fmihamiihm hrm èt erjh`kzmn k`te jrh`h. Dmsknms tfm Gyhèpfygmh` sthrgf h`ngyhèpfygmh` jrhùims , tfm ge`tm`ts ec tfm gmii , mspmgkhiiy k` tfm pih`lte`kgspmgkms, ahy k`giunm psmune ‗ vhgueims. ^fm gm`trhi deny rmprmsm`ts tfmk`gkpkm`t ùgimus. Kt ge`sksts eìy ec h ahss ec sghttmrmn gfreahtk` jrhùimsdut ihgls tfm ùgimhr amadrh`mbh`n tfm ùgimeik. ]`nmr mimgtreàkgresgepm , tfm gm`trepihsa ks smm` te ge`skst ec h chk`tiy jrhùihr jreu`n

ahtrkx k` wfkgf hrm ceu`n madmnnmn grysthiik`m iklm denkms h`n gimhr hrmhs.



84




Tmprenugtke`?-

Esgkiihterkh rmprenugms vmjmthtkvmiy. ^fm eìy lèw` amtfen ks dy tfmcerahtke` ec feraeje`ms. ^fm feraeje`ms hrm sfert smgtke`s er im`jtfs er

ikvk`j gmiis smphrhtmn crea tfm trkgfeams. ^fm drmhl thlms pihgm wfmrm h nmhngmii (`mgrknkua) ks sktuhtmn.

Nurk`j tfm jrewk`j smhse` h gmii fmrm h`n tfmrm k` tfm trkgfeam wkii geiihpsm.(nkms). ^fm pretepihst ec sugf gmiis gfh`jms k`te h trh`sphrm`t , vksgeussudsth`gm ghiimn tfm augkihjm. ^fm augkihjm ckiimn nmhn gmiis hrm ghiimn`mgrknkh. ^fm nmhn gmii iesms kts turjknkty. ^fm autuhi prmssurm e` tfm whiis ectfm hnohgm`t gmiis ks rmimhsmn. ^fmy dmgeam ge`vmx se tfht tfm nmhn gmiihppmhrs dkge`ghvm. ^fmsm dkge`ghvm nmhn gmiis er smphrhtke` nksgs prevknmwmhl ik`ls k` tfm trkgfeam h`n tfus ahrl tfm pek`ts ec nksou`gtke` ec tfmtrkgfeam k`te feraeje`ms. ^fm augkihjm swmiis h`n `mgrknkh drmhl new`

rmimhsk`j tfm feraeje`ms. Mhgf feraeje`m ahy ge`skst ec h cmw te smvmrhiikvk`j gmiis. Weamtkams h feraeje`m drmhl ecc crea tfm mxtrmakty ec tfmtrkgfeam. ^fm feraeje`ms mxfkdkt h jrmhtmr ghphgkty cer h siew cerwhrnaetke` tfh` tfm vmjmthtkvm trkgfeam.



8>

X 7 Zfht hrm Aygepihsahs5 Nmsgrkdm tfmkr strugturm h`n geaam`t drkmciy e`tfmkr mgeèakg kaperth`gm.

H`s Aygepihsahs hrm tfm sahiimst lèw` hmredkg prelhryetms wktfeut h gmii whii.

^fmsm akgreerjh`ksas wmrm ckrst nksgevmrmn dy Rhstmur wfkim stunyk`j tfmghushtkvm hjm`t ec pimurep`muae`kh k` ghttim ( devk`m pimurep`muae`kh ).^fmy wmrm nmskj`htmn hs RRIE ( pimurep`muae`kh ‗ iklm erjh`ksas ). K`86;6 , twe Crm`gf akgredkeiejksts , @eghrn h`n Teux , wmrm suggmsscui kèdthk`k`j purm guiturms ec tfmsm akgreerjh`ksas k` amnkh ge`thk`k`j smrua.Aygepihsahs hrm crmqum`t ge`thak`h`ts k` tkssum guiturms rkgf k` erjh`kgahtmr. ^fmy fhvm hise dmm` ceu`n k` fet ‗ whtmr sprk`js h`n etfmr tfmrahim`vkreàm`ts. ^fmy eggur k` seki, smwhjm whtmr , nkccmrm`t sudstrhtms h`n k`fuah`s , h`kahis h`n pih`ts.

Wtrugturm ec Aygepihsahs?-

^fm hdsm`gm ec h trum gmii whii ahlms tfmsm erjh`ksas fkjfiy pihstkg h`nrmhnkiy nmcerahdim, fm`gm Aygepihsahs hrm krrmjuihr h`n vhrkhdim k` sfhpm.^fm gmiis ahy dm geggekn , jrhùihr , pmhr sfhpmn , giustmr iklm , rk`j iklm erckiham`teus. ^fm ckiham`ts ahy dm drh`gfmn er u`drh`gfmn. ^fm gmiis hrmsahii , rh`jk`j k` nkhamtmr dmtwmm` 2.7 h`n 2.; ½a.

^fmsm erjh`ksas hrm gevmrmn wktf h u`kt ikpepretmk` gytepihsakg amadrh`m ,:.= ‗ 82 ½a tfkgl. ^fm gytepihsa ge`thk`s rkdeseams h`n ùgimepihsa ‗ iklmstrugturm. ^feujf jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi ks geapesmn ec detf N@H h`n T@H , kt ksimss tfh` fhic tfht usuhiiy eggurs k` etfmr prelhryetms h`n ks pmrfhps tfmiewmst ikakt rmqukrmn cer h gmiiuihr erjh`ksa. ^fm haeu`t ec N@H ks up te >pmr gm`t h`n T@H hdeut 6 pmr gm`t. ^fm J+ G ge`tm`t k` N@H rh`jmsdmtwmm` 47 h`n >2 pmr gm`t. Aygepihsahs ahy dm tfm skapimst cera ec ikcmghphdim ec k`nmpm`nm`t jrewtf h`n amthdeiksa.

Aygepihsahs hrm Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm h`n sthk` siewiy e` ie`j mxpesurm tenyms. ^fmy hrm usuhiiy è` ‗ aetkim < seam ceras , fewmvmr , sfew jiknk`jaevmam`ts. ^fmy rmprenugm dy dunnk`j er dk`hry cksske`. ^fmy hrm sm`sktkvmte exytmtrhgygik`m, strmpteaygk`, mrytfreaygk` h`n gfierhapfm`kgei. ^fmyne èt fhvm gmii whii wktf pmptknejiygh`s (iklm tfht ec dhgtmrkh) h`n hrm

k`sm`sktkvm te pm`kgkiik` h`n seam etfmr h`tkdketkgs sugf hs hapkgkiik` h`namtfkgkiik` , wfkgf spmgkckghiiy hccmgt pmptknejiygh` sy`tfmsks.

@hturm ec Aygepihsahs?-

Aygepihsahs gh` jrew k` h amnkua wfkgf ge`thk`s è ikvk`j tkssums. ^fmygh` hise phss tfreujf ah`y ckitmrs wfkgf gh`èt phss dhgtmrkh. Dmghusm ectfmsm twe gfhrhgtmrkstkgs Aygepihsahs hrm ge`sknmrmn te dm k`tmramnkhtm



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy 8=

dmtwmm` dhgtmrkh h`n vkrusms . Gfmakghiiy , tfmy hrm aerm giesm te dhgtmrkhtfh` vkrusms.

Weam kaperth`t Aygepihsahi nksmhsms?-

Aygepihsahs ghusm smrkeus nksmhsms k` fuah` dmk`js , h`kahis h`n pih`ts.Weam ec tfmsm hrm nmsgrkdmn ?-

(K) Rhtfejm`msks h`n nksmhsms k` fuah` dmk`js?-

Rhtfejm`kg Aygepihsahs hccmgt tfm rmspkrhtery erjh`s , gm`trhi `mrveussystma , ghrnkevhsguihr systma h`n urejm`kthi systma k` fuah` dmk`js.Aygepihsah feak`ks , ghusms pimurep`muae`kh , k`cihaahtke` ec jm`kthis ,è` ‗ spmgkckg urmtfrktks , m`neghrnktks , presthtktks h`n etfmr nksmhsms.

Aygepihsah p`muae`khm ghusms prkahry htypkghi p`muae`kh (RHR) ,fhmaerrfhjkg ihry`jktks h`n vmskguihr k`cihaahtke` ec tyaph`kg amadrh`m. Aygepihsah feak`ks h`n Aygepihsah cmram`th`ts hrm lèw` te ghusmk`cmrtkikty k` ah`.

(KK) Rhtfejm`kgkty cer h`kahis?-

Aygepihsah aygeknms ghusms pimurep`muae`kh k` ghttim. Weam strhk`s ecAygepihsah prenugm

X> Nmck`m Skrus5 Jkvm h nmthkimn hggeu`t ec tfm aerpfeiejy ec Skrusms5

H`s Skrus ks h phrhsktm k` hii typms ec erjh`ksas. ^fmy k`cmgt h`kahis , pih`ts ,dhgtmrkh , hijhm , k`smgts mtg. Iwecc nmck`mn tfht ‖ Skrusms hrm k`cmgtkeus ,petm`tkhiiy phtfejm`kg ùgimepretmk` wktf eìy e`m typm ec ùgimkg hgknwfkgf rmprenugm crea tfmkr jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi , hrm u`hdim te jrew h`n nkvknmh`n nmvekn ec m`zyams.

Iurkh h`n Nhr`mii nmck`mn tfht Skrusms hrm m`tktkms , wfeim jmèam ec wfkgfhrm mimam`t ec ùgimkg hgkn tfht rmpikghtm k`sknm tfm ikvk`j gmiis usk`j tfmgmiiuihr sy`tfmtkg ahgfk`mry h`n ghusk`j tfm sy`tfmsks ec spmgkhikzmn

mimam`ts tfht gh` trh`scmr tfm vkrhi jmèam te etfmr gmii. Zfkim nmck`k`j tfmakgreerjh`ksas vkrusms hrm smt hphrt e` tfm dhsks ec gmrthk` gfhrhgtmrs hsjkvm` dmiew dy Iwecc h`n êur`kmr.?

(k) ^fmy hrm hii petm`tkhiiy k`cmgtkeus.(kk) Rrmsm`gm ec h sk`jim ùgimkg hgkn.(kkk) K`ghphdkikty te jrew tfm jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi eìy.(kv) Tmprenugtke` crea tfm jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi eìy.



83

(v) Hdsm`gm ec m`zyams cer m`mrjy amthdeiksa (Ikpah` systma).(vk) Hdsm`gm ec rkdeseams.(vkk) Hdsm`gm ec k`cerahtke` cer tfm prenugtke` ec m`zyams k` tfm m`mrjy

gygim.

(vkkk) Hdsm`gm ec k`cerahtke` cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec rkdeseahi pretmk`s, h`n(kx) Hdsm`gm ec k`cerahtke` cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec rkdeseahi T@H h`n

seiudim tT@H.

KK. Eggurrm`gm?Skrusms eggur e` h vmry wknm fests sugf hs pih`ts ( h`jkespmras ,jyaèspmras, cmr`s , hijhm cu`jk) h`n h`kahis ( pretezeh`s , k`smgts , cksf ,hapfkdkh`s , dkrns , ahaahis , fuah`s) . ^fmy ghusm vmry smrkeus nksmhsmsk` grep pih`ts , er`ham`thi pih`ts h`n cermst trmms rmsuitk`j k` nmgrmhsmnjrewtf , ykmin h`n aerthikty.

KKK Aerpfeiejy ec Skrusms?-8 Wfhpm?Skrusms hrm ec nkccmrm`t sfhpms sugf hs spfmrekn er gudekn ( hnmèvkrusms) ,mie`jhtmn ( pethte vkrusms ) , cimxueus er gekimn ( dmmt ymiiew ) , duiimt sfhpmn( rhdkms vkrus) , ckiham`teus ( dhgtmrkepfhjm A87 ) , pimeaerpfkg ( hichichaeshkg) mtg.

4.Wkzm?Skrusms hrm ec vhrkhdim skzms . K`ktkhiiy tfmkr skzms wmrm mstkahtmn dy phssk`jtfma tfreujf amadrh`ms ec lèw` perm nkhamtmr. K` rmgm`t ymhrs , tfmkr skzmks nmtmrak`mn dy uitrhgm`trkcujhtke` h`n mimgtre` akgresgepy. Wkzm vhry crea42à te 722 à k` nkhamtmr. ^fmy hrm sahiimr tfh` dhgtmrkh < seam hrmsikjftiy ihrjmr tfh` pretmk` h`n ùgimkg hgkn aeimguims h`n seam hrm hdeut ectfm sham skzm. ( sahii pex vkrus) hs tfm sahiimst dhgtmrkua h`n seam vkrus (vkrus ec iyapfejrhùieah, (722 ‗ >22 ½a) hrm sikjftiy ihrjmr tfh` tfmsahiimst dhgtmrkua.

7. Skrhi Wtrugturm?^fm geapimtm hssmadiy ec tfm k`cmgtkeus phrtkgim ks lèw` hs vkrke`. H vkrke`

ge`sksts ec h ùgimkg hgkn germ surreu`nmn dy h pretmk` geht er ghpskn. ^fm

geapimtm smt ec vkrke` ks lèw` hs ùgimeghpskn. K` tur` tfm ùgimeghpsknahy dm `hlmn er m`vmiepmn dy hs ieesm gevmrk`j. ^fm ghpskn ks geapesmn ec hihrjm ùadmr ec sudu`kts lèw` hs ghpseamrms.Gfmakghiiy tfm m`vmiepm ks ahnm up ec pretmk`s h`n jiygepretmk`s. Num te tfm prmsm`gm ec ikpkn tfm m`vmiepm smmas cimxkdim h`n ieesm. M`vmiepmks geapesmn ec detf tfm fest h`n vkrhi geape`m`ts k.m. pretmk` ( vkrusspmgkckg) h`n ghrdefynrhtms ( fest spmgkckg).



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy 8:

^fmrm hrm gmrthk` preomgtke`s e` tfm m`vmiepm lèw` hs spklms wfkgf hrmhrrh`jmn k`te nkstk`gt u`kts. ^fm aerpfeiejkghi typms ec vkrus edsmrvmntfreujf mimgtre` akgresgepy h`n grysthiiejrhpfy fhvm dmm` ghtmjerkzmn k`tetfm ceiiewk`j tfrmm jreups?

(k) Fmikghi ( gyik`nrkghi) Skrusms?(h) @hlmn ghpsuim m.j. ÂS h`n tfm dhgtmrkepfhjm A87, mtg.(d) M`vmiepmn ghpskn m.j. k`cium`zh vkrus.

(kk) Reiyfmnrhi ( kgeshfmnrhi ) Skrusms?

( h) `hlmn ghpskn m.j. hnmèvkrus , peike vkrusms mtg.

(g) M`vmiepmn ghpskns m.j. fmrpms skapimx vkrusms mtg.

(kkk) Geapimx Skrusms?(h) Ghpskns hrm gimhriy knm`tkckmn m.j. vhggk`kh vkrus mtg.(d) Ghpskns te wfkgf seam etfmr strugturms hrm htthgfmn m.j. seamdhgtmrkepfhjms mtg.

(k) Fmikghi Skrusms?^fm fmikghi vkrusms hrm mie`jhtmn , ren sfhpmn , rkjkn er cimxkdim. ^fmkr

ghpskn ks h feiiew gyik`nmr wktf h fmikghi strugturm. Ghpskn ge`sksts ecaeèamrs hrrh`jmn fmikghiiy k` h rethtke`hi hxks. ^fm fmikghi ghpsuimahy dm `hlmn ( m.j. ÂS) er m`vmiepmn. ( m.j. k`cium`zh vkrus).

(h) @hlmn vkrusms?

E`m ec tfm mxhapims ec tfm `hlmn vkrusms ks tfm ÂS. Wthìmy kseihtmnÂS k` tfm grysthiik`m cera crea imhc shp ec tfm k`cmgtmn tedhggepih`ts. ÂS vkrus ks ren sfhpmn amhsurk`j hdeut 462 Ú 8=2 ‗ 862 ½a.Kt ge`sksts ec h pretmk` tudm wktf h iuam` ec 42 Í wfkgf m`giesms hsk`jim strh`nmn (ss) fmikx ec gekimn T@H. Rretmk` geht ec tfm vkrusge`thk`s h ùadmr ec knm`tkghi sudu`kts ( aeèamrs) wfkgf hrmhrrh`jmn k` h fmikghi ah``mr. H ghpskn ge`sksts ec smvmrhi ghpseamrsmhgf geapesmn ec h cmw aeèamrs. Certy `k`m aeèamrs ( mhgf wktf

aeimguihr wmkjft 84.222) thlm tfrmm tur`s ec tfm fmikx h`n jkvm h tethiec 4,872 sudu`kts ec tfm ren.

(d) M`vmiepmn vkrusms?Zfm` tfm fmikghi vkrusms hrm m`giesmn wktfk` h` m`vmiepm tfmy hrmlèw` hs m`vmiepmn fmikghi vkrusms , cer mxhapim K`cium`zh vkrus. ^fmm`vmiepm ks geapesmn ec h vkrhi pretmk` h`n tfm fest gmii geape`m`tsk.m. ikpkn h`n ghrdefynrhtms. ^fm m`vmiepm ge`sksts ec ùamreus spklms.



86

^fm fmikghi ghpskn mxksts k` ceinmn cera k`sknm tfm m`vmiepm h`nseamtkams ahy sfew pimeaerpfkg hppmhrh`gm.

(kk) Reiyfmnrhi (Kgeshfmnrhi ) Skrusms?-

^fmrm hrm smvmrhi h`kahi , pih`t h`n dhgtmrkhi vkrusms wfkgf fhvm mktfmr`hlmn er m`vmiepmn kgeshfmnrhi sfhpm. Reiyfmnrhi strugturm fhs tfmtfrmm pesskdim syaamtrkms sugf hs tmtrhfmnrhi , egthfmnrhi h`nkgeshfmnrhi. ^fm vkrusms hrm aerm er imss spfmrkghi. ^fmrmcerm,kgeshfmnrhi syaamtry ks tfm dmst e`m cer phglk`j h`n de`nk`j ecsudu`kts. H` kgeshfmnre` ks h rmjuihr peiyfmnre` wktf 42 trkh`juihrchgms h`n 84 ger`mrs. ^fm ghpseamrs ec mhgf chgm cera h` mquhterkhitrkh`jims h`n 84 k`tmrsmptk`j pek`ts er ger`mrs.Dhskghiiy tfmrm hrm twe typms ec ghpseamrs , tfm pm`thamrs h`nfmxhamrs. ^fm pm`thamr ks h giustmr ec = aeèamrs h`n tfm fmxhamr ks

h giustmr ec 3 aeèamrs. ^fm aeèamrs hrm ik`lmn tejmtfmr dy de`ns.^fus, tfm ghpseamrs hrm hise ik`lmn tejmtfmr dy de`ns wfkgf hrmwmhlmr tfh` tfesm ec aeèamrs num te tfmkr drmhlk`j k`te tfmghpseamrs nurk`j tfm purkckghtke` ec vkrhi phrtkgims.

(h) @hlmn kgeshfmnrhi vkrusms?-@hlmn kgeshfmnrhi vkrusms hrm tur`kp ymiiew aeshkg vkrus (^[AS) ,peikevkrus, hnmèvkrus h`n dhgtmrkepfhjm ÖÚ 8:>, XD mtg.Hnmèvkrusms hrm ihrjm ( 62 à nkhamtmr) , kgeshfmnrhi ge`thk`k`jnsN@H. ^fm ghpskn fhs tfm rk`j iklm ghpseamrs mhgf ge`thk`k`j

pm`thamrs h`n fmxhamrs. H tethi ec 74 fmxhamrs h`n 84 pm`thamrs hrmceu`n k` tfm ghpskn. ^fm fmxhamrs hrm peiyje`hi nksgs ec 6ànkhamtmr wktf h feim ec 4.= à nkhamtmr k` tfm gm`trm.Ht tfm surchgm ec ghpskn tfmsm spklm iklm strugturms cera 84 pek`ts ectfm ckvm cein syaamtry. ^fm ghpseamrs hrm hssmadimn te ge`strugt tfmghpskn k` h spmgkckg jmeamtrkghi phttmr` wfmrm tfm pm`thamrs cera tfmger`mrs ec tfm kgeshfmnre` h`n tfm fmxhamrs eggupy tfm k`tmr`hi sphgm.

(d) M`vmiepmn kgeshfmnrhi vkrusms?-^fmrm hrm seam ec tfm m`vmiepmn kgeshfmnrhi vkrusms, cer mxhapimfmrpms vkrus wfmrm tfm ghpskn ks m`giesmn k`sknm h` m`vmiepm ec 72àtfkgl`mss tfht ks ahnm up ec h jiygepretmk` ‗ ikpkn geapimx. ^fmm`vmiepm ge`sksts ec spklms e` kts surchgm. ^fm ghpskn ks spfmrkghi h`nec hdeut à nkhamtmr m`giesk`j h nm`sm germ ec nsT@H aeimguim. ^fmghpskn ge`thk`s 834 ghpseamrs ( 84 pm`thamr ghpseamrs ht hpkgms h`n8=2 fmxhamr ghpseamrs ht tfm chgms).



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy 8;

( g) Geapimx Skrusms?-^fm vkrusms wfkgf fhvm tfm u`knm`tkckhdim ghpskns er fhvm tfm ghpsknswktf hnnktke`hi strugturms hrm ghiimn geapimx vkrusms, cer mxhapim ,vhggk`kh vkrus h`n ^ ‗ mvm` dhgtmrkepfhjms. K` hnnktke`, tfm etfmrvhrkhtke`s k` tfm strugturm ec geapimx vkrusms hrm hise ceu`n sugf hs ( k)h nmck`ktm ghpskn hdsm`t ( m.j. vhggk`kh vkrus , (kk) ghpskn prmsm`t h`nge`sksts ec h thki . ^fm smge`n jreup ge`sksts ec nkccmrm`t typms ,cermxhapim , thnpeim sfhpmn vkrusms ( wktf fmhn h`n thki . m.j. ^- mvm`pfhjm) , vkrusms wktf thki imss fmhn ( pfhjm η, ^8 , ^= ) , vkrus wktf drkglsfhpmn h`n nmvekn ec cihttm`mn gyik`nmr ( pex vkrus) , duiimt sfhpmnghpskn vkrusms ( m.j. ùgimhr peiyfmnresks er gytepihsakg peiyfmnresksvkrusms).

> M`vmiepm?-

^fmrm hrm gmrthk` pih`ts h`n h`kahi vkrusms h`n dhgtmrkepfhjms , detfkgeshfmnrhi h`n fmikghi , wfkgf hrm surreu`nmn dy h tfk` amadrhèusm`vmiepm. ^fks m`vmiepm ks hdeut 82 ‗ 8=½a tfkgl. Kt ks ahnm up ecpretmk`, ikpkns h`n ghrdefynrhtms wfkgf hrm geadk`mn te cerajiygepretmk` h`n ikpepretmk`. Ikpkns prevknm cimxkdkikty te tfm sfhpm,tfmrmcerm, vkrusms ieel ec vhrkhdim skzms h`n sfhpms. Rretmk` geape`m`tec tfm m`vmiepm ks ec vkrhi erkjk` h`n ikpkn h`n ghrdefynrhtms ahy dmtfm cmhturms ec tfm fest amadrh`m k.m. ùgimhr er gytepihsakg. ^fmssT@H vkrusms hctmr rmpikghtke` k` fests gytepihsa hrm rmimhsmn dydunnk`j tfreujf pihsah amadrh`m . Nurk`j rmimhsm tfmsm hrm

m`vmiepmn dy h phrt ec tfm amadrh`m ec tfm fest gmii wfkgf rmsmadimsh typkghi amadrh`m. ^fm amadrh`m ks ahnm up pfespfeikpkn dkihymrk` wfkgf pretmk`s hrm madmnnmn. ^fm spklms htthgfmn te tfm eutmrsurchgm ec tfm m`vmiepm ks ahnm up ec jiygepretmk`s. Wpklms fhvmhjjiutk`htke` pretmk`s. K` etfmr jreup ec vkrusms m.j. nsN@Hdhgtmrkepfhjm, RA4 , nsT@H dhgtmrkepfhjm Ö3, krknmsgm`t nsN@Hk`smgt vkrusms h`n tfm pex vkrusms , tfm ikpkn dkihymr ks èt nmrkvmn creatfm fest amadrh`m. ^fm ikpkns prmsm`t k` vkrhi m`vmiepm chii u`nmr tfmceur gihssms (k) pfespfeikpkns ( m.j. spfk`jeaymik`, pfespfhtknyigfeik`m , pfespfhtknyi smrk`m h`n pfespfhtknyi kèsktei), ( kk)

gfeimstmrei (kkk) chtty hgkn h`n (kv) jiygeikpkns ( m.j. jiygespfk`jeikpknsahnm up ec spfk`jesk`m , chtty hgkn h`n ghrdefynrhtms).

= @ugimkg hgkns?-

Skrusms ge`thk` mktfmr sk`jim er neudim strh`nmn N@H er T@Haeimguims. ^fm ùgimkg hgkns ahy dm k` ik`mhr er gkrguihr cera, h`nfhvm pius er akùs peihrkty. @ugimkg hgkns ec smvmrhi pih`t vkrusms



42

eggur k` tfmkr rmspmgtkvm phrtkgims k` e`m pkmgms. Fewmvmr, tfm rmevkrusks lèw` te ge`thk` tfm ùgimkg hgkn k` 82 smjam`ts . ^fm smjam`tmnùgimkg hgkns ks hise ceu`n k` weu`n tuaeur vkrus h`n k`cium`zh vkrus.

3 Rretmk`s?-

Rretmk`s ceu`n K vkrusms ahy dm jreupmn k`te tfm ceur ghtmjerkms? (k)m`vmiepm pretmk`, (kk) ùgimeghpskn ( strugturhi ) pretmk` ( kkk) germpretmk` h`n ( kv) vkrhi m`zyams.

(k) M`vmiepmn Rretmk`?-

M`vmiepm ec tfm vkrusms ge`sksts ec pretmk`s spmgkckmn dy detf vkrus h`nfest gmii. Amadrh`ms ec hii gihssms ec m`vmiepmn vkrusms ge`thk`jiygepretmk` . K` k`cium`zh vkrus tfm ahk` pretmk` ks tfm ghrdefynrhtmcrmm pretmk` wfkgf geaprksms ec =2% ec m`vmiepm pretmk` h`n 7= ‗ >2%

ec vkrke` pretmk` hs h wfeim. Fmrpms vkrusms , pexvkrusms h`nimulevkrusms ne èt ge`thk` pretmk` k` tfm m`vmiepm spmgkckmn dy tfma.Kt fhs dmm` ceu`n tfht tfm m`vmiepm pretmk`s hrm m`giesmn dy tfmjmèam ec hrdevkrusms, rfhdnevkrusms h`n ayxevkrusms. K` hnnktke`,tfm jiygepretmk`s nkccmr crea vkrus te vkrus. Cer mxhapim, e`mjiygepretmk` k` rfhdnevkrusms , twe jiygepretmk`s k` phrhayxevkrusmsh`n ceur jiygepretmk` k` ertfeayxevkrusms fhvm dmm` ceu`n.

(kk) @ugimeghpskn Rretmk` ?^fm vkrhi ghpskns hrm ahnm up tethiiy ec pretmk`s ec knm`tkghi sudu`kts (preaetmrs) . ^fm fmikghi ghpskns ge`thk` sk`jim typm ec pretmk` h`n

kgeshfmnrhi ghpskn ge`thk`s smvmrhi typms ec pretmk`s. Cer mxhapim ,ÂS ge`thk`s sk`jim pretmk` typms, hnmèvkrus ge`thk` 8> pretmk`typms. ^>dhgtmrkepfhjm ge`thk`s 72 pretmk` typms mtg.

(kkk) Germ Rretmk`?Rretmk` ceu`n k` ùgimkg hgkn ks lèw` hs germ pretmk` . cer mxhapimùgimepretmk`s ec k`cium`zhvkrus h`n pretmk`s S h`n SK echnmèvkrusms.

(kv) Skrhi M`zyams?-K` h`kahi vkrusms mspmgkhiiy k` tfm m`vmiepmn vkrusms , ah`y vkrke`spmgkckg m`zyams fhvm dmm` gfhrhgtmrkzmn , cer mxhapim , T@Hhsm h`nrmvmrsm trh`sgrkpthsm k` rmtrevkrus, pretmk` lk`hsm k` fmrpms h`nhnmèvkrusms ,N@H nmpm`nm`t T@H peiyamrhsm k` pexvkrus.

: Ghrdefynrhtms?-H sudsth`tkhi haeu`t ec ghrdefynrhtm spmgkckmn dy mktfmr fest gmii ( m.j.hrdevkrus) er vkrhi jmèam (m.j. vhggk`kh vkrus) ks ceu`n k` vkrhim`vmiepm . Cer mxhapim jhihgtesm , ah`èsm , jiugesm , cugesm ,jiugeshak`m , jhihgteshak`m hrm ceu`n k` k`cium`zh vkrus, WS= h`n




sk`ndks vkrus. ^fm ghrdefynrhtms hrm fmxesms h`n fmxhak`ms wfkgf hrmprmsm`t k` tfm cera ec jiygepretmk` h`n / er jiygeikpkns.

X= Jkvm h nmthkimn hggeu`t ec tfm Wtrugturm ec tfm Dhgtmrkhi Gmii.

H`s ]pe` edsmrvhtke` u`nmr akgresgepm tfmrm rmvmhi smvmrhi strugturhigeape`m`ts eutsknm h`n k`sknm tfm gmii whii .

(8) Ghpsuim?-Weam ec tfm dhgtmrkhi gmiis hrm surreu`nmn dy tfm mxtrhgmiiuihr peiyamrkgsudsth`gms(MRW) wfkgf hrm geaaeìy ghiimn ghpsuim jiygeghiyx. Kt ceras h`m`vmiepm hreu`n tfm gmii whii h`n gh` dm edsmrvmn u`nmr ikjft akgresgepmhctmr spmgkhi sthk`k`j tmgf`kqum. ^fm prmsm`gm ec Ghpsuim ahy dm nmtmgtmn dy`mjhtkvm sthk`k`j hise sugf hs K`nkh k`l amtfen. ^fm ghpsuim ks jmihtkèuspeiyamr ahnm up ec mktfmr peiyshggfhrknm (Limdskmiih p`muae`khm) er

peiypmptknm (D. h`tfrhgks) er detf. ^fm peiyshggfhrknms ahy dm ec h sk`jimtypm ec sujhrs (feaepeiyshggfhrknm) er smvmrhi typms ec sujhrs(fmtmrepeiyshggfhrknms) .Feaepeiyshggfhrknm ge`stktutms tfm ghpsuim ecHgmtedhgtmr xyikùa ,h`n fmtmrepeiyshggfhrknm (ge`skstk`j ec N ‗ jiugesm . N‗ jhihgtesm , N- ah`èsm . N- jiuge`kg hgkn) ks smgrmtmn dy Rsmuneae`hs

hmrujkèsh . ^fm ghpsuim ec p`muaegeggk ks ahnm up ec fmxesms , ure`kg hgknh`n hakè sujhrs h`n tfht ec strmptegeggk ge`sksts ec I- hakè hgkns. ^fmdhgtmrkhi ghpsuim ks stkgly k` `hturm h`n smgrmtmn cera tfm k``mr sknm ec tfm gmiiwfkgf jmts ckraiy htthgfmn te tfm surchgm ec tfm gmii whii. Kc tfm sudsth`gms hrmuèrjh`kzmn h`n ieesmiy htthgfmn te tfm gmii whii , tfm ghpsuim ks ghiimn hs

sikam ihymr. ^fm crmsf whtmr h`n ahrk`m dhgtmrkh cera trkgfeams wfkgf hrmm`giesmn k`sknm tfm jmihtkèus ahtrkx ghiimn sfmhtf. Wfmhtf ks hise ceu`n k`gyhèdhgtmrkh h`n etfmr hijhm.

Cu`gtke`s ec Ghpsuim?-(k) ^fm ghpsuim ahy prmvm`t tfm htthgfam`t ec dhgtmrkepfhjms.(kk) Kt pretmgts tfm dhgtmrkhi gmiis hjhk`st nmskgghtke` hs kt ks fyjresgepkg h`n

ge`thk`s whtmr aeimguims.(kkk) Kt ahy survkvm k` `hturhi m`vkreàm`t num te kts stkgly prepmrty. Hctmr

htthgfam`t , tfmy gh` jrew e` nkvmrsm surchgms m.j. pih`t reet surchgms ,fuah` tmmtf h`n tkssums (nm`thi ghrrkms , rmspkrhtery trhgt) , regls k`chst ciewk`j strmhas.

(kv) ^fmy ahy k`fkdkt tfm m`juicam`t dy ZDGs (h`tkpfhjegytkg cmhturm)h`n tfmrmcerm ge`trkdutm te vkruim`gm.

(v) W. auth`s usms kts ghpsuims hs h seurgm ec m`mrjy. Kt drmhls new` tfmsujhrs ec tfm ghpsuim.

(vk) Ghpsuim pretmgts tfm gmii crea nmskgghtke`, tfm vksgeskty h`n k`fkdktstfm aevmam`t ec ùtrkm`ts crea tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii.



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(4) Cihjmiih?-^fm aetkim dhgtmrkua ahy pessmss h cihjmiiua . ^fm cihjmiiua ks fhkr iklm,fmikghi h`n surchgm hppm`nhjms mamrjk`j crea tfm gmii whii. Kt prevknmsvhrkeus typms ec aetkikty te tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii. K` hnnktke` , tfm ùadmr h`npesktke` ec cihjmiih vhry.^fm hrrh`jmam`t ahy dm aeètrkgfeus ( h sk`jim peihr cihjmiiua m.j. S

.gfeimrhm) , iepfetrkgfeus ( h giustmr ec peihr cihjmiih m.j. Wpkrkiiua)

hapfktrkgfeus ( cihjmiih ht detf tfm m`ns mktfmr sk`jiy er k` giusturm) ,gmpfhietrkgfeus (twe er aerm cihjmiih ht e`m m`n ec tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii m.j.Rsmuneae`hs) , pmrktrkgfeus (gmii surchgm mvmìy surreu`nmn dy smvmrhiihtmrhi cihjmiih m.j. Rretmus vuijhrks) er htrkgfeus (gmiis nmvekn ec cihjmiih m.j .

Ihgtedhgkiius) .

(k) Wtrugturm ec Cihjmiih?-

^fm strugturm h`n cu`gtke` ec dhgtmrkhi cihjmiih fhvm dmm` nmsgrkdmn dy Wkae`mt hi. H cihjmiiua ge`sksts ec tfrmm dhskg phrts , tfm dhshi deny , feel h`nckiham`t).

(h) Dhshi Deny?-A.I. Nm Rhapfkiks h`n O. Hinmr kseihtmn tfm dhshi deny ec tfm cihjmiiua ec M.geik h`n D. sudtkiks h`n stunkmn kts ck`m strugturm h`n hrrh`jmam`t ec rk`js.^fm dhshi deny htthgfms tfm cihjmiiua te tfm gmii whii h`n pihsah amadrh`m.Kt ks geapesmn ec h sahii gm`trhi ren k`smrtmn k`te h smrkms ec rk`js.K` Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh twe phkrs ec rk`js , tfm prexkahi rk`j h`n tfm

nksthi rk`j hrm ge``mgtmn dy h gm`trhi ren. ^fmsm twe phkrs ec rk`js k.m. ceurrk`js hrm I ‗ (ikpepeiyshggfhrknm) rk`j . R ‗ (Rmptknejiygh` ) rk`j, W ‗ (supmramadrh`m ) rk`j, h`n A- amadrh`m rk`j .^fm eutmr phkr ec rk`js . I ‗ rk`j h`n R ‗ rk`j hrm htthgfmn te rmspmgtkvmpeiyshggfhrknm h`n Rmptknejiygh` ihymr ec gmii whii h`n tfm k``mr phkr ecrk`js k.m. W- rk`j h`n A ‗ rk`j hrm htthgfmn wktf gmii amadrh`m.

(d) Feel?-^fm feel ks prmsm`t eutsknm tfm gmii whii h`n ge``mgts ckiham`t te tfm dhshideny. Kt ge`sksts ec nkccmrm`t pretmk`s. ^fm feel k` Jrha- pesktkvm dhgtmrkh kssikjftiy ie`jmr tfh` tfm Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh.

( g) Ckiham`t er sfhct?-^fm eutmraest ie`j rmjke` ec tfm cihjmiiua ks ghiimn ckiham`t er sfhct. Kt fhs hge`sth`t nkhamtmr h`n ks ahnm up ec jiedesm pretmk`s, tfm cihjmiik` , tfmcihjmiik`s hrm hrrh`jmn k` smvmrhi gfhk`s tfht k`tmrtwk`m h`n cera h fmikxhreu`n h feiiew germ. ^fm pretmk`s ec cihjmiih hgt te knm`tkcy gmrthk`




phtfejm`kg dhgtmrkh uìklm mulhryetms , tfm ckiham`ts hrm èt gevmrmn dy hamadrh`m er sfmhtf.

(7) Rkik h`n Ckadrkhm?-

Rkik h`n Ckadrkhm hrm fhkr iklm hppm`nhjms ceu`n e` tfm surchgm ec tfm gmiiwhii k` Jrha ‗`mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh.( m.j. M`tmredhgtmrkhgmhm, Rsmuneae`nhgmhm). ^fm tmra Ckadrkhm ks usmn cer hii fhkr iklm strugturm gevmrk`j tfm surchgm ectfm gmii. Rkik hrm jm`mtkghiiy jevmr`mn dy pihsakns , tfm ùadmr ec wfkgfvhrkms crea 7 te =. ^fm ùadmr ec Ckadrkhm ks hreu`n 8,222. Rkik nkccmr creacihjmiih k` dmk`j sfertmr h`n tfk``mr, strhkjft h`n imss rkjkn. Dut tfmy hrm kìhrjm ùadmr.

Gihssms ec Rkik?Hggernk`j te tfm cu`gtke` pkik hrm ec twe typms?

(h) Geaae` pkik wfkgf hgt te hnfmrm tfm gmii te surchgms h`n (d) smx pkikwfkgf oek` tfm etfmr dhgtmrkhi gmii cer tfm trh`scmr ec jmèam. Ettew fhsgihsskckmn tfm pkik k`te tfm ceiiewk`j skx jreups?

Jreup 8?Ckadrkhm ec tfks jreup hgt cer hnfmrm`gm te h phrtkguihr surchgmk`giunk`j tfm surchgm ec tfm etfmr gmiis tee. ^fmsm hrm hdeut 722 pmr gmiihrrh`jmn pmrktrkgfeusiy . Rkik ec @mkssmrkh jeèrrfehm , tfm ghushi hjm`t ecjeèrrfmh , fmip tfm dhgtmrkua te geie`kzm tfm augeus amadrh`ms.

Jreup4? ^fm smx pkik ec tfks jreup fhvm h u`kcera nkhamtmr ec hdeut ;aa

h`n im`jtf ec hdeut 8- 42½a. ^fmrm hrm hdeut 82 pkik pmr gmii. ^fmy hrmckiham`teus h`n nmtmrak`mn dy smx chgter. ^fm pihsakn ghrrkms jm`ms tfhtgenm cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec smx pkik. ^fmy ahlm ge`thgt dmtwmm` tfm twe gmiis.

Jreup7?Ckadrkhm ec tfkrn jreup ks pmguikhr tfht hrm ceu`n k` Hjredhgtmrkua.

^fmy hrm tfkgl h`n iklm tfm feiiew tudms.

Jreup>? ^fks jreup ge`sksts ec pkik wfkgf hrm cimxkdim, ren ‗ sfhpmn h`npeihr. ^fmsm hrm ceu`n k` tfm spmgkms ec Rsmuneae`hs h`n Skdrke.

Jreup =? Ckadrkhm ec jreup = hrm peihriy hrrh`jmn h`n hrm ge`trhgtkim k``hturm. ^fmy hrm ceu`n k` Hjredhgtmrkua spp< Rsmuneae`hs rfenms. ^fmyge`trhgt h`n puii twe dhgtmrkhi gmiis k`te giesm ge`thgt h`n tfmrmcerm, preaetmtfm geòujhtke` pregmss.

Jreup3? Jreup 3ks tfm gfhrhgtmrkstkg du`nims ec Ckadrkhm ceu`n k` Jrha ‗ pesktkvm Gery`mdhgtmrkua rm`him.



4>

(kk) Wtrugturm ec Rkik?Detf ckadrkhm h`n pkik hrm iklm cihjmiih hs detf hrm tfm hppm`nhjms e` tfmdhgtmrkhi gmii whii. ^fmy erkjk`htm crea gytepihsa tfht pretrunms eutsknm hctmrpm`mtrhtk`j tfm Rmptknejiygh` ihymr ec tfm gmii whii. Ckadrkhm hrm ahnm up ec822% pretmk` ghiimn ckadrkik` er pkik` wfkgf ge`sksts ec hdeut 837 hakèhgkns. Ckadrkik` fhs h aeimguihr wmkjft ec hdeut 83,222 nhite`s. ^fm smx pkikhrm tfm gyik`nmr ec rmpmhtk`j pretmk` u`kts. Kts ckiham`teus strugturm ksjevmr`mn dy tfm smx chgter (pihsakn) ec tfm dhgtmrkua cer mxhapim Cchgter ,Gei 8 chgter h`n T chgter. ^fmrm hrm twe typms ec pkik k` M.geik cem mxhapim C ‗ pkik (nmtmrak`mn dy C chgter) h`n K ‗ pkik (nmtmrak`mn dy Gei K chgter) .

Cu`gtke`s ec Rkik?-(h) Dhgtmrkh ge`thk`k`j ckadrkhm hrm ghiimn ckadrkhm dhgtmrkh. Ckadrkhm

fhvm tfm hnfmskvm prepmrtkms wfkgf htthgf tfm erjh`ksa te tfm

`hturhi sudstrhtm er te tfm etfmr erjh`ksa.(d) Ckadrkhm hrm mqukppmn wktf h`tkjm`kg prepmrtkms hs tfmy hgt hstfmraeihdkim è`spmgkckg hjjiutkèjm`.

(g) Ckadrkhm hccmgt tfm amthdeikg hgtkvkty. ^fm Cka+ gmiis (gmiisge`thk`k`j ckadrkhm) pessmss fkjfmr rhtm ec amthdeikg hgtkvkty tfh` tfmCka- gmiis (gmiis nmvekn ec ckadrkhm). Aermevmr , tfmy cu`gtke` hshjjrmjhtke` erjh`miims.

(n) ^fm smx pkik ahlm ge`thgt dmtwmm` twe gmiis. Wk`gm tfmy pessmssfeiiew germ, tfmy hgt hs geòujhtke` tudm . ^fm tkp ec pkimusrmgej`kzms tfm cmahim (C- gmii) tfreujf wfkgf tfm jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi ec

tfm neèr (C+

)gmii phssms te tfm rmgkpkm`t (cmahim )gmii. Eìy C-pkik(èt K- pkik) ge`thk` hxkhi feim.

(>) ^fm Gmii Zhii( Eutmr Amadrh`m)?- ^fm gmii whii ec dhgtmrkh ks h smakrkjkn h`n geapimx strugturm prmsm`t dm`mhtfghpsuim h`n mxtmr`hi te tfm pihsah amadrh`m. Kt ks rmspe`skdim cergfhrhgtmrkstkg sfhpm ec tfm gmii. ^fm gmii whii pretmgts tfm pihsah amadrh`mh`n tfm etfmr gytepihsakg k`giuske`s crea hnvmrsm m`vkreàm`t. Kt hisepretmgts tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii crea durstk`j wfm` tfm esaetkg prmssurm ecgytepihsa ks fkjfmr tfh` tfht ec tfm eutsknm ec tfm gmii whii. Kt prevknmssuppert cer htthgfam`t te tfm cihjmiih.

Gfmakghi Geapesktke` h`n Zhii Gfhrhgtmrkstkgs?-

^fm gmii whii c dhgtmrkh ks ahnm up ec `mtwerl ec pmptknejiygh` (aurmk` ,aurus amh`s whii) Kt ks prmsm`t hiaest e` hii dhgtmrkhi gmii whii mxgmptFhiedhgtmrkua h`n Fhiegeggus. Dmghusm tfmsm dhgtmrkh ikvm k` ahrk`m whtmrwfkgf ge`thk`s fkjf shit ge`gm`trhtke`. Rmptknejiygh` nmtmrak`ms tfm sfhpmec tfm gmii. Kt ks k`seiudim h`n pereus peiyamr tfht prevknms rkjknkty. Kt ks




augepeiyshggfhrknm . Kt hggeu`ts cer >2 ‗ 62 % ec tethi nry wmkjft ec tfm gmii .Kts tfkgl`mss ks hdeut 72 ‗ 62 à.

(k) Jrha ‗ pesktkvm Dhgtmrkh ‗

K` aest ec tfm Jrha ‗ pesktkvm dhgtmrkh, tfm gmii whii ge`thk`s smvmrhi ihymrsec pmptknejiygh` wfkgf ks k`tmr ‗ ge``mgtmn dy sknm gfhk`s h`n gress drknjms.Rmptknejiygh` hggeu`ts cer >2 ‗ ;2 % ec tfm tethi nry wmkjft ec gmii whii. ^fmtfkgl`mss ec pmptknejiygh` prevknms rkjknkty te tfm gmii whii. ^fm ihymrs ecpmptknejiygh` hrm tfkglmr k` Jrha ‗ pesktkvm dhgtmrkh tfh` tfht k` Jrha ‗`mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh. K` aest ec Jrha ‗ pesktkvm dhgtmrkh pmptknejiygh` kshssegkhtmn wktf hgknkg peiyamrs ge`thk`k`j pfespferus ghiimn tmkgfekg hgkn er hgknkg peiyshggfhrknms sugf hs tmkgfure`kg hgkns. ^mkgfekg hgkns hrmfynrepfkikg , cimxkdim h`n ik`mhr aeimguims. ^fm prmsm`gm ec tmkgfekg hgknsahlms mhsy te nkhjèsm tfm dhgtmrkh smreiejkghiiy.

^mkgfekg hgkns ge`skst ec h` higefei ( m.j. jiygmrei er rkdktei) h`n pfespfhtm.^fmrmcerm, kt ks tfm peiyamr ec jiygmrei pfespfhtm er rkdktei pfespfhtm.^mkgfekg hgkns hrm ahkìy ec tfrmm typms (k) rkdktei tmkgfekg hgkns ( ceu`n k` W.hurmus h`n D. sudtkiks) , (kk) jiygmrei tmkgfekg hgkn ( m.j. D. sudtkiks) h`n (kkk)jiugesyijiygmrei pfespfhtm tmkgfekg hgkn ( D. ikgfm`kceraks ). Eut ec tfmsm eìye`m typm ks ceu`n k` h phrtkguihr dhgtmrkua. ^fm hgkns hrm ik`lmn te ihymrs ecpmptknejiygh` ec pihsah amadrh`m. ^fm pfespfhtm jreups prevknm `mjhtkvmgfhrjm wfkgf k` tur` ge`treis tfm aevmam`t ec ghtke`s k.m. pesktkvm ke`shgress tfm gmiis.

(kk) Jrha `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh?-^fm Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh ge`thk` pmptknejiygh` dut k` vmry iew haeu`t.^fmy tethiiy ihgl tmkgfekg hgkns. Rmptknejiygh` ks sktuhtmn k` pmrkpihsakg sphgmh`n gevhim`tiy ik`lmn te ikpepretmk`s k` tfm eutmr amadrh`m. ^fm pmrkpihsakgsphgm ks h sphgm dmtwmm` tfm eutmr amadrh`m h`n pihsah amadrh`m wfkgfhppmhrs iklm jmi h`n ge`thk`s fkjf haeu`t ec m`zyams h`n trh`spert pretmk`s.Num te tfm prmsm`gm ec iew haeu`t ec pmptknejiygh`, tfm gmii whii ec Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh ks h dkihymrmn strugturm ge`skstk`j ec ahkìyikpepretmk`s , ikpepeiyshggfhrknms (IRW) h`n pfespfeikpkns.

Cu`gtke`s ec Gmii Zhii ?

(h) Rmptknejiygh` prevknms strugturhi k`tmjrkty ec gmii dy cerak`j h rkjknihymr k` eutmr amadrh`m. ^fm ahtrkx pretmk`s te seam mxtm`t hisege`trkdutm te strugturm wktf pmptknejiygh`.

( d) ^fm gmii m`vmiepm hgts hs dhrrkmr cer nkccuske` te gmrthk` aeimguimshgress tfm m`vmiepm.

( g) ^fm ahtrkx pretmk`s hgt hs rmgmpter sktms cer dhgtmrkepfhjms h`ndhgtmrkegk`s.



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( n) ^fm E ‗ h`tkjm` sknm gfhk` ec peiyshggfhrknm ec IRW nmtmrak`ms tfmh`tkjm` spmgkckgkty ec Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh.

(=) Rihsah Amadrh`m ( Gmii er Gytepihsakg Amadrh`m)?-

^fm pihsah amadrh`m hise ghiimn hs gmii amadrh`m er gytepihsakgamadrh`m ks h strugturm k`tmr`hi te tfm gmii whii. ^fm tmra gmiiamadrh`m whs gek`mn dy G . @ujmik h`n G. Grhamr. Fewmvmr è gmiigeuin dm hikvmwktfeut h pihsah amadrh`m. Kt ks sktuhtmn oust dm`mhtftfm gmii whii h`n ks :.=à tfkgl. Kt ge`sksts ec pretmk`s (42 -:2%) , ikpkns(46 ‗ 62 %) , eikjeshggfhrknms ( 8 ‗ =%) h`n whtmr (42%) . ^fm pihsahamadrh`m ge`sksts ec h ge`tkùeus dkihymr ec pfespfeikpkn aeimguimsk` wfkgf jieduihr pretmk`s hrm madmnnmn.

Cu`gtke`s ec Rihsah Amadrh`m?-

^fm gytepihsakg amadrh`m ks tfm sktm ec ah`y amthdeikg hgtkvktkms hs jkvm`dmiew?-( h) ^fm erjh`kg h`n kèrjh`kg ùtrkm`ts hrm trh`spertmn dy pmramhsms

tfreujf pihsah amadrh`m.( d) Kt ge`sksts ec m`zyams ec dkesy`tfmtkg phtfwhys tfht sy`tfmskzm

nkccmrm`t geape`m`ts ec tfm gmii whii sugf hs pmptknejiygh`, tmkgfekghgkns , peiyshggfhrknms , ikpepeiyshggfhrknms h`n pfespfeikpkns.

( g) Kt pessmssms tfm htthgfam`t sktms cer tfm dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam h`npihsakn N@H.

( n) ^fm k``mr amadrh`m k`vhjk`htms te cera amseseams , h sktm cer

rmspkrhtery hgtkvkty. ^fm pihsah amadrh`m ge`thk`s hdeut 422rmspkrhtery pretmk`s tfht fhvm dmm` ceu`n te dm h`gfermn cer tfmtrh`spert ec F+ ke`s.

(m) Kt prevknms pmramhdkikty dhrrkmr h`n tfus prmvm`ts tfm msghpm ecgmiiuihr ahtmrkhis eutsknm tfm gmii h`n chgkikthtm tfm smimgtkvm m`try ecerjh`kg h`n kèrjh`kg sudsth`gms k`sknm. Fm`gm , tfm pihsahamadrh`ms sfew smimgtkvm pmramhdkikty.

(3) Amseseams?-Amseseams hrm tfm k`vhjk`htmn strugturms ceramn dy tfm ieghikzmnk`ceink`js ec tfm pihsah amadrh`m. ^fm k`vhjk`htmn strugturmsgeaprksm ec vmskgims , tuduims ec ihamiihr wferis. Jm`mrhiiy Amseseamshrm ceu`n k` hssegkhtke` wktf ùgimhr hrmh er `mhr tfm sktm ec gmiinkvkske`. ^fmy hrm hdsm`t k` Mulhryetms. ^fm ihamiihm hrm ceramn dyciht vmskgims wfm` hrrh`jmn phrhiimi. Weam ec tfm ihamiihm hrmge``mgtmn te tfm gmii amadrh`m. ^fm ihamiihr wferi gh` dm edsmrvmn k`@ktredhgtmr , @ktreae`hs.




^fm vmskgims hrm ceramn dy k`vhjk`htke` h`n tuduihr hggrmtke` ec tfm pihsahamadrh`m. ^fm strugturm ec vmskgim dmgeams k`tmrruptmn num te ge`strkgtke`ht mquhi nksth`gm. ^fm ge`strkgtke` nems èt ghusm tfm geapimtm smphrhtke` ectfm tuduims. Giesmiy phglmn spfmrkghi vmskgims hrm smm` k` Gfreahtkua h`nTfenespkrkiiua rudrua.^fm mxhgt strugturm h`n cu`gtke` ec Amseseams hrm èt lèw`. Amseseamshrm suppesmn te thlm phrt k` rmspkrhtke` dut tfmy hrm èt h`hiejeus teaktegfe`nrkh dmghusm tfmy ihgl eutmr amadrh`m. K` tfm vmskgim ec Amseseamstfm rmspkrhtery m`zyams h`n tfm geape`m`ts ec mimgtre` trh`spert sugf hsH^Rhsm , nmfynrejm`hsm , gytegfream hrm mktfmr hdsm`t er prmsm`t k` iewhaeu`t. ^fks mapfhskzms tfmkr k`hdkikty te ghrry eut trh`spert pregmssms k`wfkgf tfm amadrh`m ks m`mrjkzmn. K` hnnktke`, Amseseams hrm suppesmn hs hsktm cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec seam ec tfm whii amadrh`ms.Amseseams akjft pihy h reim k` rmprenugtke` hise. Nurk`j dk`hry cksske` h

gress whii ks ceramn rmsuitk`j k` cerahtke` ec twe gmiis. Amseseams dmjk` tfmcerahtke` ec smptua h`n htthgf dhgtmrkhi N@H te tfm gmii amadrh`m. Ktsmphrhtms tfm dhgtmrkhi N@H k`te mhgf nhujftmr gmii. K` hnnktke`, tfmk`ceink`js ec Amseseams k`grmhsm tfm surchgm hrmh ec pihsah amadrh`m tfhtk` tur` k`grmhsm tfm hdserptke` ec ùtrkm`ts.

(:) Gytepihsa?-Gytepihsa ec prelhryetms rmcmrs te tfm k`tmr`hi ahtrkx ec tfm gmii k`sknm tfmpihsah amadrh`m. Gytepihsa ge`sksts ec whtmr (62%) , pretmk`s ,ghrdefynrhtms , ikpkns , kèrjh`kg ke`s h`n gmrthk` iew aeimguihr geapeu`ns.

Gytepihsa ks tfkgl h`n smaktrh`sphrm`t. ^fm N@H aeimguims , rkdeseams h`ntfm etfmr k`giuske`s hrm tfm strugturm ec gytepihsa. K` gmrthk` gyhèdhgtmrkhjhs vhgueims hrm ceu`n .

(k) Tkdeseams?-Hii ikvk`j gmiis ge`thk` rkdeseams wfkgf hgt hs sktm ec pretmk` sy`tfmsks. Fkjfùadmr ec rkdeseams rmprmsm`ts fkjf rhtm ec pretmk` sy`tfmsks h`n vkgm vmrsh.Gytepihsa ec h prelhryetkg gmii ge`thk`s hdeut 82,222 rkdeseams wfkgfhggeu`t upte 72% ec tethi nry wmkjft ec tfm gmii. Rrmsm`gm ec rkdeseams k`fkjf ùadmr jkvms tfm gytepihsa h jrhùihr hppmhrh`gm. Rrelhryetkgrkdeseams hrm sahiimr h`n imss nm`sm tfh` mulhryetkg rkdeseams. Dhgtmrkhirkdeseams hrm ec :2W typm .^fm smnkam`thtke` ge`sth`t ec tfm ihrjmr sudu`kt ks=2W h`n tfht ec tfm sahiimr sudu`kt ks 72W.K` h yeu`j dhgtmrkua rkdeseams ahy eggur k` jreups ec >-3 er aerm. ^fmy hrmfmin tejmtfmr dy h spmgkhi T@H aeimguim , lèw` hs amssm`jmr T@H. ^fmsmjreups ec rkdeseams hrm lèw` hs peiyrkdeseams.



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( kk) @ugimekns ( tfm dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam)?-

^fm gfhrhgtmrkstkg cmhturm ec tfm dhgtmrkhi ùgimus ks tfm hdsm`gm e ùgimhramadrh`m. @ugimeius , gfreae`mahth h`n ùgimhr shp Wugf h ùgimus ksghiimn ùgimekn er jmèpferm. ]`nmr mimgtre` akgresgepm tfm ùgimeknhppmhrs te dm ckdrkiihr h`n geapesmn ec h neudim er sk`jim strh`nmn N@H. ^fmN@H aeimguim ks hpprexkahtmiy 8222½a ie`j, usuhiiy cerak`j rk`j iklmstrugturm er seamtkams rmahk`s nkccusmn tfreujfeut tfm gytepihsa ec tfm gmii.^fm ùgimekn ec Msgfmrkgfkh geik fhs h gm`trhi germ ec T@H , surreu`nmn dy 84‗ 64 supmrgekik`js ec N@H. H cmw pretmk` aeimguims hrm hise hssegkhtmn wktfN@H.^fm dhgtmrkhi N@H ks nmvekn ec fkste`ms, fm`gm gh`èt dm geaphrmn wktf tfmgfreaeseams ec mulhryetkg gmiis. Fewmvmr , kts neudim strh`nmn N@H ksusuhiiy rmcmrrmn te hs dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam.

Rihsakns?-Dhgtmrkhi gmiis hise ge`thk` seam mxtrhgfreaeseahi fmrmnkthry nmtmrak`h`tswfkgf hrm mktfmr k`nmpm`nm`t ec dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseams er hrm k`tmjrhtmn wktftfma. Imnmrdmrj gek`mn tfm tmra pihsakn cer sugf mxtrhgfreaeseahifmrmnkthry nmtmrak`h`ts. Fm`gm tfm pihsakns ahy dm nmck`mn hs h sahiigkrguihr, smic ‗ rmpikghtk`j h`n neudim strh`nmn N@H aeimguim prmsm`t k` tfmdhgtmrkhi gmii , k` hnnktke` te tfm dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam. Kt rmpikghtmsk`nmpm`nm`tiy nurk`j gmii nkvkske` h`n k`fmrktmn dy detf tfm nhujftmr gmiis.Mhgf pihsakn ghrrkms è` ‗ mssm`tkhi jm`ms h`n fhs è reim k` vkhdkikty h`njrewtf ec dhgtmrkh. Fm`gm tfmy hrm hise shkn te dm nkspm`shdim huteèaeus

mimam`ts. ^fm ceiiewk`j `k`m typms ec pihsakns hrm lèw`?-(k) C ‗ chgter ( cer cmrtkikty) pihsakns ,(kk) T-chgter ( cer rmsksth`gm) pihsakns ,(kkk) gei chgter ( cer geikgkèjm`y ) pihsakns ec tfm Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkh(kv) pihsakns ge`cmrrk`j phtfejm`mgkty te ahaahis(v) nmjrhnhtkvm pihsakns ec Rsmuneae`hs .(vk) amrgury ‗ rmsksth`gm pihsakns ,(vkk) tuaer k`nugk`j pihsakns ec Hjredhgtmrkua tuamchgkm`s ,(vkkk) pm`kgkiik`hsm pihsakns ec Wthpfyiegeggus hurmus h`n(kx) gryptkg pihsakns.

(6) Gytepihsakg K`giuske`s ?-^fm gytepihsa ec prelhryetkg h`n mulhryetkg gmiis ge`thk` smvmrhi rmsmrvmnmpeskts wfkgf hrm ghiimn hs k`giuske`s.Wfkvmimy fhs jkvm` h` mxgmiim`t hggeu`t ec k`giuske` denkms ec prelhryetms.^fm k`giuske` denkms hrm ec twe typms ( h) crmm k`giuske` denkms ( m.j.peiypfespfhtm jrhùims h`n gyhèpfygmh` jrhùims ) h`n ( d) sk`jim ihymrmn




è` ‗ u`kt amadrh`m m`giesmn k`giuske` denkms ( sugf hs peiy δ-fynrexydutyrhtm jrhùims , suipfur jrhùims ghrdexyseams h`n jhs vhgueims.^fm amadrh`m ec k`giuske` denkms ks ahnm up ec pretmk`s er ikpkns. Weam ectfm k`giuske`s hrm nksgussmn fmrm?-

( h) Seiutk` Jrhùims?-^fm Seiutk` jrhùims hrm hise lèw` hs peiypfespfhtm jrhùims eramthgfreahtkg jrhùims dmghusm hctmr sthk`k`j tfm dhgtmrkh wktf diumnym ( m.j. amtfyim`m dium) tfmsm jrhùims thlm sthk` h`n hppmhrrmnnksf purpim k` geieur. ^fmsm jrhùims hrm ceu`n k` hijhm, cu`jk ,pretezeh, h`n dhgtmrkh. ^fmsm hrm prmsm`t k` fkjf haeu`t k`Gery`mdhgtmrkua nkpftfmrkh , fm`gm kt gh` mhskiy dm nkhjèsmn. ^fmSeiutk` jrhùims hrm geapesmn ec peiypfespfhtms k.m. kèrjh`kgpfespfhtms wfkgf hrm usmn k` tfm sy`tfmsks ec H^R.

(d) Ghrdexyseams ( peiyfmnrhi denkms)?Ghrdexyseams hrm ceu`n k` pfetesy`tfmtkg dhgtmrkh , `ktrkcyk`j dhgtmrkh, gyhèdhgtmrkh h`n tfmraedhgkiik. ^fmsm hrm peiyfmnrhi er fmxhje`hik`giuske`s ge`thk`k`j rkduiesm‗8,=‗dkpfespfhtm ghrdexyihsm. ^fksm`zyam ks rmqukrmn k` ghrde` nkexknm ckxhtke` nurk`j pfetesy`tfmsks.

( g) Wuipfur jrhùims?-Wuipfur jrhùims hrm hise tmaperhrkiy stermn dy seam dhgtmrkh wfkgfhrm hise ghiimn h smge`n typm ec kèrjh`kg k`giuske` deny. Kt ks

mxmapikckmn dy pfetesy`tfmtkg purpim suipfur dhgtmrkh ( m.j.^fkedhgkiius, ^fkespkrkiiua , ^fkeghpsh) wfkgf hrm ceu`n k` h`hmredkg ,suipfknm ‗ rkgf ze`ms ec ihlm. ^fmy exknkzm F4E te W h`n k`tmr`hiiynmpeskt hs suipfur jrhùims wktfk` k`vhjk`htmn strugturms ec pihsahamadrh`m.

(n) Ikpkn K`giuske`s?-Ikpkns hrm ceu`n k` fkjf haeu`t k` smvmrhi spmgkms ec Dhgkiius,Hzetedhgtmr, Aygedhgtmrkua , Wpkrkiiua mtg. ^fmsm hrm prmsm`t hssterhjm ahtmrkhi h`n ks peiyamr ec peiy δ- fynrexydutyrkg hgkn . Kt ksceramn dy tfm ge`nm`shtke` ec hgmtyi GeH. K` Dhgkiius amjhtmrkuapeiy δ- fynrexydutyrhtm (RFD) hggeu`ts cer 32% ec tethi nry wmkjftwfm` tfm dhgtmrkua fhs jrew` e` hgmthtm er dutyrhtm (RFD). ^fmaeèamrs ec peiy δ-fynrexydutyrhtm hrm ik`lmn dy mstmr ik`lhjmcerak`j tfm ie`j peiy δ- fynrexydutyrhtm peiyamr. ^fm geiimgtkvmtmra peiy δ- fynrexydutyrhtm rmprmsm`ts hii gihssms ec ghrde` sterhjmrmsmrvekr peiyamr hgtk`j hs h seurgm ec m`mrjy h`n dkesy`tfmsks. ^fmsmhrm ceu`n `hturhiiy detf k` Hrgfhmh dut èt k` Mulhryh.



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(m)Jhs vmskgims?-^fmrm hrm ah`y prelhryetkg akgreerjh`ksas ceu`n k` ciehtk`j ceras k` ihlmsh`n smh tfht pessmss jhs vmskgims. Jhs vmskgims hrm jhs ‗ ckiimn strugturms wfkgfge`thk` tfm sham jhs k` wfkgf tfm erjh`ksas hrm suspm`nmn. Jhs vmskgimsprevknm dueyh`gy h`n lmmp tfm gmiis k` ciehtk`j cera. ^fm aest kaperth`t‖ciehtk`j h`n sk`lk`j‛ pfmèamè` ks ceu`n k` tfesm gyhèdhgtmrkh wfkgfghusm whtmr dieeas k` ihlms sugf hs Akgregystks hquhtkgus h`n H`hdhm`h

cies- hquhm. Dmsknms, jhs vhgueims hrm hise ceu`n k` gmrthk` purpim h`n jrmm` pfetetrepfkgdhgtmrkh h`n seam Hrgfhmdhgtmrkh sugf hs fhiedhgtmrkh m.j. ^fkepmnkh h`nHaemdedhgtmr.

Jhs vhgueims ieel iklm spk`nims ec vhryk`j nkam`ske` ( 722-:22 Ú32 ‗ 882 à)h`n ùadmrs ( h cmw te fu`nrmns pmr gmii) . ^fmy ge`thk` h rkjkn amadrh`m

h`n k`tmr`hiiy h feiiew strugturm. ^fm amadrh`m ge`sksts ec eìy pretmk`sghiimn JvpH h`n JvpG.

X3 Jkvm h nmthkimn hggeu`t ec rmprenugtke` k` Dhgtmrkh.

H`s ^fmrm hrm tfrmm amgfh`ksas dy wfkgf tfmsm N@H crhjam`ts gh` phss crea hneèr te h rmgkpkm`t gmii (k) trh`scerahtke` (kk) trh`snugtke` (kkk) geòujhtke`

(K) ^rh`scerahtke`?

^rh`scerahtke` whs nksgevmrmn dy h` M`jiksf dhgtmrkeiejkst, Crmnmrkgl

Jrkccktf k` 8;46 wfe ahnm h smrkms ec mxpmrkam`ts wktf ihderhtery akgm h`ntwe typms ec p`muae`kh ‗ ghusk`j dhgtmrkua , Nkpiegeggus p`muae`khm.

^fks dhgtmrkua fhs twe typms ec strhk`s. E`m typm fhs saeetf (W) , ghpsuihtmngmiis, wfmrmhs hètfmr typm fhs reujf (T) è`ghpsuihtmn gmiis. ^fm nksmhsm ksghusmn dy saeetf typm ec gmiis eìy k.m. saeetf ‗ typm gmiis hrm phtfejm`kg (vkruim`t) wfmrmhs reujf typm gmiis fhraimss er è`phtfejm`kg ( hvkruim`t) .Zfm` ikvm , fhraimss ( reujf typm) gmiis wmrm kòmgtmn k` tfm deny ec akgm ,tfm h`kahi rmahk`mn fmhitfy. ^fm kòmgtke` ec nmhn , phtfejm`kg ( saeetftypm) gmiis k`te tfm deny ec akgm hise nkn èt ghusm h`y nksmhsm. K` h gihsskgmxpmrkam`t , Jrkccktf akxmn ikvm , fhraimss ( reujf typm ) gmiis wktf tfm nmhn

rmahk`s ec phtfejm`kg ( saeetf typm ) gmiis h`n tfm` kòmgtmn tfm akxturm k`tetfm ihderhtery akgm. ^fm ikvm geggk thlm` k` tfm akxturm wmrm u`ghpsuihtmnh`n ceramn reujf geie`kms (T) e` hjhr. ^fm nmhn geggk thlm` k` tfm akxturmerkjk`hiiy fhn h ghpsuim h`n wmrm thlm` crea saeetf ( W) geie`kms e` hjhr. êJrkccktf‛s surprksm , tfm akgm nmvmiepmn p`muae`kh h`n nkmn. E` hutepsy (mxhak`htke` ec tkssum ec nmhn h`kahi) , fm kseihtmn ikvm, ghpsuihtmn gmiis tfhtceramn saeetf geie`kms e` hjhr. Hpphrm`tiy , tfm ikvm , fhraimss reujf geggk




fhn dmm` trh`sceramn k` tfm akgm k`te ikvm , phtfejm`kg , saeetf geggk. Hreujf te saeetf ge`vmrske` (T W ) fhn dmm` hggeapiksfmn. Ckvm ymhrsihtmr, Ohams I. Hiiewhy ec Teglmcmiimr K`stktutm ge`ckramn Jrkccktf‛s werlusk`j crhjam`ts crea tfm nmhn saeetf ‗ typm gmiis te trh`scera tfm reujf ‗ typm gmiis. K` 8;>> , Eswhin ^. Hvmry bGeik` A. AhgImen h`n Ahgiy` @.AgGhrty , hise ec Teglmcmiimr K`stktutm ceu`n tfht nmexyrkdesm- ùgimkg hgkn(N@H ) kseihtmn crea tfm crhjam`ts geuin k`nugm tfm trh`scerahtke`. Ht tfhttkam, N@H whs h` edsgurm gfmakghi wktf ikttim skj`kckgh`gm. ^fm werl ecHvmry , AhgImen h`n AgGhrty fmipmn drk`j kt te tfm cergm. ^fmkr mxpmrkam`tswmrm tfm ckrst preec tfht k` ikvk`j erjh`ksas jm`mtkg ahttmr ks N@H. ^feujfkt thlms pihgm k` imss tfh` 8% ec h pepuihtke` , trh`scerahtke` ks h` kaperth`tamtfen ec rmgeadk`htke` k` Dhgtmrkh. H ùadmr ec neèr gmiis drmhl hphrth`n h` mxpieskvm rmimhsm h`n crhjam`thtke` ec N@H ceiiews. H smjam`t ecneudim strh`nmn N@H ge`thk`k`j hdeut 82 ‗ 42 jm`ms tfm` phssms tfreujf tfm

gmii whii h`n amadrh`m ec h rmgkpkm`t gmii . Eìy h cmw geapmtm`t rmgkpkm`tgmiis gh` thlm up tfm N@H. Hctmr m`try k`te gmii, h` m`zyam nksseivms e`mstrh`n ec N@H imhvk`j tfm smge`n strh`n te dm k`gerperhtmn. ^fks strh`n tfm`nkspihgms h smjam`t crea h strh`n ec tfm rmgkpkm`t‛s N@H. ^fm nkspihgmnN@H ks nksseivmn dy hètfmr m`zyam k` tfm gmii. ^fm gmii ks èw trh`sceramn .Kt wkii nkspihy kts ew` trhkts hs wmii hs tfesm genmn dy tfm `mw N@H.

^rh`scerahtke` ahy hise thlm pihgm dy tfm k`gerperhtke` ec pihsakns tegeapmtm`t gmiis. K` tfks ghsm, è N@H ks nkspihgmn. Thtfmr , tfm pihsakn hnnsjm`ms te tfesm hirmhny k` tfm gmii h`n auitkpikms hie`jwktf tfm gmii.

Wk`gm tfm 8;>2‛s . trh`scerahtke` fhs hise dmm` nmae`strhtmn k` spmgkms ec@mkssmrkh, Dhgkiius, Fhmaepfkius , Hzetedhgtmr h`n Wtrmptegeggus. ^fmpregmss k`veivms tfm trh`scmr ec N@H crea tfm crhjam`ts ec neèr gmiis k`tetfm gytepihsa ec h ikvm rmgkpkm`t gmii. Wmgtke`s ec sk`jim ‗ strh`nmn er neudimstrh`nmn N@H ahy dm thlm` up dut eìy h sk`jim strh`n wkii hikj` wktf tfmdhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam h`n dmgeams k`gerperhtmn k`te kt.^rh`scerahtke`s k` dhgtmrkh fhvm dmm` edsmrvmn k` tfm hdkikty te cera hghpsuim, h nruj rmsksth`gm h`n phtfejm`kgkty, h`n k` ùtrktke`hi phttmr`s.^rh`scerahtke`s hrm èt geaae` , fewmvmr dmghusm tfm ihrjm crhjam`ts ecN@H aeimguim gh` èt phss tfreujf tfm rmgkpkm`t‛s gmii whii er amadrh`m. K`

`hturm , trh`scerahtke` ahy k`grmhsm tfm phtfejm`kgkty ec h` erjh`ksa.K` gmiis ec seam jm`mrh ec dhgtmrkh , N@H dk`ns te tfm gmii surchgm dmcermupthlm. Fewmvmr, tfks ks rmstrkgtmn eìy te seam jm`mrh. ^fks predima fhsdmm` evmrgeam k` detf , pre ‗ h`n mulhryetms dy tfm rmaevhi ec tfm gmii whiite cera pretepihsts. Hnnktke` ec h geapeu`n ‗ cuskèjm` hiiews tfmpretepihsts te cusm h`n akxk`j ec N@H ec twe er aerm gmiis cerrmgeadk`htke`. ^fks tmgf`kqum ks lèw` hs pretepihst cuske`. Zfm` N@H ksk`giunmn k` tfm k`gudhtke` akxturm trh`scerahtke` eggurs skauith`meusiy



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wktf cuske` h`n tfus sahii crhjam`ts ec N@H m.j. pihsakns , gh` dmk`trenugmn k`te tfm gmiis. Rretepihst cuske` gh` hise dm ah`hjmn dmtwmmàmadmrs ec nkccmrm`t spmgkms dy akxk`j tfmkr pretepihsts k` tfm prmsm`gm ec hcuskèjm`. K` tfks why , jm`mtkg mxgfh`jm gh` dm hgfkmvmn dmtwmm` erjh`ksascer wfkgf è etfmr jm`m trh`scmr systma ks lèw` te mxkst.

(KK) Geòujhtke`?

(KK) Geòujhtke`?

Kt k`veivms h trh`scmr ec jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi crea e`m ikvk`j gmii te hètfmrnurk`j h pmrken ec ge`thgt. K` geòujhtke` seam gmiis hrm neèr ec N@H ,wfkim etfmr hrm rmgkpkm`ts. ^fks pregmss whs ckrst pestuihtmn dy OesfuhImnmrdmrj h`n Mnwhrn ^htua k` h smrkms ec mxpmrkam`ts k` 8;>3. ^we strhk`sec Msgfmrkgfkh geik wmrm usmn . E`m whs u`hdim te sy`tfmskzm h` mssm`tkhigeapeu`n H wfmrmhs tfm etfmr geuin èt sy`tfmskzm h` mssm`tkhi geapeu`nD. @mktfmr strhk` whs hdim te jrew k` h guiturm amnkua ihglk`j detf ,geapeu`n H h`n geapeu`n D dmghusm mhgf strhk` ihglmn h` kaperth`tm`zyam systma.

Imnmrdmrj h`n ^htua akxmn tfm gmiis ec tfm twe strhk`s , h`n hctmr h sfertk`gudhtke` tkam , pihgmn shapims e` tfm amnkua ihglk`j detf H h`n D .Dhgtmrkhi jrewtf hppmhrmn e` tfks amnkua. Zfm` h cmw geie`kms hppmhrmn . ktwhs ckrst tfeujft tfht trh`scerahtke` fhn eggurrmn. Fewmvmr , kt whs sfew`

mxpmrkam`thiiy tfht h pfyskghi gmii ge`thgt whs `mgmsshry cer tfmrmgeadk`htke` te thlm pihgm. Hpphrm`tiy , tfm jm`ms cer sy`tfmsks ecgeapeu`ns H h`n D phssmn dmtwmm` tfm gmiis h`n ykminmn h rmgeadk`mngfreaeseam tfht geuin prenugm detf tfm akssk`j geapeu`ns.

Ihtmr mxpmrkam`ts dy Crh`geks Ohged h`n Mikm I. Zeiiah` msthdiksfmn tfhtdhgtmrkh wmrm ec twe ahtk`j typms . Gmrthk` ahim typms er C+ er neèr gmiis

wmrm tfesm tfht ne`htmn seam ec tfmkr N@H, wfmrmhs cmahim typm er C- errmgkpkm`t gmiis wmrm tfm rmgkpkm`t ec tfm jm`ms. Kt whs ètmn tfht rmgkpkm`t gmiisweuin rhpkniy dmgeam neèr gmiis wfm` gmrthk` sahii haeu`ts ec N@H wmrmphssmn te h rmgkpkm`t gmii. ^fks mvm`tuhiiy imn Zkiikha Fhyms te nksgevmr

jm`mtkg chgters, ghiimn cmrtkikty chgters er C chgters , k` tfm gytepihsa ec tfmneèr gmii (ahim) hphrt crea tfm gfreaeseam. ^fmsm hrm hise ghiimn smx ‗ chgters er C- pihsakns. C ‗ chgters hrm neudim strh`nmn ieeps ec N@H ,hphrtcrea tfm gfreaeseam. ^fm chgters ge`thk` hdeut 42 jm`ms , aest ec wfkgf hrmhssegkhtmn wktf geòujhtke`. E`m cu`gtke` ec tfmsm jm`ms ks te cera hgeòujhtke` drknjm er smx pkius , dmtwmm` neèr h`n rmgkpkm`t gmiis. ^fm C ‗ chgter tfm` prmphrms cer rmpikghtke` dy tfm reiik`j gkrgim amgfh`ksa. ^fmrm ks




è geapimtm pregmss ec rmpikghtke` dut hs k` rmpikghtke` , tfm twe strh`ns dmjk`te smphrhtm crea mhgf etfmr h`n h sk`jim strh`n ec tfm chgter phssms tfreujftfm smx pkius te tfm rmgkpkm`t. Zfm` kt hrrkvms , m`zyams sy`tfmskzmgeapimam`thry strh`n h`n h neudim fmikx ceras hjhk`. ^fm neudim fmikxdm`ns k`te h ieep h`n tfm ge`vmrske` crea C te C+ gmii geapimtmn. Amh`wfkimdhgl k` tfm neèr gmii , h `mw strh`n ec N@H ceras te geapimam`t tfmimctevmr strh`n ec tfm chgter. ^fm wern mpkseam ks geaaeìy hppikmn tepihsakns tfht cu`gtke` k` geòujhtke` pregmssms.

Fkjf crmqum`gy ec Tmgeadk`htke`?^fmrm mxksts k` dhgtmrkh h typm ec geòujhtke` tfht hggeu`ts cer tfm phsshjm ecgfreaeseahi ahtmrkhi. Wtrhk`s ec dhgtmrkh tfht nkspihy tfks hdkikty hrm ghiimnfkjf crmqum`gy ec rmgeadk`htke` , er Fcr strhk`s . Wugf strhk`s wmrmnksgevmrmn k` tfm 8;=2s dy Zkiikha Fhyms k` M.geik. Wugf strhk`s nmvmiepmnwfm` h ahim(C+) authtmn te h supmr ‗ ahim wfkgf sfewmn h fkjf crmqum`gyec rmgeadk`htke` wktf h cmahim (C- ) , fm`gm tfm auth`t ghiimn Fcr.K` Fcr strhk`s, tfm C- chgter htthgfms te tfm gfreaeseam. ^fks k`tmjrhtke` ks hrhrm mvm`t h`n rmqukrms tfht h` k`smrtke` smqum`gm dm prmsm`t e` tfmgfreaeseam te rmgej`kzm tfm C-chgter . Ht tfm pek`t ec htthgfam`t , tfmgfreaeseam epm`s h`n h gepy ec e`m strh`n ks ahnm dy tfm reiik`j gkrgimamgfh`ksa. H pertke` ec sk`jim strh`nmn N@H tfm` phssms vkh tfm smx pkiusk`te rmgkpkm`t gmii . Kt oek`s tfm gfreaeseam . ^fm ckrst jm`ms te m`tmr tfmrmgkpkm`t hrm C- chgter jm`ms , dut tfmsm hrm èt tfm e`ms tfht ge`trei tfm neèr

sthtm. K`stmhn , tfm ihst smjam`t te m`tmr tfm rmgkpkm`t hrm tfm C- chgter jm`mscer tfm neèr sthtm. ^fmsm rhrmiy m`tmr tfm rmgkpkm`t , fewmvmr , dmghusmgeòujhtke` ks ectm` k`tmrruptmn dy sugf tfk`js hs drelm` pkik. ^fus tfm C - gmiiusuhiiy rmahk`s h rmgkpkm`t , dut wktf seam `mw jm`ms hgqukrmn crea tfmneèr. K` gmrthk` ghsms tfm C- chgter ks k`nmmn trh`scmrrmn te tfm rmgkpkm`t.Zfm` tfks fhppm`s tfm chgter usuhiiy nmthgfms crea tfm rmgkpkm`t‛sgfreaeseam h`n m`zyams sy`tfmskzm h strh`n ec geapimam`thry N@H . ^fmchgter èw ceras h ieep te hssuam h` mxkstm`gm hs h pihsakn h`n tfm rmgkpkm`tdmgeams h neèr.

Wmxnugtke`?E` egghske` , tfm C- chgter drmhls crmm crea tfm gfreaeseam ec h` Fcr gmiih`n rmsuams h` k`nmpm`nm`t sthtus. ^fm Fcr gmii tfm` rmvmrts te h` C+ gmii.Weamtkams wfm` tfm C- chgter imhvms tfm gfreaeseam , kt thlms hie`j hsmjam`t ec gfreaeseahi N@H. ^fm chgter wktf kts mxtrh N@H ks èw ghiimnh` C- chgter ( preèu`gmn C-prkam). Zfm` tfm chgter ks trh`scmrrmn nurk`j h



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sudsmqum`t geòujhtke` , tfm rmgkpkm`t hgqukrms gfreaeseahi jm`ms crea tfmneèr. ^fks pregmss ks lèw` hs smxnugtke`. Kt rmsuits k` h rmgkpkm`t wktf ktsew` jm`ms cer h phrtkguihr pregmss hs wmii hs hnnktke`hi jm`ms crea tfm neèrcer tfht sham pregmss.K` tfm jm`mtkg sm`sm, tfm rmgkpkm`t ks h phrtkhiiy nkpiekn erjh`ksa sk`gm tfmrmhrm twe jm`ms cer h jkvm` cu`gtke`. Geòujhtke` fhs dmm` nmae`strhtmnhae`j vhrkeus jm`mrh ec dhgtmrkh . Cer mxhapim , geòujhtke` ks lèw` teeggur dmtwmm` Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm Msgfmrkgfkh h`n Wfkjmiih , Whiae`miih h`nbWmrrhtkh h`n Msgfmrkgfkh h`n Whiae`miih. ^fks fhs jrmht skj`kckgh`gm k`trh`scmr ec h`tkdketkg rmsksth`gm jm`ms ghrrkmn e` pihsakns. Zfm` tfm pihsaknshrm C- chgters , tfm trh`scmr eggurs rmhnkiy. Aermevmr , wfm` tfm jm`ms hrmhtthgfmn te trh`spese`s , tfm trh`spese`s ahy ‖ouap‛ crea ernk`hry pihsaknste C-chgters, hctmr wfkgf trh`scmr ahy eggur. Geòujhtke` ahy hise eggur k`Jrha ‗ pesktkvm dhgtmrkh hs Wtrmptegeggus auth`ts ( h geaae` ghsm ec nm`thi

ghvktkms).^rh`snugtke`^rh`snugtke` ks h spmgkhi amtfen ec jm`mtkg rmgeadk`htke` k` wfkgf jm`mtkgahtmrkhi ks trh`scmrrmn crea tfm neèr te tfm rmgkpkm`t gmii dy amh`s ec htmapmrhtm dhgtmrkepfhjm. Kt whs nksgevmrmn dy _k`nmr h`n Imnmrdmrj k`Whiae`miih typfkaurkua. K` trh`snugtke` , h sahii pkmgm ec dhgtmrkhigfreaeseam ( ghrryk`j spmgkckg gfhrhgtmr x) ks k`gerperhtmn k`te h` htthglk`jpfhjm phrtkgim h`n wfm` tfks phrtkgim k`cmgts h `mw fest gmii , kt kòmgts tfmjm`mtkg ahtmrkhi ( wktf `mw pkmgm ec gfreaeseam) k`te kt. ^rh`snugtke` ahydm ec twe typms? - Wpmgkhikzmn trh`snugtke` h`n Jm`mrhikzmn trh`snugtke`.

( h) Wpmgkhikzmn trh`snugtke`?

K` tfks typm ec trh`snugtke` trh`scmr ec eìy spmgkckg jm`ms ec h dhgtmrkhigfreaeseam thlms pihgm. ^fm ahk` stmps ec spmgkhikzmn trh`snugtke` hrmjkvm` dmiew?

(8) ^fm dhgtmrkepfhjm jmts htthgfmn te tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii e` tfm rmgmpter sktmh`n tfm ùgimkg hgkn ec pfhjm phrtkgim ks trh`scmrrmn te tfm gytepihsa ec tfmdhgtmrkhi gmii.

(4) ^fm ùgimkg hgkn ec tfm pfhjm phrtkgim ks genmn cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec gmrthk`spmgkckg pretmk`s k` tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii. ^fmsm pretmk`s hrm lèw` hs rmprmsser

pretmk`s h`n tfmkr cu`gtke` ks te gfmgl tfm sy`tfmsks ec pfhjm phrtkgims k` tfmdhgtmrkhi gmii. ^fm pfhjm N@H eggurs k` tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii k` tfm cera ec sahiicrhjam`ts , lèw` hs prepfhjm. ^fmsm crhjam`ts hrm mktfmr crmm k` tfmgytepihsa er hrm htthgfmn te tfm gfreaeseam. H dhgtmrkhi gmii wktf prepfhjm




ks iysejm`kg h`n kt ahy rmahk` iysejm`kg cer smvmrhi jm`mrhtke`s. Nurk`j tfkspmrken tfm pfhjm N@H lmmps e` nkvknk`j hie`j wktf dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam.H sthjm geams wfm` sy`tfmsks ec tfm rmprmsser pretmk`s steps k` tfm dhgtmrkhigmii h`n sy`tfmsks ec pfhjm geape`m`ts sthrts.

(7) ]`nmr sugf ge`nktke`s , tfm pfhjm N@H wfkgf whs se chr htthgfmn te tfmdhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam smphrhtms h`n sthrts sy`tfmskzk`j pfhjm pretmk`s.

( >) Zfm` pfhjm N@H drmhls ecc tfm dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam , cmw jm`ms ec tfmdhgtmrkua rmahk` htthgfmn te kt. ^fmsm jm`ms lmmp e` rmpikghtk`j hie`j wktftfm pfhjm N@H h`n dmgeam h phrt h`n phrgmi ec tfm pfhjm phrtkgim. Wugfpfhjm phrtkgims wfm` k`cmgt h`y etfmr dhgtmrkhi gmii, tfm` tfm dhgtmrkhi jm`msprmsm`t k` pfhjm phrtkgims hrm k`gerperhtmn k` tfm gfreaeseam ec tfm `mwdhgtmrkhi gmii. (k.m. rmgeadk`h`t gmii) . ^fus tfm rmgeadk`h`t gmii, dmsknms ktsew` gfreaeseam , hise ge`thk`s cmw jm`ms ec tfm phrm`t dhgtmrkhi gmii.

(d) Jm`mrhikzmn trh`snugtke`?Kt k`veivms eìy tfesm prepfhjm phrtkgims wfkgf hrm prmsm`t k` tfm gytepihsaec tfm k`cmgtmn gmii. ( h`n èt k` kts gfreaeseam) . ^fm ahk` stmps ec tfmjm`mrhikzmn trh`snugtke` hrm hs ceiiews?

(8) ^fm pfhjm N@H prmsm`t k` tfm iysejm`kg dhgtmrkhi gmii , sthrts sy`tfmskzk`j`mw pfhjm geape`m`ts. K` tfks pregmss, tfm gfreaeseams ec seam dhgtmrkhigmiis jmt crhjam`tmn. Mvm`tuhiiy tfmsm smjam`ts hrm k`gerperhtmn k` seam`mw pfhjm phrtkgims . ^fus seam ec tfm pfhjm phrtkgims prmsm`t k` tfmiysejm`kg gmii fhvm smjam`ts ec dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam k`gerperhtmn k` tfma ,wfkim etfmrs fhvm eìy pfhjm N@H.

(4) Kc h pfhjm phrtkgim wktf smjam`t ec dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam k` kts N@Hhtthgls h dhgtmrkua ec h`y etfmr strhk` , tfm jm`ms ec tfm phrm`t dhgtmrkua hrmtrh`scmrrmn te tfm `mw gmii. Wugf pfhjm phrtkgims ( wktf jm`ms ec dhgtmrkhi gmii)hrm tfus ghphdim ec trh`snugtke`. E` tfm ge`trhry, tfm phrtkgims wktf eìypfhjm N@H hrm k`ghphdim ec trh`snugtke`.

X: Nmsgrkdm tfm strugturm ec ÂS ( êdhgge Aeshkg Skrus (ÂS) h`nsyapteas nmvmiepmn e` tedhgge pih`t.

H`s ÂS ks tfm aest smrkeus phtfejm` ghusk`j aeshkg e` tedhgge imhvms. Kt kstrh`sakttmn dy hrtkckgkhi kèguihtke` dut èt dy k`smgt vmgters.ÂS ks tfm aestrmsksth`t vkrus lèw` se chr ec wfkgf tfm tfmrahi nmhtf pek`t ks ˟G cer



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82 akùtms. ^fks ks tfm ckrst vkrus tfht whs grysthiikzmn k` 8;7= dy Z.A.Wthìmy k` tfm ].WH.

(k) Skrus Wtrugturm ?-

Crh`lik` mt hi (8;=:) fhvm nmsgrkdmn tfm strugturm ec ÂS . Kt ks ren sfhpmnfmikghi vkrus amhsurk`j hdeut 462 Ú 8=2 ½a wktf h aeimguihr wmkjft ec 7; Ú

823 nhite`s. ^fm vkrke` ks ahnm up ec 4, 872 pretmk` sudu`kts ec knm`tkghi skzm.^fm pretmk` sudu`kts hrm hrrh`jmn hreu`n h gm`trhi feim ec >à (>2Í) . Mhgfpretmk` sudu`kt ks ahnm up ec h sk`jim peiypmptknm gfhk` wfkgf pessmssms 8=6hakè hgkns , tfm aeimguihr wmkjft ec wfkgf ks 8:,=22 nhite`s. K`sknm tfmpretmk` ghpskn tfmrm ks h sk`jim strh`nmn T@H aeimguim wfkgf ks hise spkrhiiygekimn te cera fmikx. Skrus T@H ge`sksts ec 3, =22 ùgimetknms. K` e`m tur` ,tfm T@H ge`thk`s >; ùgimetknms. êthi ùadmr ec pretmk` sudu`kts geu`tk`jk` tfrmm tur`s ks >; k.m. >;/ 7 sudu`kts pmr tur`. ^fmrmcerm, h sk`jim pretmk`

sudu`kt ks ik`lmn wktf 7 ùgimetknms ec T@H.(kk) Rretmk` Wy`tfmsks? ^hlmdh nmae`strhtmn tfm nkrmgt m`try ec ÂS k`te tfm kseihtmn pretepihstcrea amsepfyii gmiis ec tedhgge. Hctmr ahlk`j m`try , T@H rhpkniy sthrtsu`gehtk`j dy rmaevk`j tfm sudu`kts crea tfm ghpskn dy usk`j fest m`zyams.^fm phrm`thi T@H ks ieghikzmn k` ùgimus dut èt k` gytepihsa. Kt pmrcerastwe kaperth`t cu`gtke`s. ( k) kt hgts hs aT@H h`n nkrmgts tfm sy`tfmsks ecpretmk`s. h`n (kk) cu`gtke`s hs tmapihtm cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec geapimam`thrystrh`n.^fm vkrus T@H utkikzms tfm hakè hgkns , rkdeseams h`n tT@H ec tfm fest h`nsy`tfmskzms tfm geapimam`thry strh`n h`n pretmk`s k.m. geht pretmk`s ec 8:,=22nhite`s h`n twe etfmr peiypmptknms ( ec aeimguihr wmkjft 832,222 h`n 8>2,222nhite`s). ^fm rhtke ec ùgimkg hgkn h`n pretmk` nkccmrs wktf mhgf vkrus. @ugimkghgkn ks hdeut =- >2% ec tfm vkrus h`n pretmk` 32 -:2 %. Mhgf pretmk` sudu`kt ecÂS ge`sksts ec 8=6 hakè hgkn ahlk`j h tethi ùadmr te hdeut 8:, =78.

(kkk) ^rh`saksske`? ÂS ks trh`sakttmn tfreujf tfm gmii shp ec fest h`nm`tmrs h `mw fest tfreujf weu`n k`cmgtke`. Zeu`n ks ghusmn k` pih`t num tevhrkeus guiturhi epmrhtke`s sugf hs gikppk`j er teppk`j tfm sfeet. Kt ks ètsmmn trh`sakttmn dut hgts hs smmn ge`thak`h`t. Kt ks hise trh`sakttmn dy wk`n

h`n whtmr.

(kv) Wyapteas?-ÂS nhahjms tfm seih`hgmeus pih`ts. Fewmvmr, kt gh` k`cmgt tfm etfmr pih`tstee. Hctmr k`cmgtke` , kt nmvmieps syapteas ec ikjftm`k`j ec imhc geieur hie`jtfm vmk`s k` mhriy sthjms. ^fmrmhctmr, kt tur`s k`te ikjft h`n nhrl jrmm` aeshkgsyapteas. Hie`j tfm vmk`s jrmm` geieur tur`s k`te nhrl jrmm` h`n tfm




k`tmr`hi rmjke` tur`s k`te gfieretkg. Weam tkams nhrl jrmm` dikstmrs hppmhr k`tfm imhc dihnm. Kc tfm pih`ts hrm k`cmgtmn mhriy k` smhse` tfmy dmgeam stu`tmn.Fewmvmr, syapteas vhry wktf vhrkmtkms ec tedhgge. ^fm vkrus rmnugms tfmykmin hs wmii hs quhikty ec tfm prenugts k.m. tfm `kgetk`m ge`tm`t ks nmgrmhsmndy 42 ‗ 72 %.



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X6 Zrktm ge`trkdutke`s ec tfm ceiiewk`j te akgredkeiejy5

H`s H`te`y Sh` Immuwm`feml (kk) Tedmrt Legf (kkk) Ieuks Rhstmur

(K) H`te`y vh` Immuwm`feml?




Kt whs eìy hctmr tfm k`vm`tke` ec tfm akgresgepm tfht akgreerjh`ksas geuinhgtuhiiy dm vksuhikzmn. ^fm grmnkt ec dukink`j h akgresgepm cer tfm ckrst tkamwm`t te tfm Nutgf im`s ‗ ahlmr ec Nmict , Feiih`n `hamn H`te`y vhÌmmuwm`feml . Zktf fks grunm im`s systma , Immuwm`feml geuin smm gimhriytfm edomgts ahj`kckmn hdeut 422 tkams. Fm edsmrvmn fhkr ckdmrs , pih`tstrugturms , grysthis , h` k`smgt‛s mym h`n h vhrkmty ec ciukns , pih`t strugturms,grysthis , h` k`smgt‛s mym h`n h vhrkmty ec ciukns k`giunk`j dieen h`n mvm`sgrhpk`js crea fks ew` tmmtf. Immuwm`feml ahnm vmry dhskg typms ec sk`jim

‗ im`s akgresgepms , wfkgf wmrm `mhriy 4=2 k` ùadmr. ]`nmr fksakgresgepm , Immuwm`feml stunkmn ikcm ‗ ceras wfkgf fm tmramn‖h`kahiguims‛. Fm ceu`n tfma ckrst k` rhk` whtmr , tfm` k` pe`n whtmr , ihtmr kàhtmrkhi crea fks ew` tmmtf. ^fmy hste`ksfmn fka ht ckrst, tfm` nmikjftmn fka, h`n ck`hiiy pmrpimxmn fka hs fm seujft te mxpihk` wfmrm tfmy gham creah`n wfht usm tfmy fhn. Hae`jst h`kahiguims fm hggurhtmiy nmsgrkdmn tfm

tfrmm ahoer typms ec dhgtmrkh `hamiy, rens, geggk h`n spkregfhmtms.

Immuwm`feml prmsm`tmn fks nksgevmrkms k` tfm smrkms ec hrtkgims crea 83:3 te8367 ht tfm Teyhi Wegkmty ec Ie`ne`. Dmsknms , dhgtmrkh fm hise nmsgrkdmn crmm ‗ ikvk`j h`n phrhsktkg pretezeh`s, ckdrkiihr cu`jk h`n spfmrkghi denkms wfkgf wmèw ghii hs ymhsts. Kt whs Immuwm`feml fkasmic wfe cer tfm ckrst tkamnksgevmrmn spmrahtezeh. ]`nmr tfks sk`jim ‗ im`s skapim akgresgepm ,Immuwm`feml nmsgrkdmn tfm sfhpm, skzm h`n aetkikty ec tfm dhgtmrkhi gmiis.Fewmvmr, tfks mxtrmamiy kaperth`t h`n skj`kckgh`t werl h`n nksgevmrymssm`tkhiiy rmahk`mn h feddy wktf Immuwm`feml h`n fm nkn èt imhvm dmfk`n

h`y smrkeus stunm`t te pursum fks werl.(kk)Tedmrt Legf?-Ht tfm tkam wfm` Rhstmur whs k`veivmn k` fks rmsmhrgfms , hètfmr jrmhtsgkm`tkst Tedmrt Legf ( 86>7 ‗ 8;86) whs hise ahlk`j fkstery wktf fks werl ecwknm rh`jk`j kaperth`gm e` akgre ‗erjh`ksas . ^fm nksgevmrkms ec Legf hrmge`sknmrmn dy ah`y te dm ec tfm sham kaperth`gm hs tfesm ec Rhstmur. Dmsknmsfks etfmr kaperth`t rmsmhrgfms , Legf nkn phk`sthlk`j k`vmstkjhtke`s k` tfmkseihtke` h`n knm`tkckghtke` ec vhrkeus dhgtmrkhi spmgkms. Kt ks cer tfks rmhse`tfht Legf ihkn tfm ceu`nhtke`s ec sugf kaperth`t h`n aenmr` sgkm`gms iklmamnkghi akgredkeiejy , dhgtmrkeiejy h`n vkreiejy.

Legf whs h amnkghi negter k` h sahii tew` k` Jmrah`y. ^fmrm fks httm`tke`whs nrhw` te tfm nrmhnmn h`n seamtkams chthi nksmhsm h`tfrhx. ^fm nksmhsmsthrts iklm geaae` gein, tfm` tfm slk` dmgeams krrkthtmn h`n mxtrmamiy ktgfyh`n vmry see` tfm slk` mrupts k`te dekis. ^fm phtfejm`kg dhgtmrkh m`tmr tfmgkrguihtery systma h`n ghusm cmvmr , sfegl h`n ah`y h tkams nmhtf. Nurk`jtfm nksgevmry ec tfm ghushtkvm phtfejm` ec h`tfrhx , Legf utkikzmn mxtrmamiygeaae` typm ec mqukpam`t h`n tmgf`kqums. ^fm mqukpam`t , guiturm amnkh



>2

h`n tfm tmgf`kqums nmvmiepmn dy Legf hrm stkii usmn aerm er imss u`hitmrmnmvm` tenhy k` ah`y aenmr` akgredkeiejy ihderhterkms.E` tfm dhsks ec nksgevmry ec ghushtkvm dhgtmrkh ec h`tfrhx dy Legf cerprmvm`tke` ec tfm nksmhsm , Rhstmur prmphrmn h vhggk`m wfkgf whs hisesuggmsscuiiy hppikmn. Dmsknms kseihtke` h`n knm`tkckghtke` ec tfm dhgtmrkhghusk`j h`tfrhx , Legf hise nksgevmrmn h`n nmsgrkdmn tfm ghushtkvmphtfejm`kg dhgtmrkh ec sugf kaperth`t nksmhsms iklm gfeimrh (Skdrke gfeimrhm ) h`n tudmrguiesks ( Aygedhgtmrkua tudmrguiesks ) . E` tfm dhsks ec tfmsmrmsmhrgfms tfm ge`gmpt mamrjmn tfht h spmgkckg akgredm ks tfm ghusm ec hphrtkguihr nksmhsm.

^fm amtfens ec stuny ec dhgtmrkh hrm ge`sknmrmn hs h jkct ec Legf h`n ht tfmprmsm`t tkam tfmsm hrm rmcmrrmn te hs Legf‛s pestuihtms. ^fmsm pestuihtms gh`dm drkmciy sthtmn hs u`nmr?

(k) H spmgkckg akgredm ks hiwhys hssegkhtmn wktf h phrtkguihr nksmhsm.(kk) H purm guiturm ec tfm akgredm gh` dm prmphrmn dy jrewk`j tfm dhgtmrkh

k` tfm ihderhtery. (kkk) Kc tfm akgredms thlm` crea tfm purm guiturm hrm kèguihtmn k`te h

fmhitfy k`nkvknuhi, tfm` hs h rmsuit tfm sham phrtkguihr nksmhsm hppmhrsk` tfm k`nkvknuhi.

(kv) Kc tfm akgredms crea tfm phtkm`t hrm rmaevmn h`n jrew` k` tfmihderhtery , tfm` e`gm hjhk` tfmkr purm guiturm gh` dm prmphrmn.^fm `mxt twm`ty ymhrs hctmr tfm rmsmhrgfms ec Legf hrm ge`sknmrmn hstfm jeinm` hjm ec dhgtmrkeiejy dmghusm nurk`j tfks pmrken m`nk`j dy

tfm ymhr 8;22 hiaest hii nksmhsm ‗ ghusk`j phtfejm`kg dhgtmrkh wmrmkseihtmn h`n knm`tkckmn.

(kkk) Ieuks Rhstmur?Ieuks Rhstmur whs tfm jrmhtmst sgkm`tkst ec fks tkam . Fm èt eìy jhvmseam ec tfm cu`nham`thi ge`gmpts ec ikcm sgkm`gms , dut hise prevknmnmxpmrkam`thi preec cer tfma.Hctmr ckitmrk`j akgredms crea hkr, Rhstmur nrmw tfm ge`giuske` tfht tfmseurgm ec ge`thak`htke` hrm akgredms. Fm nmvmiepmn h` hsmptkgtmgf`kqum wfkgf utkikzmn fmht cer trh`scmr h`n werlk`j wktfakgreerjh`ksas. K` 86=;, te put h` m`n te tfm pudikg nmdhtm wfkgf whsrh`jk`j dmtwmm` Ru`gfmt h`n fkasmic , fm pmrceramn tfm chaeus‖jeesm-`mgl cihsl mxpmrkam`t‛ . Rhstmur prmphrmn amht ‗ dretf dydekik`j kt k` cihsls fhvk`j `hrrew , ie`j h`n gurvmn `mgls. K` tfmsmcihsls hkr whs hdim te m`tmr , dut tfm ge`thk`mn akgredms smttimn k` tfmjeesm ‗ `mgl ec tfm cihsl. ^fus eìy u`ge`thak`htmn hkr whs gkrguihtmnk` tfm cihsl. K` sugf ge`nktke` , k` tfm amht ‗ dretf è erjh`ksaserkjk`htmn . Fewmvmr , kc tfm jeesm ‗ `mgl ec tfm cihsl whs drelm` tfm`



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy >8

ge`thak`htmn hkr ge`thk`k`j dhgtmrkh , m`tmrmn tfm cihsl h`n k` sugfamht ‗ dretf akgredms hppmhrmn. Rhstmur wktf tfks mxpmrkam`tge`giuskvmiy sfewmn tfht erjh`ksas er ikvk`j dmk`js ne èt fhvm tfmprepmrty ec spe`th`meus jm`mrhtke`.

Jmra ^fmery ec Cmram`thtke`? K`tm`skvm stunkms e` akgreerjh`ksas dy Rhstmur dmtwmm` tfm ymhrs 8632 tehdeut 8662 rmsuitmn k` ah`y skj`kckgh`t ge`gmpts. Hctmr stunyk`j nksmhsms k` Zk`ms Rhstmur nmae`strhtmn tfht k` tfm cerahtke` ec wk`m , tfm higefeikgcmram`thtke` ec jrhpms , etfmr crukts h`n jrhk`s ks ne`m dy spmgkhi akgre ‗ erjh`ksas ( jmras) tmramn hs ‖cmram`ts.‛ Fm hise nksgevmrmn tfht k` ahturk`j‗ vhtm ge`thk`k`j jeen quhikty wk`m spmgkhi typm ec cmram`ts wmrm prmsm`twfkim k` vhts ge`thk`k`j dhtgfms ec peer quhikty wk`m seam etfmr typm eccmram`ts wmrm tfmrm. Fm hise nksgevmrmn tfht cer jrewtf seam erjh`ksas

rmqukrm h`hmredkg m`vkreàm`t. E` tfm dhsks ec fks rmsmhrgfms , k` 863>Rhstmur sujjmstmn tfht te rmaevm u`nmskrhdim typms ec cmram`ts , crmsf crukt oukgms sfeuin dm fmhtmn ht 37¿G cer hdeut fhic-h` ‗feur h`n tfm` crea vhtsge`thk`k`j jeen quhikty wk`m akgredkhi guiturms sfeuin dm thlm` h`nk`trenugmn k`te tfm fmht-trmhtmn crukt oukgms cer cmram`thtke` wfkgf weuinrmsuit k` prenugtke` ec jeen quhikty wk`m. ^fks tmgf`kqum whs curtfmrnmvmiepmn h`n jkvm` tfm `ham phstmurkzhtke`. Rhstmurkzhtke` fhsrmveiutke`kzmn ceen h`n dmvmrhjms k`nustry h`n hs h nkrmgt ge`smqum`gm shcm ,fyjkm`kg , nksmhsm ‗ crmm ceen fhs dmgeam hvhkihdim cer ah`lk`n.Dmsknms mccmgtkvmiy prevk`j tfm jmra tfmery ec cmram`thtke` , Rhstmur hise

edsmrvmn tfht jmras er akgre ‗ erjh`ksas hrm u`kvmrshiiy prmsm`t k` tfmhtaespfmrm h`n te lmmp sudsth`gms u`ge`thak`htmn crea tfmsm hkr ‗ der`mjmras, tfm epm`k`j ec vmssmis ge`thk`k`j tfmsm sudsth`gms , sfeuin dmsteppmrmn wktf gette` weei whns. ^fm gette` weei steppmrs hiiew tfmphsshjm ec hkr k`te tfm vmssmis dut ckitmr eut tfm jmras er akgredms.

Hs h rmsuit ec trmam`neus suggmss hgfkmvmn dy Rhstmur k` seivk`j tfmpredimas ec tfm wk`m ‗ k`nustry , tfm Crm`gf jevmràm`t rmqumstmn Rhstmurte shvm tfm skilwera ‗ k`nustry h`n tfmrmdy shvk`j skil prenugtke` ec Crh`gmtfht whs dmk`j prejrmsskvmiy nmstreymn dy h nksmhsm ghiimn pmdrk`m. Hctmr

smvmrhi ymhrs ec rmsmhrgf , Rhstmur kseihtmn h`n knm`tkckmn tfm ghushtkvmakgredm h`n sujjmstmn tfht skilwera chramrs sfeuin usm eìy fmhitfyu`k`cmgtmn jmra ‗ crmm k`smgts cer rmprenugtke`. ^fm utkikzhtke` ec tfkssujjmstke` prhgtkghiiy mikak`htmn tfm nksmhsm h`n shvmn tfm skil ‗ weraprenugtke` h`n skil ‗ k`nustry ec Crh`gm. ^fm rmsmhrgfmrs ec Rhstmur e` akgre-erjh`ksas wmrm mxtm`nmn te tfm mxhak`htke` ec nksmhsms ec neamstkg h`kahish`n fuah`lk`n.



>4

Rhstmur hise stunkmn nksmhsm h`tfrhx k` ghttim. Fm nmae`strhtmn tfht kcfmhitfy ghttim hrm kòmgtmn wktf ikvm h`tfrhx dhgtmrkh , tfm` tfmy dmgeamkaau`m te tfm nksmhsm. Hctmr fks suggmss k` tfm werl e` h`tfrhx , Rhstmursthrtmn te werl e` tfm augf cmhrmn h`n chthi nksmhsm rhdkms wfkgf kstrh`sakttmn dy tfm dktm ec h nksmhsmn rhdkn nej ( er hètfmr ahaahi) tefuah`s. Rhstmur gham te tfm sham ge`giuske` tfht trmhtam`t ec rhdkms gh`hise dm ne`m k` tfm skakihr ah``mr hs tfht usmn cer h`tfrhx. K` 866=, cer tfmckrst tkam , Rhstmur‛s tfmery whs put te tmst . H` mxtrmamiy crkjftm`mn h`nwmmpk`j aetfmr gham te Rhstmur cer prevknk`j hkn te fmr = ymhr ein se` Oesmpf Amkstmr wfe fhn dmm` smvmrmiy weu`nmn h`n dkttm` dy h rhdkn nej.Rhstmur kèguihtmn tfm gfkin wktf fks h`tkrhdkms vhggk`m h`n akrhguieusiyshvmn fks ikcm.^fus Rhstmur ks nmsgrkdmn hs tfm jrmhtmst sgkm`tkst ec tfm aenmr` mrh. Fm èteìy ihkn tfm ceu`nhtke` ec prmvm`tkvm amnkgk`m dut jhvm rksm te tfm `mw

sgkm`gm ec kaauèiejy. Dmsknms fks ah`y jrmht nksgevmrkms k` akgredkeiejyfks hppikghtke`s fhvm rmveiutke`kzmn hjredhsmn k`nustrkms.

X82 Nmsgrkdm tfm aerpfeiejy h`n auitkpikghtke` / rmpikghtke` ecDhgtmrkepfhjm5

H`s

8. Aerpfeiejy?Dhgtmrkepfhjms hrm vmry sahii phrtkgims h`n tfmy gh`èt dm smphrhtmnmvm` dy dhgtmrkhi ckitmrs. K` tfmkr hppmhrh`gm , tfm pfhjm rmsmadims h

thnpeim er spmrahtezekn. Kt ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h fmhn h`n h thki. Kàest pfhjms (^, ^4 , ^3 ) tfm fmhn ks prksaekn dut k` ^7 h`n ^: pfhsms kt ks fmxhje`hi. ^fmrm hrm seam pfhjms ( m.j. ci , cn , A87 ) wfkgf hrmckiham`teus h`n ne èt sfew nkccmrm`tkhtke` k`te fmhn h`n thki. ^fmskzm ec tfm fmhn ec ^4 pfhjms ks hpprexkahtmiy ;=2μ Ú 3=2 μ. ^fmmxtm`nmn phrt dmtwmm` tfm fmhn h`n tfm thki ks ghiimn geiihr. ^fm thki kshiaest mquhi te tfm im`jtf ec tfm fmhn (;=2 μ) h`n fhs h nkhamtmr ec62μ. Ht tfm prexkahi m`n ec tfm thki h fmxhje`hi thki pihtm er m`n pihtm ks prmsm`t. ^fm m`n pihtm ks hpprexkahtmiy 422ǿtfkgl. Kt fhs skx thki

pk`s er ckdrms e` kts u`nmr surchgm , mhgf hdeut 8=22μ ie`j . ^fm thki

pk`s fhvm twe ahk` cu`gtke`s ? (8) ^fmy fmip k` tfm hnserptke` ecpfhjm phrtkgims e` tfm surchgm ec tfm dhgtmrkua. h`n (kk) tfm m`zyamssmgrmtmn dt tfmsm pk`s hrm fmipcui k` tfm iysks ec dhgtmrkhi gmii whii .

Tmpikghtke` ec Dhgtmrkepfhjm? ^fm pregmss ec rmpikghtke` ec dhgtmrkepfhjm k`veivms tfm ceiiewk`j ceur stmps?(8) K`cmgtke` (4) Wy`tfmsks ec pfhjm geape`m`ts k` tfm fest gmiis.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy >7

(7) Hssmadiy ec `mw pfhjm phrtkgim. (>) Ikdmrhtke` ec pfhjm phrtkgims crea tfm fest gmiis.

(8) K`cmgtke`?

^fm twe kaperth`t mvm`ts ec tfks stmp hrm hnserptke` ec tfm pfhjm e` tfm festdhgtmrkua dy amh`s ec kts thki ckdrms h`n trh`scmr ec pfhjm ùgimkg hgkn k`tetfm fest gmii. Hnserptke` ec pfhjm e` tfm fest dhgtmrkua nmpm`ns e` tfmautuhi hcck`kty ec tfm pfhjm h`n dhgtmrkua, Eìy h spmgkckg pfhjm gh` k`cmgt hphrtkguihr dhgtmrkua, Weam ec tfm geikpfhjms fhvm se augf spmgkckgkty tfhttfmy hrm hnserdmn eìy ht h spmgkckg e` tfm fest surchgm. ^fmsm sktms hrm lèw`hs rmgmpter sktms. K` hnnktke` , chgters sugf hs geapesktke` h`n vksgeskty ec tfmamnkua h`n tmapmrhturm hise hccmgt hnserptke`.Hnserptke` ec pfhjm e` tfm surchgm ec tfm fest ks chgkikthtmn dy k`tmrhgtke` echakè jreups ec pretmk`s ht tfm ahrjk`s ec tfm pfhjm thki , h`n `mjhtkvmiy

gfhrjmn ghrdexyi jreups e` tfm surchgm ec tfm fest. ^fus tfm fest spmgkckgktyec tfm pfhjm phrtkgim ks num te kts pretmk` h`n èt tfm ùgimkg hgkn. Hs sugf tfmfest rh`jm ec crmm vkrhi ùgimkg hgkn ks augf wknmr tfh` tfht ec tfm k`thgtvkrke`. Hctmr hnserptke`, tfm pfhjm phrtkgim smgrmtms h spmgkhi m`zyam eciysezyam typm wfkgf fynreiysms aurhakg hgkn-pmptknm geapimx ec tfmdhgtmrkhi gmii whii. Ge`smqum`tiy , h akùtm perm ks ceramn tfreujf wfkgf tfmùgimkg hgkn ec tfm pfhjm m`tmrs k`te tfm fest gmii. ^fm k`cmgtke` kshggeapiksfmn tfreujf tfm ceiiewk`j stmps?

(8) Kaamnkhtmiy hctmr ih`nk`j e` tfm fest surchgm tfm thki ckdrms dm`t,

drk`jk`j tfm m`n pihtm ec tfm pfhjm k` ge`thgt wktf tfm dhgtmrkhi gmiiwhii.(4) ^fm thki sfmhtf tfm` ge`trhgts , pusfk`j tfm gm`trhi tuduihr phrt ec tfm

thki k`te tfm fest gmii whii oust iklm h` kòmgtke` `mmnim.(7) ^fm ùgimkg hgkn ec tfm pfhjm ciews k`te tfm fest gmii tfreujf tfm

feiiew gm`trm ec tfm tuduihr `mmnim.^fm pretmk` sfmii ec pfhjm rmahk`s htthgfmn te tfm fest gmii hctmr tfm trh`scmrec ùgimkg hgkn, Wugf mapty pretmk` sfmiis hrm ghiimn jfests. H fest gmii e`gmk`cmgtmn dy h pfhjm phrtkgim dmgeams kaau`m hjhk`st tfm k`cmgtke` ec tfmpfhjm ec tfm sham typm. H pfhjm phrtkgim iesms kts hdkikty ec k`cmgtke` hctmr ktsùgimkg hgkn fhs dmm` rmimhsmn k`te tfm fest gmii.

(4) Wy`tfmsks ec pfhjm geape`m`ts k` tfm fest gmii?^fm pfhjm ùgimkg hgkn , e`gm k`sknm tfm dhgtmrkhi gmii, thlms evmr tfm pretmk`sy`tfmsks ahgfk`mry ec tfm gmii. Kt supprmssms tfm sy`tfmsks ec dhgtmrkhi pretmk`h`n nkrmgts tfm amthdeiksa ec tfm gmii te sy`tfmskzm tfm pretmk`s ec tfm pfhjmphrtkgim. ^fks ks hggeapiksfmn dy tfm sy`tfmsks ec vkrhi spmgkckg a-T@H (usk`j tfm fest T@H peiyamrhsm).



>>

^fm rmpikghtke` ec pfhjm N@H ceiiews tfm smak ‗ ge`smrvhtkvm amgfh`ksa.Aest ec tfm pfhjm N@H smrvms hs h tmapihtm cer tfm sy`tfmsks ec vkrhi spmgkckga-T@H. ^fm ihttmr nkrmgts tfm fest gmii te sy`tfmskzm pretmk`s wfkgf hrm usmnhs sud-u`kts ( ghpseamrms) ec tfm pretmk` geht ec tfm pfhjm phrtkgim. ^fmsmpretmk`s hrm ghiimn ihtm pretmk`s. êwhrns tfm m`n ec tfm rmpikghtke` ec pfhjmùgimkg hgkn , h ihtm pretmk` , ghiimn pfhjm iysezyam , ks sy`tfmskzmn.

(7) Hssmadiy ec `mw pfhjm phrtkgims?Hssmadiy ec ùgimkg hgkns h`n pretmk`s ( ihtm pretmk`s) k`te `mw pfhjmphrtkgims ks ghiimn ahturhtke`. ^fks pregmss ks ge`treiimn dy h vkrhi jmèam.^fm ckrst stmp k` ahturhtke` ks tfm ge`nm`shtke` ec ùgimkg hgkn aeimguim k`grysthiik`m cera. ^fm pretmk` sud- u`kts tfm` hjjrmjhtm hreu`n N@H te ceratfm fmhn ec tfm pfhjm. Amh`wfkim, hssmadiy ec tfm thki sthrts. Kt ks k`ktkhtmnwktf tfm htthgfam`t ec germ tudm wktf tfm thki pihtm. ^fm sfmhtf hreu`n tfm

germ tudm ks ceramn hctmrwhrns. Ht tfks sthjm tfm thki jmts htthgfmn te tfm dhsmec tfm fmhn. ^fm thki ckdrms hrm htthgfmn te tfm m`n pihtm k` tfm ihst.

(>) Ikdmrhtke` ec pfhjm phrtkgims crea tfm fest gmiis?

^fm m`tkrm gygim ec pfhjm nmvmiepam`t ks geapimtmn k` 72-;2 akùtms. K` h`k`cmgtmn dhgtmrkua :-6 pfhjm phrtkgims hrm ceramn pmr akùtm h`n h tethi ec422 pfhjms hrm ceramn k` h dhgtmrkua. Iysks ec tfm fest gmii whii ks mssm`tkhicer tfm ikdmrhtke` ec pfhjm phrtkgims. Kt ks chgkikthtmn dy tfm m`zyam iysezyamsmgrmtmn dy tfm pfhjm N@H k` tfm fest gmii. ^fm fest gmii rupturms hs h rmsuitec iysks h`n tfm pfhjm phrtkgims hrm ikdmrhtmn.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy >=

]`kt KK

Cu`jus h`n Rih`t Nksmhsms

X8 Jkvm h` hggeu`t ec tfm hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi rmprenugtke` k` cu`jus.

H`s Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` k` cu`jk usuhiiy eggurs u`nmr ge`nktke`s tfht chverjrewtf h`n smvmrhi jm`mrhtke`s ahy dm prenugmn k` e`m smhse`. Kt

thlms pihgm dy tfm prenugtke` ec mèraeus ùadmr ec sperms , u`k erauitkgmiiuihr , akgresgepkg prephjuims ge`thk`k`j e`m er aerm ùgimk ,wfkgf hrm ikdmrhtmn crea tfm phrm`t tfhiius phsskvmiy er dy hgtkvm nksgfhrjm.Aest hrm nkspmrsmn ie`j nksth`gm dy wk`n , er dy whtmr , k`smgts h`n etfmrh`kahis. Hsmxuhi sperms hrm ec twe ahk` typms ? sperh`jkesperms h`nge`knkh. ^fm ceramr hrm ceramn wktfk` tfm sperh`jkh h`n tfm ihttmr hrmceramn crea er wktfk` h ge`knkejmèus gmii der`m e` h spmgkhikzmn fypfh ,tfm ge`knkepferm. Wperh`jkh hrm gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfm iewmr cu`jk . K` hquhtkgcu`jk h`n tfmkr rmihtkvms , tfm pretepihsa ec tfm sperh`jkh nkccmrm`tkhtms htahturkty te cera zeesperms, wfkgf hrm `hlmn , aetkim sperms usuhiiyge`thk`k`j e`m ùgimus h`n pessmssk`j e`m er twe cihjmiih dy wfkgf tfmy hrmprepmiimn. K` tfm chakiy Rmreèsperhgmhm, tfm sperh`jkh hrm ghnugeus h`n

wk`n der`m. K` aest jm`mrh jmrak`htke` u`nmr aekst ge`nktke`s eggurs dyzeesperms , dut k` nrkmr ge`nktke`s h sperh`jkua puts eut h jmra tudm h`ncu`gtke`s hs h sperm. @eàetkim sperms (hpihèsperms) hrm gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec_yjeaygmtms. Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` dy ge`knkh thlms pihgm k` Hsgeaygmtms,k` h cmw Dhsknkeaygmtms h`n mxgiuskvmiy k` cu`jk Kapmrcmgtk.

(8) _eesperms?

Aetkim gmiis ec cu`jk hrm mktfmr zeesperms ( Jr. _ee` 1 h`kahi + sperh 1 smmn ,sperm ) er jhamtms ec u`kcihjmiihtm er dkcihjmiihtm iewmr cu`jk. ^fm ceramr hrmtfm hsmxuhi rmprenugtkvm strugturms. ^fmrm hrm tfrmm typms ec zeesperms k`

cu`jk?

(h) Restmrkeriy u`kcihjmiihtm zeesperms wktf cihjmiih ec tfm wfkpihsf typm<Gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfm Gfytrknkeaygmtms . m.j. Dihstegihnkmiih mamrse`kk h`nHiieaygms ahgrejyùs.

^fm u`kùgimhtm zeesperm ec D. mamrse`kk ks thnpeim iklm wktf h pmhr sfhpmnfmhn ec hdeut :-; ½a h`n h sk`jim trhkik`j ( pestmrker ) cihjmiiua ùgimus. ^fm



>3

ùgimhr shp ks rkgf k` rkdeùgimkg hgkn (T@H) h`n pretmk` h`n ks phglmn wktfrkdeseams. Mhgf zeesperm ge`thk`s h sk`jim aktegfe`nrke` hreu`n tfmlk`mteseam ( rmsuitk`j crea tfm cuske` ec smvmrhi aktegfe`nrkh nurk`j tfmnmvmiepam`t ec zeesperm) wfkgf ks sktuhtmn `mhr tfm dhsm ec tfm zeesperm.^fm erkjk` ec tfm cihjmiiua ks crea h dhshi deny ec lk`mteseam ( erdimpfhrepihst) . ^fm lk`mteseam ks gyik`nrkghi k` sfhpm h`n ahnm up ec `k`mckdrkis mhgf ge`skstk`j tfrmm akgretuduims. ^fmsm hrm hrrh`jmn k` sugf hah``mr tfht tfmy jkvm tfm hppmhrh`gm ec h ghrt wfmmi. ^fm ahk` sfhct ec tfmcihjmiiua er hxe`mam ge`tkùms hs h rk`j ge`skstk`j ec `k`m neudimakgretuduims surreu`nk`j h gm`trhi phkr ec akgretuduims.

(d) H`tmrkeriy u`kcihjmiihtm zeesperms wktf cihjmiih ec tfm tk`smi typm ,gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfm Fypfegfytrknkeaygmtms . m.j Tfkzknkeaygmshpepfyshtus.

( g) Dkcihjmiihtm zeesperms wktf h`tmrkeriy er ihtmrhiiy htthgfmn cihjmiih , e`mec wfkgf ks ec tfm wfkpihsf typm ( dhglwhrniy nkrmgtmn) h`n tfm etfmr ec tfmtk`smi typm ( cerwhrniy nkrmgtmn) h`n ks gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfm Eeaygmtms. K`tfm Rihsaenkepfereaygmtms tfm ie`j cihjmiiua ks ec tfm wfkpihsf typm h`nks cerwhrniy nkrmgtmn h`n tfm sfert, diu`t e`m , dhglwhrniy nkrmgtmn.

4. Wperh`jkesperms?

K` tfm gihss _yjeaygmtms . mj. Auger , tfm hsmxuhi , èàetkimsperh`jkesperms ( hpihèsperms) hrm ge`thk`mn k` jiedesm sperh`jkhsurreu`nk`j h germ er geiuamiih er gyik`nrkghi shg tmramn hs amresperh`jkh.

^fm ge`tm`ts ec tfm tmrak`hi sperh`jkh hrm nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te whiimn spermsge`thk`k`j smvmrhi ùgimk , h`n tfmsm hrm rmimhsmn dy tfm drmhlnew` ec tfmsperh`jkua whii er dy nksgfhrjm ec tfm wfeim sperh`jkua, ^fmsm sperms hrmmktfmr nkspmrsmn dy wk`n, rhk`, k`smgts er etfmr h`kahis.

K`ktkhiiy sperh`jkesperm nmikakthtke` ks m`nejmèus sk`gm kt dmjk`s wktfk` tfmgytepihsa dy tfm hssegkhtke` ec tfm amadrh`ms crea tfm m`nepihsakgrmtkguiua , ùgimhr m`vmiepm h`n sudsmqum`tiy aerpfeiejkghiiy nkstk`gtgimhvhjm vmskgims hrm ceramn hs k` Jkidmrtmiih pmrskghrkh .

7.Ge`knkesperms (Ge`knkh)?

Ge`knkesperms , geaaeìy lèw` hs ge`knkh hrm hsmxuhi rmprenugtkvmstrugturms h`n hrm prenugmn ahkìy k` Nmutmreaygmtms h`n hise k`

Hsgeaygmtms h`n h cmw Dhsknkeaygmtms. Wmxuhiiy prenugmn sperms hrm ètlèw` k` Nmutmreaygmtms. Hggernk`j te tfm nmck`ktke` crea tfm Lh`h`hslksge`cmrm`gm , tfm ge`knkua ks h spmgkhikzmn , è` ‗ aetkim , hsmxuhi prephjuimusuhiiy ghnugeus , èt nmvmiepk`j dy gytepihsakg gimhvhjm er crmm gmiicerahtke`. Ge`knkh ahy hrksm nkrmgtiy crea tfm seahtkg fypfhm er crea



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy >:

spmgkhikzmn ge`knkejmèus gmiis tfht hrm ectm` der`m e` spmgkhi fypfhidrh`gfms lèw` hs ge`knkepferms.

Ge`knkepferms ahy mktfmr hrksm sk`jiy crea tfm seahtkg fypfhm er ahy dmerkjk`htmn k` vhrkeus whys te cera spmgkhikzmn strugturms sugf hs sy``mahth (

sk`j.sy``mah ) wfkgf ks h geaphgt hjjrmjhtke` ec mrmgt fypfhm h`nge`knkejmèus gmiis dmhrk`j ge`knkh < sperenegfkh ( sk`j. Wperenegfkua)

wfkgf ks h gusfke` iklm ahss ec ge`knkejmèus gmiis < pyg`knkh ( sk`j.

pyg`knkua) wfkgf ks h feiiew crugtckghtke` ge`thk`k`j h fyam`kua ecge`knkejmèus gmiis , wfkgf dmhr ge`knkh < er hgmrvuik ( sk`j. hgmrvuius )wfkgf ks h crugtkckghtke` ge`skstk`j ec h aht ec fypfhm tfht jkvms rksm te sfertge`knkejmèus gmiis wfkgf hrm giesmiy phglmn tejmtfmr cerak`j h dmn ‗ iklmahss.

Ge`knkh ahy dm spfmrkghi , evekn mie`jhtmn , gyik`nrkghi , tfrmhn iklm , spkrhiiy

gurvmn er sthr sfhpmn. ^fmy ahy dm u`kgmiiuihr er auitkgmiiuihr , wktf mktfmrtrh`svmrsm smpth er detf trh`svmrsm h`n ie`jktunk`hi smpth ( aurkcera) . ^fmyahy dm prenugmn mktfmr sk`jiy , k` jreups , er k` gfhk`s ( ghtmùihtm) wfkgfahy dm mktfmr hgrepmthi er dhskpmthi .

Wmxuhi rmprenugtke`?

Zktf tfm mxgmptke` ec tfm gihss Nmutmreaygmtms , smxuhi rmprenugtke` eggursk` hii tfm jreups ec cu`jk . ^fm pregmss ec smxuhi rmprenugtke` ks geapimtmn k`tfm ceiiewk`j tfrmm nkstk`gt pfhsms?

(h) Rihsaejhay?

K` tfm ckrst stmp , cuske` ec tfm pretepihsts ec tfm twe geaphtkdim jhamtms ersmx gmiis thlms pihgm , h`n tfm twe geaphtkdim ùgimk geam giesm te mhgf etfmr.

(d) Lhryejhay?K` tfm smge`n stmp , cuske` ec tfm twe ùgimk crea tfm twe cusk`j jhamtmsthlms pihgm h`n h nkpiekn zyjetm ùgimus ks ceramn. K` Rfygeaygmtmslhryejhay eggurs oust hctmr pihsaejhay. Dut k` Hsgeaygmtms h`nDhsknkeaygmtms lhryejhay ks augf nmihymn. K` tfm ihttmr jreups , tfm ùgimkec tfm eppesktm strhk`s jmt tfmasmivms hrrh`jmn k` phkrs ( nklhrye`). ^fkspfhsm k` tfm ikcm gygim ks lèw` hs nklhryepfhsm h`n tfm pregmss dy wfkgf

tfks sthjm ks hggeapiksfmn ks ghiimn nklhryetkzhtke`. ^fm twe ùgimk ec hnklhrye` cusm te cera h nkpiekn ùgimus.

(g ) Amkesks?Hctmr lhryejhay , rmnugtke` nkvkske` thlms pihgm k` tfm nkpiekn ùgimus h`nfhpiekn sthjm ks rmmsthdiksfmn.^fm geaphtkdim ùgimk hrm dreujft tejmtfmr dy tfm ceiiewk`j smxuhi pregmssms?



>6

( h) Rihèjhamtkg gepuihtke`? ^fks k`veivms cuske` ec twe `hlmn aetkim jhamtms ( pihèjhamtms) . ^fmpihèjhamtm gepuihtke` ks ec tfrmm typms , nmpm`nk`j e` tfm `hturm h`nstrugturm ec tfm cusk`j jhamtms?

(k) Ksejhay? ^fm cusk`j jhamtms hrm aerpfeiejkghiiy skakihr dut pfyskeiejkghiiy nkccmrm`th`n hrm ceramn e` nkccmrm`t fypfhm. ( m.j. Wy`gfytrkua< Ghtm`hrkh ) .

(kk) H`ksejhay?^fm cusk`j jhamtms hrm detf aerpfeiejkghiiy h`n pfyskeiejkghiiy nkccmrm`t <tfm ahim jhamtm ks sahiimr h`n aerm hgtkvm tfh` tfm cmahim jhamtm. ( m.j.Hiieaygms) .

(kkk) Eejhay? ^fm cmahim jhamtm ( mjj) ks è` ‗ aetkim h`n tfm ahim jhamtm ( h`tfmrezekn ) ks aetkim < tfmy hrm ceramn k` spmgkhikzmn jhamth`jkh , lèw` hs eeje`kua

h`n h`tfmrknkua rmspmgtkvmiy.

(d) Jhamth`jkhi ge`thgt?Fmrm jhamtms hrm `mvmr rmimhsmn crea jhamth`jkh , k`stmhn tfm ahim h`ncmahim jhamth`jkh geam k` giesm ge`thgt wktf tfm fmip ec h cmrtkikzhtke` tudm.^fm` e`m er aerm ahim ùgimk akjrhtm te tfm cmahim jhamth`jkua . ^fmjhamth`jkh `mvmr cusm er iesm tfmkr knm`tkty nurk`j tfm smxuhi hgt. ^fm ahimh`n cmahim jhamth`jkh hrm lèw` hs h`tfmrknkua h`n eeje`kua (hsgeje`kua k` Hsgeaygmtms) rmspmgtkvmiy.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy >;

X4 Zrktm sfert ètms e` ?( h ) Dhgtmrkhi dikjft ec phnny(d) Ihtm dikjft ec Rethte( g) Jrmm` mhr nksmhsm ec Dhorh(h) Dhgtmrkhi Dikjft ec phnny?

H`s Dhgtmrkhi dikjft ks h vmry geaae` h`n wknmsprmhn nksmhsm ec phnny k` Hskh,mspmgkhiiy k` Wrk Ih`lh , Gfk`h , K`nkh , Ohph` , K`ne`mskh , ^hkwh` ,Rfkikppk`ms h`n ^fhkih`n. ^fm nksmhsm ghusms fmhvy iess te rkgm grep.

8. Wyapteas?

Kt ks h ceikhr nksmhsm wfkgf hppmhrs k` mhriy er ihtm Hujust h`n ghusmsahxkaua nhahjm nurk`j tfm fmhnk`j sthjm. ^fm nksmhsm eggurs k` hii sthjmsec pih`t jrewtf , crea smmnik`j te jrhk` cerahtke` . Kt ckrst hppmhrs hs whtmr ‗ sehlmn , trh`siugm`t spets e` tfm imhc dihnm h`n imhc sfmhtf. ^fm spetsjrhnuhiiy k`grmhsm te cera mie`jhtmn ymiiew te strhw geieurmn strmhls wfkgfahy gehimsgm te cera wfktm dietgfms. ^fm strmhls usuhiiy nmvmiep crea tfm tkptewhrns tfm dhsm. Wee`mr er ihtmr tfm tkps nry h`n dmgeam twkstmn h`n httkams tfm imhc tkssums ahy nkm. K` nry wmhtfmr , turdkn nreps ec dhgtmrkhi ahsseezm eut, wfkgf e` nryk`j hppmhrs hs ymiiewksf dmhns e` tfm imhc surchgm.

K` smvmrmiy k`cmgtmn ckmins , k`cmgtke` ahy rmhgf tfm jrhk`s . ^fm jiuamsdmgeam nksgeieurmn h`n whtmr sehlmn spets nmvmiep e` tfma. Ck`hiiy , tfmwfeim pih`t ahy wkit h`n hppmhr geapimtmiy nmskgghtmn ( lrmsml syapteas )

. ^fm imhvms ec k`cmgtmn tkiimrs sunnmìy dmgeam nry h`n reii hie`j tfm aknrkd.



=2

4. Ghushi erjh`ksa?

^fm phtfejm` rmspe`skdim cer dhgtmrkhi dikjft ec phnny ks Vh`tfeae`hseryzhm . Kt ks h` hmredkg, ren ‗ sfhpmn , è` ‗ ghpsuihtmn , è` ‗sperm cerak`j

, Jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm dhgtmrkua, 2.= -2.6 Ú 8-4½a k` skzm. Kt ks aetkim wktf h sk`jimpeihr cihjmiiua . ^fm dhgtmrkua prenugms whxy ymiiew geieurmn geie`kms e`hjhr amnkua h`n ks k`ghphdim te rmnugm `ktrhtms.

7. Nksmhsm gygim?

Wmmns h`n nksmhsm studdims hrm ahkìy tfm prkahry seurgms ec k`cmgtke`. Kt ksprk`gkphiiy h vhsguihr nksmhsm. K` K`nkh , tfm phtfejm` hise eggurs e` seamjrhssms wfkgf hrm kts geiihtmrhi fests.

Gieuny wmhtfmr, fkjf fuaknkty, neudim greppk`j h`n peeriy nrhk`mn

ge`nktke`s hrm aest ge`nugkvm cer nksmhsm nmvmiepam`t. Fkjf nesms ec`ktrhtm, skikghtm h`n ahj`mskua k` tfm seki k`grmhsm nksmhsm smvmrkty. Tmihtkvmiyfkjf tmapmrhturms ( hdevm 4=¿G ) nurk`j tfm jrewtf ec tfm grep k`grmhsm tfmk`gknm`gm ec nksmhsm dut smvmrm fmht h`n nreujft supprmss tfm nksmhsm. ^fmrkgm pih`t ks susgmptkdim te k`cmgtke` ht hii sthjms ec kts jrewtf , dutsusgmptkdkikty te vhsguihr k`cmgtke` nmgrmhsms wktf tfm hjm.

>. Nksmhsm Ge`trei?

^fm ceiiewk`j amhsurms gh` dm hneptmn te ge`trei tfm nksmhsm k`gknm`gm?

(8) Wmmns hrm trmhtmn wktf 2.24=% whtmr seiutke` ec hjrkaygk` pius 2.2=%wmtthdim gmrmsh` cer 84 feurs. ^fm` smmns hrm trh`scmrrmn te fet whtmrht =4- =>¿G cer 7 akùtms.

(4) K`ktkhi k`cmgtke` gh` dm gfmglmn dy nkppk`j smmns cer 6 feurs k` 2.8%gmrmsh` wmt pius strmpteaygk` ( 2.7ja k` 4.= jhiie`s ec whtmr).

(7) Wprhyk`j hjrkaygk` pius geppmr exy ‗ gfierknm cer ckvm tkams ht 84 nhyk`tmrvhis prmvm`t smge`nhry sprmhn.

(>) Gfierk`htke` ec krrkjhtke` whtmr hise fmips k` rmnugk`j k`cmgtke`.

(=) Dur`k`j ec k`cmgtmn strhw h`n studdim te nmstrey tfm dhgtmrkh prmsm`tks hise h jeen amhsurm.

(3) Dy sewk`j ec ùrsmry dmns k` nksmhsm ‗ crmm , kseihtmn hrmhs te prmvm`ttfm k`ciew ec prkahry kèguiua k`te ckmins. Rru`k`j ec tep pertke`s ectfm fest sfeuin dm hveknmn.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy =8

(:) Dy guitkvhtk`j rmsksth`t vhrkmtkms sugf hs Whtfk, @ ‗ 44 , KT ‗ 42 , KT-44,Z =4; , Z 7>6 h`n Tht`h.

(d) Ihtm dikjft ec pethte?

^fm ihtm dikjft ec pethte ks e`m ec tfm nmstrugtkvm nksmhsm ec pethte. ^fmchaeus Krksf chak`m ec 86>= ‗ >3 whs ihrjmiy num te tfm chkiurm ec pethte grep,num te ihtm dikjft k`cmgtke`. K` K`nkh , tfm nksmhsm whs ckrst k`trenugmn k`te tfm@kijkrk fkiis dmtwmm` 86:2 h`n 8662 h`n vmry see` kt sprmhns te Nhrommik`j k`tfm Fkahihyh` rh`jms.

8. Nksmhsm syapteas?

^fm syapteas ec tfm nksmhsm gh` dm smm` e` h`y phrt ec tfm pih`t vkz. imhvms,pmtkeims , stmas h`n tudmrs. E` tfm imhvms , tfm syapteas hppmhr k` tfm cera

ec nhrl drew` , evhi er krrmjuihr whtmr sehlmn hrmhs. K` tfm mhriy sthjms , tfmsyapteas nmvmiep ht tfm tkps er tfm ahrjk`s ec tfm ein imhvms. ^fm k`cmgtke`sprmhns vkjereusiy wfm` tmapmrhturm ks iew h`n htaespfmrm ks fuakn , h`nsee` hppmhrs k` tfm cera ec dikjft. K` ghsm ec smvmrm k`cmgtke`, prhgtkghiiy hiitfm phrts ec tfm fest dmgeam drew` h`n tfm` nmjm`mrhtm , Hctmr tfm teps fhvmdmm` dikjftmn , tfm k`cmgtke` rmhgfms te tfm u`nmrjreu`n tudmrs. K` tfmk`cmgtmn tudmrs, tfm slk` dmgeams sikjftiy su`lm` h`n nhrl k` geieur. Kcge`nktke`s hrm fuakn , tfm gmiis ec tfm tudmr dmgeam sect h`n nhrl drew`.^fks syaptea ks lèw` hs wmt ret.

4. Ghushi erjh`ksa?

^fm nksmhsm ks ghusmn dy Rfytepftferh k`cmsth`s . ^fm aygmikua ksm`nepfytkg ge`skstk`j ec fyhik`m , precusmiy drh`gfmn gemègytkg fypfhm. ^fmfypfhm nmvmiep k`tmrgmiiuihriy h`n cera fhusterkh. Evekn er imae` sfhpmnsperh`jkh hrm prenugmn e` sperh`jkepferms. ^fm sperh`jkh hrm ht ckrsttmrak`hi dut dmgeam ihtmrhi num te syapenkhi drh`gfk`j ec tfmsperh`jkepferm.

^fm sperh`jkua ahy jmrak`htm nkrmgtiy , cerak`j h jmra tudm ht tfm hpmx erkts pretepihsakg ge`tm`ts nkvknm te cera h ùadmr ec dkcihjmiihtm zeespermswfkgf mamrjm tfreujf tfm phpkiih. ^fm amtfen ec jmrak`htke` ks jevmr`mn

dy tmapmrhturm< iew tmapmrhturm chveurs zeesperm cerahtke` wfmrmhs fkjfmrtmapmrhturm , tfm jmra tudm nmvmiepam`t. Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` ks eejhaeustypm. ^fm h`tfmrknkua ks seamwfht mie`jhtmn h`n hapfkjyèus wfmrmhs tfmeeje`kua ks pmhr bsfhpmn te hiaest spfmrkghi , saeetf h`n rmnnksf ‗ drew`k` geieur. ^fm cuske` ec mjj h`n ahim ùgimus rmsuits k` tfm cerahtke` ec hnkpiekn eesperm.



=4

7. Nksmhsm Gygim?

^fm k`cmgtmn tudmrs hrm tfm ahk` seurgm ec k`cmgtke`. ^fm nerah`t aygmikuak` tfm tudmrs dmgeams hgtkvm h`n jrews upwhrn k` tfm stma h`n speruihtms e`

sahii sfeets. Mpkpfytetkgs ec tfm nksmhsm ks iklmiy te eggur wfm` uùsuhiiygeei wmhtfmr geadk`mn wktf hdu`nh`t aeksturm prmvhkis ht tfm tkam tfmsperh`jkh hrm dmk`j prenugmn. ^fm eptkaua tmapmrhturm cer speruihtke` ks48¿G . ^fm sperh`jkh jmrak`htms dmst dy zeesperms ht 84¿G h`n dy jmra tudm ,48¿G . 822 pmr gm`t rmihtkvm fuaknkty ghusms hdu`nh`t prenugtke` ecsperh`jkh. Wperh`jkh hrm mhskiy nmthgfmn h`n nkssmak`htmn dy rhk` er hkr. E`rmhgfk`j h sukthdim fest , tfm sperh`jkh jmrak`htm mktfmr dy jmra tudms er dyzeesperms nmpm`nk`j upe` tfm m`vkreàm`thi ge`nktke`s. ^fm sperms creatfm dikjftmn imhvms hrm whsfmn new` k`te tfm seki wfmrm tfmy pm`mtrhtm tenkccmrm`t nmptfs rmhgfk`j tfm fmhitfy tudmrs. Ge`thgt ec fmhitfy tudmrs wktf

nksmhsmn imhvms ht tfm fhrvmstk`j tkam ks hètfmr seurgm ec tudmr k`cmgtke`.>. Nksmhsm ge`trei?

^fm ihtm dikjft gh` dm mccmgtkvmiy ge`treiimn dy tfm ceiiewk`j amtfens?

(8) Fmhitfy smmn tudmr smimgtke`.

(4) Ckmin sh`kthtke`.

(7) Nmihymn fhrvmstk`j h`n sertk`j pethtems crea h dikjftmn ckmin.

(>) ûdmr trmhtam`t dmcerm sterhjm.

(=) Wterhjm k` h geei , nry h`n wmii hmrhtmn sterm feusm.

(3) ]sm ec nksmhsm rmsksth`t vhrkmtkms iklm Lucrk rmn , Lucrk `mmih, Lucrklu`nh`.

(:) Ceikhr sprhy ec cu`jkgknms iklm Dernmhux akxturm , Nktfh`m _ ‗ :6 ,Cyteih`, Diktex mtg.

( g) Jrmm` mhr nksmhsm er new`y akinmw ec Dhorh?^fks ks h vmry geaae` nksmhsm ec dhorh (Rm``ksmtua typfeknms ) eggurrk`j k`hiaest hii rmjke`s wfmrm tfm grep ks jrew` . K` K`nkh , tfm nksmhsm whs ckrstrmpertmn dy Dutimr k` 8;2: k` sperhnkg cera.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy =7

8. Nksmhsm syapteas?^fmrm hrm twe sthjms ec tfm nksmhsm , new`y akinmw sthjm ‗ neak`h`t e` tfmimhvms , h`n jrmm` mhr sthjm ‗ eggurs e` tfm mhrs (k`ciermsgm`gms ) . ^fmsperh`jkh prevknm h pewnmry hppmhrh`gm te tfm iewmr surchgm ec tfm k`cmgtmnimhvms. ^fm cerahtke` ec sperh`jkh ks chveurmn dy iew tmapmrhturm h`nfuakn htaespfmrm. ^fm k`cmgtmn imhvms dmgeam twkstmn h`n gfieretkg h`nseamtkams tfmy spikt ie`jktunk`hiiy.^fm mhr ks wfeiiy er phrtiy trh`sceramn k`te ieesmiy hrrh`jmn, twkstmn , imhc ‗ iklm jrmm` strugturms . ^fm jiuams dmgeam mìhrjmn h`n jrmm` h`n tfm drkstimsec spklmimts hppmhr ge`tertmn num te fypmrtrepfy. ^fm stham`s dmgeam imhcyer hrm supprmssmn te runkam`thry pmjiklm stuaps. Ghrpmis rhrmiy nmvmiep k`smvmrmiy hccmgtmn pih`ts h`n tfmy hrm usuhiiy rmpihgmn dy sahii, imhcy sfeetser fer`y eutjrewtfs.

4. Ghushi erjh`ksa?^fm phtfejm` rmspe`skdim cer tfks nksmhsm ks h` edikjhtm phrhsktkg cu`jus ,Wgimresperh jrhak`kgeih . Kt fhs k`tmrgmiiuihr , drh`gfmn , hsmpthtm h`ngemègytkg aygmikua . Kt hdserds ceen crea tfm fest tkssums wktf tfm fmip ecduideus fhusterkh. ^fm aygmikua rmahk`s ge`ck`mn te tfm amsepfyii tkssum ,wfmrm kt ghusms fypmrpihskh.

7. Nksmhsm Gygim?Wmvmrhi mrmgt fypfhm , lèw` hs sperh`jkepferms , hrksm crea tfm k`tmrgmiiuihraygmikua. ^fm sperh`jkepferms nmvmiep k` tfm sud ‗ steahthi gfhadmrs h`n

mamrjm tfreujf steahth sk`jiy er k` tucts. ^fm dhshi phrt ec tfmsperh`jkepferm ks steut h`n kt ks hsmpthtm h`n u`drh`gfmn. ^fm tmrak`hi phrtks tfkglmr h`n nkgfeteaeusiy drh`gfmn. ^fm sweiim` tkps ec tfm drh`gfms cerasperh`jkh.^fm sperh`jkh hrm fyhik`m, miikptkghi , phpkiihtm h`n saeetf whiimn . ^fmy hrmusuhiiy ceramn k` tfm `kjft h`n nmthgf crea tfm sperh`jkepferm mhriy k` tfmaer`k`j. ^fmy see` jmrak`htm te prenugm 7- 84 rm`kcera dkcihjmiihtmzeesperms. ^fm zeesperm rmahk`s hgtkvm cer seamtkam h`n tfm` kt smgrmtms hwhii h`n dmgeams nerah`t. Nurk`j chveurhdim ge`nktke`s, tfm zeespermjmrak`htms dy prenugk`j h jmra tudm. ^fm jmra tudm m`tmrs tfreujf tfmsteah h`n ceras h `mw aygmikua e` rmhgfk`j tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms ec tfmfest tkssum.

X7 Zrktm sfert ètms e` ?

H`s Ieesm Waut ec Zfmht?



=>

Ieesm saut , h vmry smrkeus nksmhsm ec wfmht , ks werin wknm k` eggurrm`gmh`n ks h smrkeus predima k` tfm fuakn h`n smak ‗ fuakn wfmht jrewk`jrmjke`s. K` K`nkh , tfm nksmhsm eggurs k` hii wfmht jrewk`j hrmhs , dut ktsk`gknm`gm ks fkjfmr k` tfm geeimr h`n aekst èrtfmr` phrts tfh` k` tfm seutf.

8.Wyapteas?

Kt ks h vmry nmstrugtkvm nksmhsm ec wfmht grep , hiaest mvmry mhr ec tfm hccmgtmnpih`ts ks ge`vmrtmn k`te h dihgl ahss ec sperms h`n è jrhk`s hrm ceramn.^fmrm hrm è skj`s ec tfm nksmhsm u`tki tfm mhr cerahtke`. ^fm k`cmgtmn pih`tsjrew chstmr tfh` tfm fmhitfy pih`ts h`n prenugm ciewmrs mhrikmr. ^fmy ne ètcera fmhitfy jrhk`s h`n k`stmhn h dihgl pewnmry ahss ( gfihaynesperms) ksckiimn k`sknm tfm jrhk` whii . K` mhriy sthjms tfm gfihaynesperms rmahk`m`vmiepmn dy h tfk` skivmry amadrh`m dut ht tfm tkam ec ciewmrk`j tfmamadrh`m dursts epm` h`n tfm sperms hrm jrhnuhiiy diew` hwhy dy tfm

wk`n. K` smvmrm k`cmgtke` ,eìy tfm gm`trhi hxks ec tfm spklmimt ks imct dmfk`n e`tfm pih`t.

4 Ghushi erjh`ksa?^fm cu`jus rmspe`skdim cer tfm nksmhsm ks ]stkihje ùnh vhr. trktkgk. ^fmaygmikua ec tfks cu`jus ge`sksts ec auitkgmiiuihr drh`gfmn fypfhm wfkgf hrmfyhik`m dut tur` drew` ht ahturkty. ^fm prkahry aygmikua ks smpthtm h`nu`kùgimhtm , wfmrmhs tfm smge`nhry aygmikua ks drh`gfmn, smpthtm h`ndkùgimhtm. K` tfm vmjmthtkvm pfhsm tfm smge`nhry aygmikua ks precusmiydrh`gfmn h`n sprmhns k` k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms ec tfm fest tkssums. ^fm phtfejm`rmprenugms dy tfm cerahtke` ec gfihaynesperms h`n dhsknkesperms.^fm fypfhi gmiis hrm trh`sceramn k`te eikvhgmeus drew` , spfmrkghi h`nmgfkùihtm gfihaynesperms wfkgf jmrak`htm rmhnkiy h`n prenugm dhsknkh h`ndhsknkesperms. ^fm fhpiekn dhsknkesperms prenugm u`kùgimhtm , prkahryaygmikua e` jmrak`htke`.

7.Nksmhsm Gygim?

Gfihaynesperms hrm ghrrkmn te fmhitfy pih`ts dy wk`n. ^fmy rmhnkiyjmrak`htm h`n prenugm h `mw aygmikua. H fmhitfy fest pih`t gh` dm k`cmgtmnk` smvmrhi whys ht vhrkeus sthjms ec kts jrewtf?

(8) ^fm fest gh` dm k`cmgtmn ht tfm smmnik`j sthjm crea ge`thak`htmnjrhk`s er ge`thak`htmn seki prmsm`t k` giesm prexkakty ec tfmjmrak`htk`j smmns.

(4) ^fm k`cmgtke` ahy hise eggur ht diessea tkam< tfm sperms k`cmgtkaahturm evhrkms ec fmhitfy spklmimts , prenugk`j h` k`tmr`hiaygmikua.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ==

^fm aygmikua rmahk`s nerah`t k` tfm jrhk` dut hctmr smmn jmrak`htke` ktdmgeams hgtkvm h`n mvm`tuhiiy k`cmgts tfm madrye`kg spklmimts e` rmhgfk`j tfmk`ciermsgm`gm rmjke`, Ck`hiiy, tfm aygmikua ceras nm`sm ahssms ec fypfhm k`tfm kaahturm evhrkms. ^fmsm fypfhm rmpmhtmniy nkvknm te cera saut sperms.H jreup ec sugf sperms ks lèw` hs saut dhii er serus . ^fm sperejmèusfypfhm jrew k` dmtwmm` tfm h`tkgik`hi whiis ec tfm mpknmraks ec tfm k`cmgtmntkssum. ^fm mpknmraks ec tfm k`cmgtmn phrts ec tfm fest ks tfus nmstreymn h`ntfm sperms hrm nkssmak`htmn dy hkr gurrm`ts.^fm ahxkaua nmvmiepam`t ec nksmhsm thlms pihgm ht 47˟G. ^fm nksmhsm ks imsscrmqum`t k` tfm hrmhs wfmrm fuaknkty ks iew ht tfm tkam ec ciewmrk`j.

>. Nksmhsm ge`trei?^fm nksmhsm ks k`tmr`hiiy smmn der`m h`n hs sugf sprhy ec cu`jkgknms ksèt mccmgtkvm k` ge`treiik`j tfm nksmhsm.

(h) Fet whtmr trmhtam`t?^fm smmns hrm ckrst sehlmn k` whtmr cer ckvm feurs ht 42˟G , tfm whtmr ksnrhk`mn ecc h`n tfm` tfmy hrm trmhtmn wktf fet whtmr ht >;˟G cer hdeut hakùtm h`n ck`hiiy wktf fet whtmr ht =4˟G cer 88 akùtms. Kaamnkhtmiyhctmr tfm fet whtmr trmhtam`t , tfm smmns hrm geeimn ecc dy nkppk`j k`gein whtmr h`n nrkmn. ^fm nerah`t aygmikua k`sknm tfm smmn nkms eccdy tfks trmhtam`t.

(d) Weihr m`mrjy trmhtam`t?

K` tfks amtfen , tfm smmns hrm ckrst sehlmn k` whtmr cer ceur feurs h`ntfm` nrkmn k` su` cer ceur feurs. ^fks nurhtke` ec suìkjft ks succkgkm`t

cer k`hgtkvhtke` ec tfm aygmikua.( g) ]sm ec systmakg cu`jkgknms?Wmvmrhi cu`jkgknms iklm ghrdexk`, vkthvhx h`n dmìhtm hrm usmn cer smmntrmhtam`t te rmnugm tfm phtfejm` k`cmgtkvkty. H geadk`htke` ec vkthvhxwktf tfkrha er ah`md ks vmry mccmgtkvm cer nksmhsm ge`trei.

(n ) ]sm ec rmsksth`t vhrkmtkms?^fm aest suggmsscui amtfen ks tfm usm ec rmsksth`t vhrkmtkms, @R ‗ :82 ,:86 , :38 < Dh`sk 44> h`n R ; N hrm seam kaperth`t vhrkmtkms ec wfmhtwfkgf hrm rmsksth`t te saut nksmhsm.

(m) Grep rethtke`?Grep rethtke` ht sukthdim k`tmrvhis ks hise mccmgtkvm k` nksmhsm ge`trei.

X> Nmsgrkdm tfm gihsskckghtke` ec cu`jus , hs jkvm` dy Hk`swertf.

H`s Gihsskckghtke` Rrepesmn dy Hk`swertf?



=3

H aerm `hturhi systma ec gihsskckghtke` ec cu`jk whs prepesmn dy J.G.Hk`swertf . Fm k`giunmn hii cu`jk k` tfm lk`jnea Aygeth. H` eutik`m ec fksgihsskckghtke` ks hs ceiiews?

Lk`jnea Aygeth? ( cu`jhi lk`jnea)Nkvkske` K. Ayxeaygeth ( sikam aeins)

Gihss 8 Hgrhskeaygmtms ( gmiiuihr sikam aeins) ‗ hsskakihtkvm pfhsm crmm ‗ ikvk`j haemdhm tfht hjjrmjhtm te cera h psmunepihsaenkua dmcermrmprenugtke`.

4. Fynreayxeaygmtms- pihsaenkua ceras h sikay `mt werl < aestiyphrhsktkg e` ahrk`m pih`ts.

7.Ayxeaygmtms?- h trum pihsaenkua < crmm ikvk`j , shprepfytkg.

> Rihsaenkepfereaygmtms? - Rihsaenkua phrhsktkg wktfk` tfm gmiis ec tfmfest pih`ts.

Nkvkske` KK Muaygeth ( trum cu`jk) ? -

Wud ‗ nkvkske` K . Ahstkjeaygetk`h

Gihss 8Gfytrknkeaygmtms ‗ ectm` u`kgmiiuihr , zeesperms wktf sk`jim, pestmrkerwfkpihsf cihjmiiua.

4 Fypegfytrknkeaygmtms? - ectm` u`kgmiiuihr , zeesperms wktf sk`jim , h`tmrker, tk`smi cihjmiiua.

7. Eeaygmtms?- usuhiiy aygmikhi < zeesperms dkcihjmiihtm wktf pestmrkercihjmiiua wfkpihsf h`n h`tmrker cihjmiiua tk`smi typm.

Wud ‗ nkvkske`s 4 . _yjeaygetk`h?

Gihss 8_yjeaygmtms ‗ aygmikua kaamrsmn k` fest tkssum , usuhiiyshprepfytkg, phrhsktkg er prmnhgkeus.

4.^rkgfeaygmtms? - aygmikua èt kaamrsmn k` fest tkssum< ectm` phrhsktkg e`

hrtfrepens.Wud ‗ nkvkske` 7. Hsgeaygetk`h

Gihss 8. Fmakhsgeaygmtms ? - hsgk `hlmn < è hsgeghrps h`n hsgejmèusfypfhm.

4. Ieguiehsgeaygmtms? - hsgk dktu`kghtm < hsgeghrp h` hsgestreah.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy =:

7. Rimgteaygmtms? - hsgk u`ktu`kghtm , mvh`msgm`t < cruktk`j denygimkstetfmgkua typm.

>. Ihdeuidm`keaygmtms? - cruktk`j deny pmrktfmgkua typm , hsgk u`ktu`kghtm ,

kèpmrguihtm < mxephrhsktms ec hrtfrepens.=.Ryrmèaygmtms? - cruktk`j deny pmrktfmgkua typm, hsgk u`ktu`kghtm ,kèpmrguihtm wktf hpkghi perm er sikt.

Wud ‗ nkvkske` > Dhsknkeaygetk`h

Gihss 8. ^mikeaygmtms? - dhsknkeghrp ihglk`j < tmikesperms jreupmn k` serk ersghttmrmn wktfk` tfm fest tkssum.

4. Fyamèaygmtms? - dhsknkeghrp prmsm`t< dhsknkh hrrh`jmn k` fyam`kua <geapimtmiy er phrtiy mxpesmn ht ahturkty.

7. Jhstmreaygmtms? - dhsknkeghrp prmsm`t< dhsknkh hrrh`jmn k` fyam`kua ,m`giesmn wktfk` tfm dhsknkeghrp , dhsknkh hsmpthtm.

Wud ‗ nkvkske` =. Nmutmreaygetk`h ( Cu`jk Kapmrcmgtk) ?

Gihss 8.Dihsteaygmtms ?- trum aygmikua ihglk`j < dunnk`j gmiis wktf erwktfeut preaygmikua.

4 Fypfeaygmtms?- aygmikhi , stmrkim er hsmxuhi sperms prenugk`j nkrmgtiy e`fypfhm er ge`knkepferms.

7.Gemieaygmtms?-aygmikhi < hsmxuhi sperms e` pyg`knkua er hgmrvuik.



=6

]`kt KKK

Ikcm gygim ec nkccmrm`t cu`jk

X8 Nmsgrkdm Hsmxuhi h`n Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke` k` Hspmrjkiius.

H`s

(K) Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-

Kt thlms pihgm dy ge`knkh prenugmn e` tfm ge`knkepferms. Weam gmiis ec tfmseahtkg fypfhm jrew aerm rhpkniy h`n nmvmiep h rkjkn whii. ^fmsm gmiis hrm

lèw` hs ceet gmiis. H` mrmgt drh`gf lèw` hs ge`knkepferms , hrksms creamhgf ceet gmii. ^fm ge`knkepferms ks usuhiiy u`drh`gfmn h`n hsmpthtm . ^fm tkpec tfm ge`knkepferms swmiis ge`sknmrhdiy , hgguauihtms gytepihsa h`n cerash vmskgim. Wmvmrhi ck`jmr iklm preomgtke`s nmvmiep e` tfm surchgm ec tfm vmskgimh`n tfmy hrm lèw` hs pfkhiknms er stmrkjahth h`n tfm sudsmqum`t ihymrs hssmge`nhry h`n tmrtkhry stmrkjahth.

Cerahtke` ec ge`knkh?

Ge`knkh nmvmiep k` ie`j dhskpmthi gfhk`s e` tfm stmrkjahth. ^fmrm hrm 82 -84ge`knkh k` mhgf gfhk`. Nurk`j tfm cerahtke` ec h ge`knkua , tfm ùgimus ec tfm

stmrkjahth nkvknms k`te twe. Wy`gfreèusiy h jieduihr pretudmrh`gm nmvmiepsht tfm tkp ec tfm stmrkjahth h`n kt mxph`ns te cera h ge`knkua. E`m ec tfm twenhujftmr ùgimk prmsm`t k` tfm stmrkjahth phss k`te tfm ge`knkua. Hs tfmge`knkua mxph`ns , tfm whii ec tfm stmrkjahth rupturms `mhr kts tkp. ^fmrma`h`ts ec tfm drelm` whii pmrskst hs h ghp hreu`n tfm ckrst ceramnge`knkua. H ie`j gfhk` ec ge`knkh ks ceramn k` tfks chsfke`. K` mhriy sthjmstfm gytepihsa ec tfm twe suggmsskvm ge`knkh rmahk`s ge`tkùeus num te tfmprmsm`gm ec h gyik`nrkghi kstfaus. Dut ihtmr , num te tfm cerahtke` ec h` k``mrge`knkhi whii ihymr, tfm gytepihsa ec tfm twe suggmsskvm ge`knkh dmgeamsmphrhtmn.

^fm ge`knkua ks h sahii , jiedesm , mgfkùihtm h`n u`kùgimhtm strugturm. Ktge`thk`s vhrkeus pkjam`ts, sugf hs ymiiew , jrmm` , drew` er dihgl , k`nkccmrm`t spmgkms. Ge`knkh hrm nkspmrsmn dy wk`n. ^fmy jmrak`htm e` sukthdimsudstrhtua, mhgf prenugk`j h `mw aygmikua.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy =;

(KK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?

Aest spmgkms ec Hspmrjkiius hrm feaetfhiikg dut h cmw ( H. cksgfmrk , h`n H.fmtmretfhiikgus ) hrm fmtmretfhiikg. ^fm smxuhi rmprenugtke` ahy dm

ksejhaeus ( m.j. H. `knuih`s ) er h`ksejhaeus ( m.j. H. rmpm`s). ^fm ahimh`n cmahim smx erjh`s hrm lèw` hs h`tfmrknkh h`n hsgeje`kh ( hrgfkghrp)

rmspmgtkvmiy.

8. Nmvmiepam`t ec tfm hsgeje`kua?

^fm fypfhi drh`gf wfkgf ceras hsgeje`kua see` dmgeams smpthtm h`nieesmiy gekimn. Hs hsgeje`kua nmvmieps tfm geki dmgeams nm`sm h`n ieels hs hsprk`j ‗ iklm strugturm. Kt ks èw lèw` hs hrgfkghrp. Kt ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`tetfm ceiiewk`j tfrmm rmjke`s ?

(8)

^fm tmrak`hi u`kgmiiuihr h`n auitkùgimhtm phrt ks lèw` hstrkgfejy`m. Kt hgts hs tfm rmgmptkvm rmjke`.(4) ^fm aknnim phrt ks hise u`kgmiiuihr h`n u`kùgimhtm. Kt cu`gtke`s hs

cmahim jhamth`jkua h`n ks lèw` hs hsgeje`kua.

(7) ^fm dhshi phrt ks auitkgmiiuihr h`n auitkùgimhtm. Kt ceras tfm sthil ectfm hsgeje`kua.



32

4. Nmvmiepam`t ec tfm h`tfmrknkua?^fm h`tfmrknkua nmvmieps giesm te tfm hsgeje`kua e` tfm sham er `mhrdyfypfh. Kt dmjk`s te k`ktkhtm oust dmcerm er nurk`j tfm smpthtke` ec tfmhsgeje`khi fypfh. ^fm h`tfmrknkhi drh`gf hise lèw` hs peiikènkua

dmgeams 4- gmiimn dy tfm cerahtke` ec h smptua. ^fm uppmr gmii ceras tfmh`tfmrknkua prepmr h`n tfm iewmr e`m, tfm sthil. Detf tfm h`tfmrknkua h`nsthil hrm auitkùgimhtm h`n rmahk` u`kgmiiuihr mvm` ht ahturkty.^fmrm ks h jrhnuhi mikak`htke` ec h`tfmrknkh k` tfm vhrkeus spmgkms ecHspmrjkiius. ^fm ceiiewk`j sthjms ec prejrmsskvm nmjm`mrhtke` gh` dm smm`?(k) K` spmgkms iklm H. fmrdhrkerua h`tfmrknkh hrm wmii nmvmiepmn h`n

cu`gtke`hi.(kk) K` H. rmpm`s h`n seam etfmr rmihtmn spmgkms tfeujf h`tfmrknkh hrm wmii

nmvmiepmn , tfmkr gytepihsakg ge`tm`ts hrm èt trh`scmrrmn te tfmhsgeje`kua.

(kkk) K` ah`y spmgkms ec Hspmrjkiius tfeujf h`tfmrknkh hrm ceramn , tfmahim ùgimk see` nmjm`mrhtm h`n tfmrm hrm è cu`gtke`hi ùgimk kàhturm h`tfmrknkh.

(kv) K` H. cihvus , H. cksgfmrk h`n cuakjhtms h`tfmrknkh ne èt nmvmiep ht hii.

(>) Cmrtkikzhtke`? Dmcerm cmrtkikzhtke` , tfm sthil ec tfm h`tfmrknkuamie`jhtms h`n gekis h`n jrews upwhrns k` giesm ge`thgt wktf tfm hsgeje`kuau`tki tfm h`tfmrknkua teugfms tfm trkgfejy`m. ^fks ks lèw` hs jhamth`jkhi

ge`thgt. ^fm k`tmrvm`k`j whiis ht tfm pek`t ec ge`thgt ec tfm h`tfmrknkua wktftfm trkgfejy`m nksseivm h`n tfm ge`tm`ts ec tfm h`tfmrknkua hrm trh`scmrrmn

k`te tfm hsgeje`kua tfreujf tfm trkgfejy`m. ^fm ge`tm`ts ec tfm h`tfmrknkuah`n tfm hsgeje`kua rmhnkiy akx dut tfm cuske` ec ahim h`n cmahim ùgimk neèt thlm pihgm ht e`gm. ^fm ahim h`n cmahim ùgimk hrrh`jm tfmasmivms k`phkrs wktfk` tfm hsgeje`kua h`n tfks ks lèw` hs nklhrye`.

Nmvmiepam`t ec tfm Hsgus?Hctmr cmrtkikzhtke` h nklhrye` ks ceramn k` tfm hsgeje`kua. ^fks ks ceiiewmndy tfm smpthtke` k` tfm hsgeje`kua. Mhgf gmii ceramn ge`thk`s h nklhrye` h`nnmvmieps k`te h auitkgmiiuihr hsgejmèus fypfh. K` tur` mhgf gmii ec tfmhsgejmèus fypfh hise fhs h nklhrye`. ^fm tmrak`hi gmii ec tfm hsgejmèusfypfh gurvms te cera h feel ‗ iklm strugturm , lèw` hs grezkmr. ^fm tweùgimk ec tfm nklhrye` prmsm`t k` tfks gmii nkvknm dy h geòujhtm nkvkske` h`ntfus ceur nhujftmr ùgimk hrm ceramn. @ew smpth hrm ceramn k` tfm grezkmr k`sugf h why tfht tfm pmùitkahtm gmii fhs twe nhujftmr ùgimk , h`n tfmtmrak`hi h`n dhshi gmiis fhvm e`m nhujftmr ùgimus mhgf. ^fm twe ùgimkprmsm`t k` tfm pmùitkahtm gmii cusm te cera h nkpiekn ùgimus. ^fks gmii èwcu`gtke`s hs tfm hsgus aetfmr gmii h`n mie`jhtms te cera h` hsgus. ^fmnkpiekn ùgimus ec tfm hsgus ckrst u`nmrjems h amketkg nkvkske` , ceiiewmn dy




aktetkg nkvkske`. Mkjft fhpiekn ùgimk hrm tfus ceramn k` h` hsgus h`n mhgf ectfmsm uitkahtmiy trh`sceras k`te h` hsgesperm. K` tfks why mkjft jiedesm erpyrkcera hsgesperms hrm ceramn k` mhgf hsgus. ^fm whii ec tfm hsgesperm ksnkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h` eutmr tfkgl h`n sguiptureus mpksperm h`n h` k``mr tfk`m`nesperm.

Nmvmiepam`t ec Hsgeghrp?Wkauith`meusiy . wktf tfm nmvmiepam`t ec tfm hsgejmèus fypfhm , ah`ystmrkim fypfhi drh`gfms hise nmvmiep crea tfm gmiis iyk`j dmiew tfmhsgeje`kua. ^fmsm drh`gfms cerah psmune phrm`gfyahteus strugturm , wfkgfks twe ihymrmn strugturm. ^fm pmrknkua wfkgf ks twe ihymrmn strugturm ,m`giesms hsgejmèus fypfhm. ^fm k``mr ihymr ec tfm pmrknkua ks ge`suamn dytfm nmvmiepk`j hsgk h`n hsgesperms , wfmrmhs kts eutmr ihymr ceras hpretmgtkvm gevmrk`j. ^fm m`tkrm strugturm wfkgf hppmhrs iklm h feiiew dhii ec

tfm skzm ec h pk`fmhn ks lèw` hs tfm cruktk`j deny er hsgeghrp. ^fm hsgeghrpks h geapimtmiy giesmn gimkstetfmgkua.

Hsgesperms hrm rmimhsmn dy tfm drmhlnew` ec tfm gimkstetfmgkhi whii (pmrknkua) . ^fmy hrm nkssmak`htmn dy wk`n. ^fmy jmrak`htm wfm` chii e` hsukthdim sudstrhtua h`n prenugm `mw aygmikh.



34

X4 Nmsgrkdm tfm aenms ec Tmprenugtke` k` Hiduje5

H`s Hiduje rmprenugms detf dy hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi amh`s.

(K)Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?

Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy auitkùgimhtm strugturms , lèw` hs ,ge`knkh , sperh`jkh er zeesperh`jkh. ^fmsm strugturms nmvmiep k` ie`jdhskpmthi gfhk`s e` sfert, mrmgt , giud sfhpmn strugturms , ghiimn ge`knkepfermser sperh`jkepferms.




(8) Cerahtke` ec ge`knkepferms er sperh`jkepferm?Hctmr msthdiksfk`j k` tfm fest tkssum, tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr aygmikua geiimgtsdm`mhtf tfm fest mpknmraks. ^fm tkps ec tfmsm fypfhm nmvmiep k`tesfert , mrmgt , tfkgl whiimn h`n giud sfhpmn strugturms ghiimnge`knkepferms er sperh`jkepferms . ^fmy nmvmiep k`te hs h phikshnmiklm ihymr dm`mhtf tfm fest mpknmraks h`n ks pmrpm`nkguihr te tfm festsurchgm.

(4) Cerahtke` ec ge`knkh er sperh`jkh er zeesperh`jkh ?Ge`knkh er sperh`jkh nmvmiep k` ie`j dhskpmthi gfhk`s ht tfm nksthi m`nec tfm ge`knkepferms er sperh`jkepferm. Nurk`j tfm cerahtke` ec hge`knkua , h nmmp ge`strkgtke` hppmhrs dmiew tfm sweiim` nksthi m`n ectfm ge`knkepferms , wfkgf jrhnuhiiy k`grmhsms crea tfm pmrkpfmry tetfm gm`trm. ]itkahtmiy , tfm ge`strkgtke` nmvmieps k` tfm cera ec htrh`svmrsm whii h`n h sahii dun ‗iklm strugturm nmvmieps k`te h

spfmrkghi auitkùgimhtm ( usuhiiy = ‗ 6 ùgimk) ge`knkua ersperh`jkua. ^fks pregmss ks rmpmhtmn smvmrhi tkams h`n mhgf tkam h`mw ge`knkua ks ceramn e` tfm ge`knkepferm. Ge`knkh nmvmiep k`dhskpmthi suggmsske` k.m. tfm yeu`jmst ge`knkua ks ht tfm dhsm h`n tfmeinmst ht tfm tep ec tfm gfhk`. H` k`tmrghihry augkihjkèus nksg, lèw`hs nksou`gter , nmvmieps dmtwmm` tfm twe suggmsskvm ge`knkh.

Num te prmssurm mxmrtmn dy tfm nmvmiepk`j ge`knkhi gfhk`s, festmpknmraks ks rhksmn h`n ck`hiiy rupturmn. Ge`knkh hrm vkskdim e` tfmfest surchgm hs wfktm pewnmry ahss. Fm`gm , tfm nksmhsm ghusmn dy tfm

cu`jus ks lèw` hs wfktm rust.Ge`knkh hrm saeetf , fyhik`m , auitkùgimhtm h`n spfmrkghi er sfertiymiikpsekn ‗ gyik`nrkghi strugturms , amhsurk`j 87 ‗ 86½a k` nkhamtmr.

(7) Jmrak`htke` ec ge`knkh?

Ge`knkh hrm diew` hwhy dy tfm wk`n er whsfmn hwhy dy rhk` spihsf.^fmy jmrak`htm hctmr 4- 7 feurs ec tfmkr nkspmrshi e` sukthdimsudstrhtua u`nmr aekst ge`nktke`s h`n iew tmapmrhturm. ( hreu`n82˟G) . ^fm auitkùgimhtm pretepihst ec tfm ge`knkua nkvknms k`te hùadmr ec u`kùgimhtm smjam`ts. Mhgf smjam`t amthaerpfesms k`te hrm`kcera dkcihjmiihtm zeesperm. ]suhiiy 6 zeesperms hrm ceramn pmrsperh`jkua ( ge`knkua). Hctmr ikdmrhtke` crea tfm sperh`jkua ,zeesperms rmahk` hgtkvm cer seamtkam h`n tfm` tfmy wktfnrhw tfmkrcihjmiih h`n m`gyst. ^fm m`gystmn zeesperm ceras h jmra tudm wfkgfm`tmrs tfreujf tfm steah er pm`mtrhtms tfm fest mpknmraks h`nnmvmieps k`te h crmsf aygmikua.



3>

(KK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?

Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` ks eejhaeus. ^fm ahim h`n cmahim smx erjh`s hrm lèw`hs h`tfmrknkua h`n eeje`kua rmspmgtkvmiy. K` H. gh`nknh , tfm smx erjh`s hrmjm`mrhiiy ceramn tewhrns tfm m`n ec tfm jrewk`j smhse` ec tfm fest. ^fmynmvmiep k` k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms , quktm nmmp k`te tfm fest tkssums. ^fmkrprmsm`gm ks mxtmr`hiiy k`nkghtmn dy fypmrtrepfy h`n nmcerahtke` ec tfmerjh`.

(8) Eeje`kua?




Nurk`j eeje`khi nmvmiepam`t , tfm hpmx ec tfm fypfhi drh`gf swmiisge`sknmrhdiy h`n dmgeams jieduihr dy hgguauihtk`j gytepihsa h`nùgimk. ^fm sweiim` hpmx , wktf 3 ‗ 84 ùgimk , ks smphrhtmn crea tfmahk` fypfh dy tfm cerahtke` ec h trh`svmrsm smptua. ^fm ùgimk k` tfmyeu`j eeje`kua u`nmrje ah`y aktetkg nkvkske`s cerak`j hdeut 822 -

722 ùgimk. ^fm gytepihsa ec tfm yeu`j eeje`kua ks u`kceraiyvhgueihtmn h`n tfm ùgimk hrm mvmìy nkstrkdutmn tfreujfeut.Dut hs tfm eeje`kua ahturms , tfm pretepihst ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h`

eutmr aerm vhgueihtmn pmrkpihsa h`n h gm`trhi nm`smiy gytepihsakgeepihsa. ^fm pmrkpihsa h`n eepihsa hrm smphrhtmn dy h pihsahamadrh`m . ^fm eepihsa rmprmsm`ts tfm mjj . ^fmrm hrm ah`y ùgimk k`tfm mjj wfm` kt ks ckrst nmikaktmn crea tfm pmrkpihsa , dut ihtmr hiiùgimk mxgmpt e`m nksk`tmjrhtm. ^fus tfm ahturm cmahim jhamtm er mjjfhs h sk`jim ùgimus.

4 H`tfmrknkua?

H`tfmrknkh hrm mie`jhtmn , giud sfhpmn h`n auitkùgimhtm strugturms.^fmy nmvmiep e` ahim fypfhm wfkgf hrm pihgmn vmry giesm te tfmeeje`kua. ^fm tkp ec tfm ahim fypfh hgguauihtms gytepihsa h`nùgimk h`n tfm sweiim` h`tfmrknkhi tkp ks see` gut ecc dy h trh`svmrsmsmptua. ^fmrm hrm 3- 84 ùgimk k` h yeu`j h`tfmrknkua dut tfm ahturmh`tfmrknkua fhs eìy h sk`jim cu`gtke`hi ùgimus hs tfm etfmr ùgimk

nmjm`mrhtm.7 Cmrtkikzhtke`?

Rihsaejhay thlms pihgm dy jhamth`jkhi ge`thgt. ^fm h`tfmrknkuaceras h sim`nmr cmrtkikzhtke` tudm tfht pm`mtrhtms tfm eeje`khi whii h`ntfm pmrkpihsa h`n rmhgfms tfm eepihsa. Rrker te cmrtkikzhtke` , tfmjrhùihr gytepihsa ec tfm eeje`kua ceras h ahss ec pretepihst ,lèw` hs gemègm`trua. ^fm cmrtkikzhtke` tudm dursts `mhr tfmgemègm`trua , rmimhsk`j tfm ahim ùgimus wfkgf cusms wktf tfm mjjùgimus. ^fm gemègm`trua nkshppmhrs hctmr cmrtkikzhtke`.

X7 Nmsgrkdm tfm ikcm gygim ec Gihvkgmps k` nmthki5

H`s

Gihvkgmps rmprenugms dy hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi amh`s.(K) Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-



33

Kt thlms pihgm dy ge`knkh, wfkgf nmvmiep e` ge`knkepferms. Hctmr hdeut hwmml ec k`cmgtke` . seam fypfhm jrew tewhrns tfm evhry whii . ^fmy hppmhrte cera h phikshnm iklm tkssum k` h trh`smgtke` ec tfm evhry. ^fm mxpesmn hpkgmsec tfmsm fypfhm hgt hs ge`knkepferms h`n hs sugf ùamreus ge`knkh nmvmiepk` hgrepmthi suggmsske` crea tfm tkp ec h ge`knkepfeprm. ^fm ge`knkh hrm sahii, evhi , u`kùgimhtm h`n fyhik`m strugturms. ^fm ge`knkhi sthjm ec tfm cu`jus kshise lèw` hs spfhgmikhi sthjm. , hs ge`knkh ec Gihvkgmps wmrm mhrikmrnmsgrkdmn u`nmr Wpfhgmikh smjmtua. ^fm evhry ks mìhrjmn h`n dmgeamsspe`jy h`n tfm k`cmgtmn ciewmr smgrmtms h stkgly sujhry sudsth`gm , lèw` hsfe`my nmw. ^fm ge`knkh stuglmn k` fe`my nmw hrm trh`scmrrmn te fmhitfyciewmrs tfreujf k`smgts. ^fmy jmrak`htm tfmrm h`n prenugm `mw aygmikh.

8.Cerahtke` ec sgimretkua?-

K` tfm ihst sthjms ec ge`knkhi cerahtke`, tfm aygmikua prmsm`t k` tfm evhry (lèw` hs spfhgmikhi aygmikua ) ahturms. ^fm wfeim aygmikua mvm`tuhiiydmgeams vmry fhrn h`n gfh`jms k`te h purpiksf er dihglpsmunephrm`gfyahteus deny, ghiimn sgimretkua er mrjet jrhk`. Hs tfmsgimretkua ahturms, tfm evhry ks geapimtmiy nmstreymn h`n tfm sgimretkua ksfmin k` dmtwmm` tfm jiuams.

^fm ahturm sgimretkua ks pretmgtmn dy h vkeimt er dihgl gevmrk`j. Wgimretkh chiie` tfm seki h`n rmahk` vkhdim cer h ie`j pmrken num te tfm prmsm`gm ec hrmsksth`t gevmrk`j.

4 Jmrak`htke` ec Wgimretkua?-

Nkspmrshi ec sgimretkh thlms pihgm nurk`j wk`tmr smhse` ,dut tfmy rmahk`nerah`t u`tki `mxt sprk`j. K` sprk`j wfm` ge`nktke`s hrm chveurhdim , tfmyjmrak`htm te prenugm h ùadmr ec sahii pk`l er nhrl purpim , nrua ‗ stkgliklm strugturms , ghiimn pmrktfmgkhi streahth. ^fmsm streahth hrm 8- 4 ga kìm`jtf , pesktkvmiy pfetetrepfkg h`n hrm nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te sthil h`nghpkthtms fmhn. ^fmrm hrm ah`y akùtm ghvktkms k` tfm streahthi fmhn. ^fmyhrm lèw` hs pmrktfmgkhi ghvktkms. ^fmy hrm surreu`nmn dy

psmunephrm`gfyahteus tkssum.






36

(KK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-

Detf ahim (h`tfmrknkua ) h`n cmahim ( hsgeje`kua) smx erjh`s hrm prmsm`t k`tfm pmrktfmgkhi ghvkty. ^fm smx erjh`s nmvmiep crea tfm tmrak`hi gmiis ec tfm

fypfhm prmsm`t ht tfm dhsm ec tfm ghvkty. Detf h`tfmrknkua h`n hsgeje`kuahrm auitkùgimhtm ht ahturkty. ^fm hsgeje`kua ks usuhiiy steutmr h`n drehnmrtfh` tfm sim`nmr h`n mie`jhtmn h`tfmrknkua.

Hs tfm hsgeje`kua ahturms ,h sahii phpkiih ‗ iklm eutjrewtf hppmhrs e` ktsihtmrhi sknm. ^fks eutjrewtf geams k` ge`thgt ec tfm `mkjfdeurk`jh`tfmrknkua. ^fm whiis ec tfm hsgeje`kua h`n h`tfmrknkua nksseivm ht tfmpek`t ec tfmkr ge`thgt h`n pihsaejhay thlms pihgm. K` tfm pregmss , ahimùgimk crea tfm h`tfmrknkua akjrhtm k`te tfm hsgeje`kua.

8 Nmvmiepam`t ec tfm hsgeghrp?-

Ceiiewk`j pihsaejhay , ùamreus hsgejmèus fypfhm hrm prenugmn creatfm dhsm ec tfm hsgeje`kua. ^fm pmùitkahtm nklhryetkg gmii ec h` hsgejmèusfypfh cu`gtke`s hs hsgus aetfmr gmii. ^fm twe ùgimk ec tfks gmii cusm te cera hnkpiekn ùgimus. Kt dmgeams `hrrew h`n tuduihr dy mie`jhtke` h`n ceras h`hsgus. ^fm nkpiekn ùgimus ec tfm hsgus nkvknms ckrst amketkghiiy h`n tfmàktetkghiiy te cera mkjft fhpiekn ùgimk. Mhgf ùgimus trh`sceras k`te h`hsgesperm dy hgguauihtk`j seam gytepihsa h`n smgrmtk`j h whii hreu`nktsmic. ^fm hsgesperms hrm mie`jhtmn , fyhik`m h`n tfrmhn iklm strugturms. Hiitfm mkjft hsgesperms ikm phrhiimi te e`m hètfmr k` h` hsgus. ^fm pmrktfmgkhiwhiis jrew hreu`n tfm nmvmiepk`j hsgk wktfk` tfm streahthi fmhns. ^fm wfeimstrugturm tfus ceramn ks ghiimn cruktk`j deny er hsgeghrp.

4 Cruktk`j deny er hsgeghrp?

^fm cruktk`j deny er tfm hsgeghrp ec Gihvkgmps ks tfm pmrktfmgkua wfkgf ks hcihsl ‗ sfhpmn strugturm madmnnmn k` tfm hpkghi phrt ec streah. ^fm whii ectfm pmrktfmgkua ks 8- 4 ihymrmn h`n tfm pmrktfmgkua epm`s ht tfm surchgm ec tfmstreah dy h `hrrew epm`k`j , lèw` hs estkeim. H pmrktfmgkua ge`thk`s ah`yhsgk wfkgf hrksm k` tucts crea kts dhsm. Ah`y phrhpfysms hrksm crea tfm sknmsec tfm k``mr whii ec tfm pmrktfmgkua. ^fmy surreu`n tfm hsgk dut hrm èt

prmsm`t k` dmtwmm` tfm hsgk.7 Nkspmrshi ec hsgesperms?

Hsgesperms hrm nksgfhrjmn cergkdiy num te fyjresgepkg prmssurm h`n hrmmomgtmn e`m dy e`m crea tfm hsgus. Wee` hctmr tfmkr , rmimhsm , tfmy hrmnkssmak`htmn dy wk`n . ^fmy hrm ghrrkmn te tfm ciewmrs ec fmhitfy fest pih`ts ,wfmrm tfmy jmrak`htm h`n k`cmgt tfm evhrkms.




X> Nmsgrkdm k` nmthki tfm hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi rmprenugtke` k` Tfkzepus5

H`s Tfkzepus rmprenugms dy detf vmjmthtkvm, hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi amtfens.

(K) Smjmthtkvm Tmprenugtke`?-Smjmthtkvm rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy crhjam`thtke`. ^fm vmjmthtkvm fypfhm( steie`s) ahy drmhl up k`te sahiimr crhjam`ts. Mhgf crhjam`t ks ghphdim ecnmvmiepk`j k`te `mw aygmikua.

(KK) Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-

Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy tfm cerahtke` ec hpihèsperms (sperh`jkesperms) er dy gfihaynesperms.

(K) Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-

Nurk`j chveurhdim ge`nktke`s, kt ks tfm aest geaae` amtfen ec hsmxuhirmprenugtke`. ^fm auitkùgimhtm è` ‗ aetkim sperms , lèw` hshpihèsperms er sperh`jkesperms hrm ceramn k`sknm tfm reu`n dihglsperh`jkh , wfkgf eggur sk`jiy ht tfm tkps ec sperh`jkepferms.Wperh`jkepferms nmvmiep k` tucts crea tfm steie` eppesktm tfm rfkzekns. Httfm tkam ec sperh`jkua cerahtke` , tfm tkp ec tfm sperh`jkepferms swmiis k`teh lèd ‗ iklm vmskgim. ^fm gytepihsa , hie`jwktf ah`y ùgimk , ciews crea tfmsperh`jkepferms k`te tfm sweiim` vmskgim. ]itkahtmiy , tfm sweiim` tkpnmvmieps k`te h ihrjm jiedesm strugturm , tfm yeu`j sperh`jkua. ^fm ge`tm`tsec tfm yeu`j sperh`jkua see` nkccmrm`tkhtm k`te h pmrkpfmrhi nm`smauitkùgimhtm rmjke` h`n h gm`trhi rmjke` wktf sahii cihttm`mn vhgueims h`ncmwmr ùgimk. ^fmrmhctmr, h gimct ks ceramn dmtwmm` tfm twe rmjke`s dy tfmgehimsgm`gm ec vhgueims. Ck`hiiy , h neam sfhpmn smptua ks ihkn new` ,smphrhtk`j tfm twe rmjke`s geapimtmiy. ^fm gm`trhi vhgueihtmn rmjke` ks stmrkimh`n ks lèw` hs geiuamiih . ^fm eutmr cmrtkim sperh`jkcmreus rmjke` cerassperms. ^fm geiuamiih rmahk`s k` ge`tkùkty wktf tfm pretepihst ec tfmsperh`jkepferm. Gimhvhjm k` tfm pmrkpfmrhi sperh`jkcmreus ze`m rmsuits k` tfmcerahtke` ec smvmrhi auitkùgimhtm smjam`ts. Mhgf smjam`t uitkahtmiytrh`sceras k`te h jiedesm, auitkùgimhtm , è` ‗ aetkim hpihèsperms.

Ht ahturkty, tfm sperh`jkua whii nrkms h`n tfm geiuamiih geiihpsms iklm h`k`vmrtmn gup iklm nksf. ]itkahtmiy , tfm sperh`jkhi whii drmhls , ikdmrhtk`jsperms te tfm htaespfmrm. ^fm rma`h`ts ec tfm sperh`jkua whii gh` dm smm`hs h crkii ht tfm dhsm ec tfm geiuamiih. Zfm` tfm sperm chiis e` h sukthdimsudstrhtua, kt jmrak`htms dy prenugk`j h jmra tudm. ^fm jmra tudmuitkahtmiy nmvmieps k`te h ciuccy h`n precusmiy drh`gfmn aygmikua.



:2

(4) Gfihaynesperm cerahtke`?-

Nurk`j u`chveurhdim ge`nktke`s, hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy amh`sec gfihaynesperms. Ht tfm tkam ec gfihaynesperm cerahtke` , tfm ahturm

aygmikua dmgeams smpthtm h`n tfm pretepihst ec mhgf gmii ceras h reu`nmnh`n tfkgl whiimn strugturm, lèw` hs gfihaynesperm. ^fm gfihaynespermshrm pmrm``htk`j denkms h`n tfmy gh` phss u`chveurhdim ge`nktke`s. ^fmyjmrak`htm h`n cera `mw aygmikh.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy :8

(KKK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?

Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy tfm gepuihtke` ec twe aerpfeiejkghiiy

skakihr auitkùgimhtm jhamth`jkh. Aest ec tfm spmgkms ec Tfkzepus hrmfmtmretfhiikg , dut h cmw ( m.j. T. smxuhiks ) hrm feaetfhiikg.

Nurk`j smxuhi rmprenugtke` , jhamth`jkh hrm prenugmn hs tmrak`hi swmiik`jse` tfm tkps ec twe geaphtkdim fypfhm er fypfhi drh`gfms. ^fmsm spmgkhifypfhm hrm lèw` hs prejhamth`jkh. ^fm prejhamth`jkh ec eppesktm strhk`s, hnfmrm dy tfmkr tkps h`n mìhrjm dy hgguauihtk`j gytepihsa. H smptua kstfm` ceramn h ikttim dmiew tfm tkp ec tfm prejhamth`jkua , smphrhtk`j tfmtmrak`hi jhamth`jkua crea h prexkahi suspm`ser gmii. ^fm jhamth`jkuafhs nm`smiy jrhùihr auitkùgimhtm pretepihst, wfmrmhs tfm suspm`ser fhs hfkjfiy vhgueihtmn pretephst. ^fm whiis ec tfm twe jhamth`jkh ht tfm pek`t ec

tfmkr ge`thgt nksseivm h`n tfm pretepihsts ec detf jhamth`jkh u`ktm te cera h zyjesperm. ^fm ùgimk ec eppesktm strhk`s phkr h`n cusm te cera nkpiekn ùgimkk` tfm geadk`mn pretepihst. ^fm ùgimk, wfkgf chki te cusm k` phkrs , uitkahtmiynmjm`mrhtm. Wee` , tfm yeu`j zyjesperm mìhrjms h`n smgrmtms smvmrhi ihymrmntfkgl whii hreu`n kt.

^fm zyjesperm jmrak`htms hctmr h ie`j pmrken ec rmst. Nurk`j jmrak`htke`, tfmzyjesperm grhgls epm` h`n h jmra sperh`jkepferm mamrjms wfkgf nmvmieps



:4

h jmra sperh`jkua ht kts tkp. Tmnugtke` nkvkske` eggurs nurk`j tfm cerahtkeèc jmra sperh`jkua h`n tfm sperh`jkua ge`thk`s ùamreus fhpiekn sperms.Mhgf sperm , hctmr ikdmrhtke` , jmrak`htms te cera h `mw aygmikua.Egghske`hiiy , gepuihtke` nems èt thlm pihgm dmtwmm` jhamth`jkh h`n tfmsmjhamth`jkh hrm surreu`nmn dy h ah`y ihymrmn whii h`n tfm` nmvmiep k`hzyjesperms.

X= Nmsgrkdm tfm ikcm fkstery ec Rmzkzh , am`tke`k`j tfm cmhturms ec spmgkhi k`tmrmst.

H`s

Rmzkzh aestiy rmprenugms smxuhiiy dut hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` hise thlms pihgmk` h cmw spmgkms.

(K) Hsmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` ks hdsm`t k` aest ec tfm spmgkms ec Rmzkzh. Dut hcmw spmgkms ( m.j. R. rmph`nh , R. vmskguiesh) prenugm ge`knkh h`ngfihaynesperms. ^fm ge`knkhi sthjm ec R. pustuihth dmie`js te tfmcera jmùs Emneghpfkiua.Ht tfm tkam ec cerahtke` ec ge`knkh, seam fypfhm jrew upwhrns h`nhgt hs ge`knkepferms . ^fm ge`knkepferms hrm ie`j, gyik`nrkghi , mrmgth`n smpthtm. ^fm tkp ec tfm ge`knkepferm swmiis te cera h vmskgim. ^fmyhrm fyhik`m er ikjft geieurmn , miikptkghi h`n tfk` whiimn strugturms.^fmy jmrak`htm e` h sukthdim sudstrhtua h`n prenugm `mw aygmikh.Gfihaynesperms hrm tfkgl whiimn rmstk`j gmiis wfkgf hrm ceramn k`k`tmrghihry pesktke`s e` tfm fypfhm , mktfmr sk`jiy er k` gfhk`s. K`chveurhdim ge`nktke`s, tfmy jmrak`htm h`n cera jmra tudms wfkgfmvm`tuhiiy jrew k`te `mw aygmikh.

(KK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?-Nmck`ktm smx erjh`s k.m. h`tfmrknkua h`n hsgeje`kua hrm èt ceramn k`Rmzkzh. Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy seahtejhaeus gepuihtke`.^fm fypfhm jrew k` hii nkrmgtke`s h`n cera h psmunephrm`gfyahteusahss . Weam fypfhi drh`gfms k` tfks phrm`gfyahteus ahss fhvmnm`sm pretepihsakg ge`tm`ts h`n tfmkr gmiis hrm u`k ‗ er auitk ùgimhtm.

]suhiiy, twe hnohgm`t gmiis ec tfmsm fypfhm cusm te cera h nklhryetkggmii , dut seamtkams twe ùgimk ec tfm sham gmii cera h nklhrye`. ^fmihtmr pregmss ks lèw` hs hutejhaeus phkrk`j. ^fm nklhryetkg gmiisjkvm rksm te hsgejmèus fypfhm. ^fm tmrak`hi gmii ec tfm hsgejmèusfypfh usuhiiy cu`gtke`s hs tfm hsgus aetfmr gmii. Dut k` Rmzkzh

vmskguiesh tfm nklhryetkg gmii nkrmgtiy hgts hs hsgus aetfmr gmii h`n ktmie`jhtms h`n ceras h gyik`nrkghi er giud sfhpmn hsgus. ^fm nkpiekn



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy :7

ùgimus u`nmrjems h rmnugtke` nkvkske` , ceiiewmn dy h aktetkg nkvkske` ,rmsuitk`j k` mkjft fhpiekn ùgimk. Mhgf ec tfmsm ùgimk smgrmtms h whii h`nerjh`kzms k`te h` hsgesperm. K` tfks why , mkjft hsgesperms hrm ceramn k` h`hsgus. ^fm u`kùgimhtm hsgesperms hrm fyhik`m, evhi er miikptkghi h`n fhvmsaeetf er gehrsmiy rmtkguihtm whii. ^fm hsgesperms hrm pihgmn edikqumiy k` hrew k` tfm hsgus.

Hpetfmgkua?^fm ahturm Hpetfmgkua ks h gup sfhpmn , smsskim er sudsmsskim strugturm, 8- 82ga k` nkhamtmr. ^fmy ahy dm wfktksf ymiiew ( R. geggk`mh ) , erh`jm (R.hurh`tkh) er drkjft rmn er jrmy k` geieur. (R. vmskguiesus). ^fm hsgk hrmhrrh`jmn k` phrhiimi rews wktfk` tfm Hpetfmgkua.Hsgesperms hrm rmimhsmn crea tfm Hpetfmgkua jm`mrhiiy k` aekst

m`vkreàm`thi ge`nktke`s. E` jmrak`htke` , tfm hsgesperm jkvms rksm te hjmra tudm wfkgf nmvmieps k`te h `mw aygmikua.

X3 Zfht hrm vhrkeus typms ec ikcm gygim ceu`n k` Whggfhreaygms5 Nmsgrkdmtfma drkmciy wktf tfm fmip ec sukthdim nkhjrhas.



:>

H`s Tmprenugtke` <

[mhst rmprenugms detf dy vmjmthtkvm h`n smxuhi amh`s.

(K)

Smjmthtkvm rmprenugtke`?Smjmthtkvm rmprenugtke` thlm pihgm dy tfm ceiiewk`j amtfens?8. Dy dunnk`j.

^fm pretepihst ec tfm ymhst gmii duijms eut k` tfm cera ec h dun. ^fmùgimus nkvknms k`te twe nhujftmr ùgimk h`n ec tfmsm e`m akjrhtmsk`te tfm mìhrjk`j dun. ^fm dun jrews h`n ks mvm`tuhiiy smphrhtmncrea tfm aetfmr gmii . HW tfm dun smphrhtms h sghr wktf h ge`vmxsurchgm ks imct e` tfm phrm`t gmii. ^fks sghr ks ghiimn dun sghr. H ge`ghvmsghr ks hise rmthk`mn dy tfm `mwiy ceramn nhujftmr gmii. Kt ks ghiimndkrtf sghr.

4. Dy cksske`?Cksske` ks skapim spikttk`j ec h gmii k`te twe nhujftmr gmiis dy tfmge`strkgtke` h`n cerahtke` ec h trh`svmrsm whii. ^fm phrm`t gmiimie`jhtms h`n kts ùgimus nkvknms dy k`trhùgimhr aktesks. ^fm` hge`strkgtke` hppmhrs seamwfmrm `mhr tfm aknnim ec tfm aetfmr gmiiceiiewmn dy h trh`svmrsm smptua h`n hs sugf twe u`kùgimhtmnhujftmr gmiis hrm ceramn.

7 Dy M`nesperm cerahtke`?

Nurk`j u`chveurhdim ge`nktke`s , tfkgl whiimn m`nesperms hrm

ceramn. ^fm pretepihst usuhiiy nkvknms k`te ceur phrts ? mhgf phrt kssurreu`nmn dy h tfkgl whii. ^fmsm strugturms hrm lèw` hsm`nesperms. ^fm m`nesperm ahy survkvm hnvmrsm ge`nktke`s h`n e`tfm rmtur` ec chveurhdim ge`nktke`s kt jmrak`htms dy dunnk`j h`nprenugms h gfhk` ec gmiis.

(KK) Wmxuhi Tmprenugtke`?Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` usuhiiy thlms pihgm nurk`j u`chveurhdimge`nktke`s wfm` tfm ceen suppiy ks mxfhustmn. Wmx erjh`s hrm m`tkrmiyhdsm`t h`n hs sugf tfm smxuhi rmprenugtke` ks h skapim pregmss. K` tfks

pregmss mktfmr twe seahtkg gmiis er twe hsgesperms hrm k`veivmn wfkgfhssuam tfm cu`gtke` ec gepuihtk`j jhamth`jkhi. ^fm zyjetm ceramn dytfmkr cuske` mvm`tuhiiy nmvmieps k`te h` hsgus wfkgf ge`thk`s > er 6hsgesperms nmpm`nk`j upe` tfm ùadmr ec ùgimhr nkvkske`s.^frmm typms ec ikcm gygim phttmr`s fhvm dmm` rmgej`kzmn k` ymhsts?



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy :=

8 Fhpiedke`tkg typm? ^fks typm ec ikcm gygim ks ceu`n k` W. egtesperus. Fmrm tfm fhpiepfhsm ksmihderhtm h`n tfm nkpiepfhsm ks vmry sfert , ge`ck`mn te tfm zyjetm gmii eìy.^fm seahtkg gmiis hrm fhpiekn h`n cu`gtke` hs h petm`tkhi jhamth`jkh. Ht tfmtkam ec smxuhi rmprenugtke` twe seahtkg gmiis ammt k` phkrs , mhgf sm`nk`j hsahii pretudmrh`gm tewhrns tfm etfmr. Detf tfm pretudmrh`gms geam k`ge`thgt h`n tfm whii ht tfm pek`t ec ge`thgt nksseivms te cera h geaae`phsshjm , ghiimn geòujhtke` tudm. ^fmrmhctmr , tfm ùgimk ec detf tfmjhamth`jkh aevm e`te tfm geòujhtke` tudm < tfmy cusm tfmrm h`n cera hnkpiekn zyjetkg ùgimus. ^fm zyjetm cu`gtke`s hs h` hsgus. Kt u`nmrjemsamkesks kaamnkhtmiy hctmr lhryejhay h`n tfus mkjft fhpiekn ùgimk hrmceramn. ^fmsm ùgimk erjh`kzm tfmasmivms k`te hsgesperms. ^fm hsgesperms hrmikdmrhtmn dy drmhlk`j ec tfm hsgus whii. ^fm hsgesperms dmfhvms iklm h seahtkggmii.



:3

4.Nkpiedke`tkg typm?^fks typm ec ikcm gygim ks rmprmsm`tmn dy W.iunwkjkk. K` tfks typm, tfm nkpieknseahtkg sthjm ks ie`j h`n tfm fhpiepfhsm rmprmsm`tmn dy hsgesperms , ks vmrysfert. Eìy ceur hsgesperms hrm ceramn k` h` hsgus h`n tfmy hrm èt ikdmrhtmncrea tfm hsgus. ^fm hsgesperms dmfhvm hs jhamth`jkh h`n tfmy gepuihtm k`phkrs h`n mhgf phkr dy cuske` prenugms h nkpiekn zyjetm gmii wktfk` tfm hsguswhii. ^fm zyjetkg nkpiekn gmii prenugms h jmra tudm tfht pusfms tfreujf tfmhsgus whii. ^fm jmra tudm dmgeams auitkgmiiuihr h`n cu`gtke`s h s h nkpieknspreut aygmikua . ^fm `mw nkpiekn ymhst gmiis hrm dunnmn crea kt. ^fmnkpiekn duns hrm nmthgfmn crea tfm phrm`t spreut aygmikua h`n cu`gtke` hsnkpiekn spreut gmiis. ]`nmr chveurhdim ge`nktke`s , tfmsm gmiis cu`gtke` hs hsgk< mhgf prenugk`j ceur hsgesperms hs tfm rmsuit ec h rmnugtke` nkvkske`.

7 Fhpie ‗ nkpiedke`tkg typm?^fks typm ec ikcm gygim eggurs k` W. gmrmvkskhm . Detf , tfm fhpiekn h`n nkpieknpfhsms hrm ec prmtty ie`j nurhtke` rmprmsm`tk`j seamwfht h` hitmr`htke` ec



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ::

jm`mrhtke`s. Eut ec tfm ceur hsgesperms ceramn k` h` hsgus , twe hrm ec e`mahtk`j typm h`n twe ec tfm etfmr ahtk`j typm. @erahiiy tfm fhpiekn gmiis ecnkccmrm`t ahtk`j typms auitkpiy dy dunnk`j. Dut u`nmr gmrthk` m`vkreàm`thige`nktke`s , twe seahtkg gmiis ec eppesktm ahtk`j typms dmfhvm hs jhamth`jkh.^fm zyjetm ceramn dy tfm cuske` ec twe jhamth`jkh prephjhtms dy dunnk`j ,prenugk`j h ihrjm ùadmr ec nkpiekn gmiis. Zfm` tfmrm ks sghrgkty ec ceen, tfmnkpiekn gmiis cu`gtke` hs hsgus. Ceur fhpiekn hsgesperms hrm ceramn k` mhgfhsgus dy h rmnugtke` nkvkske`. E` ikdmrhtke` , tfm hsgesperm ceras ah`yfhpiekn seahtkg gmiis dy vkjereus dunnk`j.



:6

]`kt KS

Ikcm Fkstery h`n Nksmhsm gygim ec Cu`jk

X8 Nmsgrkdm tfm ikcm ‗ gygim ec Ruggk`kh k` nmthki5

H`s Ikcm Gygim?

Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks ks h ahgregygikg fmtmremgkeus rust. ^fmrm hrm ckvm typms ecsperms vkz. urmnesperms, tmimutesperms dhsknkesperms, pyg`knkesperms h`nhmgkesperms k` kts ikcm gygim. ^fmsm sperms nmvmiep k` twe nkccmrm`t fests k` hnmck`ktm smqum`gm. ^fm smqum`gm ec vhrkeus sthjms eggurrk`j k` tfm prkahryh`n hitmr`htm fests hrm hs ceiiews?

]rmnesperm sthjm

^mimutesperm sthjm e` prkahry fest (^rktkgua hmstkvua)

Dhsknkesperm sthjm

Ryg`knkesperm sthjm

Hmgkesperm sthjm e` hitmr`htm fest (Dmrdmrks vuijhrks) .

H. Wthjms ec Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks e` Zfmht Rih`t?

(K) ]rmnesperm sthjm?-^fm nklhryetkg aygmikua ks prenugmn dy tfm jmrak`htke` ec hmgkesperms e`wfmht pih`ts. Kt m`tmrs tfreujf steahth h`n nmvmieps k` tfm k`tmrgmiiuihrsphgms k` tfm tkssums ec tfm imhc, stma h`n jiuams ec tfm fest. ^fm nklhryetkg

aygmikua , prmsm`t k` tfm sud ‗ mpknmrahi rmjke`, nmvmieps ah`y mrmgtfypfhm wfkgf jrew ht rkjft h`jims te tfm mpknmraks. H dkùgimhtmurmnesperm nmvmieps ht tfm tkp ec mhgf mrmgt fypfh. ^fmsm sperms nmvmiep k`jreups h`n tfmsm jreups hrm lèw` hs urmneserk. Zktf tfm cerahtke` ecurmnesperms , nksmhsm syapteas hppmhr k` tfm cera ec rmnnksf ‗ drew`pustuims er strmhls e` tfm stma, imhc h`n imhc dhsm . ^fmsm syapteas usuhiiy



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy :;

hppmhr k` ihtm sprk`j . ^fm fest mpknmraks dursts num te tfm prmssurm ecnmvmiepk`j urmneserk h`n tfus urmnesperms hrm ikdmrhtmn.^fm ahturm urmnesperm ks h sthilmn , u`kgmiiuihr , evhi h`n dkùgimhtmstrugturm. ^fm sperm whii ks tfkgl h`n ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te tfrmm ihymrs < tfmeutmr ihymr ks rmihtkvmiy tfkgl h`n spk`y, wfmrmhs tfm k``mr ihymr fhs ceurmquhterkhi tfk` hrmhs , ghiimn jmra perms.

^fm dkùgimhtm urmnesperm cu`gtke` hs h ge`knkua h`n kt fhs tfm ghphgkty tejmrak`htm kaamnkhtmiy hctmr kts cerahtke`. ]rmnesperms gh` rmk`cmgt wfmhtpih`ts h`n tfmy hrm mccmgtkvm k` tfm sprmhn ec tfm nksmhsm.Jmrak`htke` ec urmnesperms?

]`nmr chveurhdim ge`nktke`s , urmnesperms jmrak`htm hs see` hs tfmy geam k`ge`thgt wktf crmsf wfmht imhvms. Mhgf prenugms e`m er aerm jmra tudmstfreujf jmra perms. ^fm jmra tudm jrews evmr tfm surchgm ec tfm festmpknmraks h`n e` rmhgfk`j h steah tfm tkp ec tfm jmra tudm nmvmieps k`te h

vmskgim , ghiimn hpprmsserkua. Fypfhi drh`gfms nmvmiep crea tfmhpprmsserkua k` tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms. ^fks nklhryetkg aygmikua ceras h`mw aygmikua ec urmnesperms wfkgf k`cmgt fmhitfy pih`ts. ^fks rmsuits k`te hfmhvy dukin up ec k`cmgtke` e` wfmht grep.

(KK) ^mimutesperm sthjm?Ht tfm giesm ec tfm wfmht smhse` , tfm urmneserk hise sthrt prenugk`jtmimutesperms k` hnnktke` te urmnesperms, ^fm urmneserk hrm uitkahtmiyge`vmrtmn k`te tmimuteserk h`n prenugm tmimutesperms mxgiuskvmiy. ^mimuteserkhrm hise prenugmn k`nmpm`nm`tiy crea tfm aygmikua ceramn dy tfm ihtm

k`cmgtke` ec urmnesperms. ^fm tmimuteserk hppmhr hs dihgl rhksmn strmhls hie`jimhc sfmhtfs h`n stmas ec k`cmgtmn pih`ts. ^fm jreups ec dkùgimhtm gmiis wfkgfjkvm rksm te tmimutesperms hrm lèw` hs tmikh.

^fm tmimutesperm ks sthilmn , dk ‗gmiimn , spk`nim sfhpmn strugturm .ge`strkgtmn sikjftiy ht tfm smptua. ^fm whii ec tfm tmimutesperm ks tfkgl h`nsaeetf h`n tfm tkp ks usuhiiy pek`tmn er reu`n. Mhgf gmii ec tfm tmimutespermks dkùgimhtm h`n ks prevknmn wktf h jmra perm. ^fm jmra perm ks ht tfm hpmxk` tfm uppmr gmii, wfmrmhs kt ks oust dmiew tfm smptua k` tfm iewmr gmii.^mimutesperms hise mxmrt prmssurm e` tfm evmriyk`j mpknmraks. ^fm mpknmraksks tfus rupturmn h`n tfm sperms hrm mxpesmn. ^fm tmimutesperms hgt hs rmstk`jsperms h`n ahy survkvm aest u`chveurhdim ge`nktke`s. ^fmy hrm k`ghphdim ecrmk`cmgtk`j wfmht pih`ts . ^fmy ne èt jmrak`htm u`tki tfm `mxt sprk`j. ]`nmrchveurhdim ge`nktke`s ec fkjf htaespfmrkg fuaknkty h`n iew tmapmrhturm ,tfmy jmrak`htm k` seki hs è fest ks rmqukrmn cer tfmkr jmrak`htke`.

(KKK) Dhsknkesperm sthjm?

E` rmtur` ec chveurhdim ge`nktke`s k` sprk`j ,tfm tmimutesperm jmrak`htms. Ktprenugms e`m jmra tudm crea mhgf gmii. ^fm jmra tudm fhs ikaktmn jrewtf



62

h`n ks lèw` hs preaygmikua er mpkdhsknkua. ^fm nkpiekn ùgimus aevmsk`te tfm preaygmikua h`n nkvknms amketkghiiy te cera ceur fhpiekn ùgimk,twe ec (+) h`n twe ec (-) strhk`. ^fm preaygmikua nkvknms k`te ceur gmiis dytfm cerahtke` ec trh`svmrsm smpth. Mhgf gmii prenugms h sk`jim dhsknkespermwfkgf ks der`m hsyaamtrkghiiy e` h ck`m stmrkjah. ^fm ceur dhsknkesperms hrmtfus ceramn e` mhgf preaygmikua , twe ec (+) h`n twe ec (-) strhk`.

Dhsknkesperms hrm sahii, u`kgmiiuihr h`n tfk` whiimn strugturms, mhgf wktf hfhpiekn ùgimus . ^fmy hrm nksgfhrjmn dy h` mxpieskvm amgfh`ksa h`n hrm

nkssmak`htmn dy tfm wk`n. ^fmy gh` jmrak`htm eìy e` tfm imhvms ec hitmr`htmfest, dhrdmrry dusfms. Dhsknkesperms gh` survkvm eìy cer cmw nhys h`n tfmypmrksf k` tfm hdsm`gm ec hitmr`htm fest.

D. Wthjms ec Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks e` Dmrdmrks Rih`t?^fm fhpiepfhsm ec R. jrhak`ks eggurs e` Dmrdmrks pih`t. ^fks pfhsmdmjk`s wktf tfm cerahtke` ec dhsknkesperms.

(K) Ryg`knkesperm er spmraeje`kua sthjm?]`nmr chveurhdim ge`nktke`s dhsknkesperms jmrak`htm e` tfm imhvms ec

Dmrdmrks. Mhgf prenugms h jmra tudm wfkgf pm`mtrhtms tfreujf tfm imhcmpknmraks h`n jrews k`te tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms ec tfm fest tkssum. ^fmaeèlhryetkg aygmikua tfus ceramn ahy dm ec (+) er (-) strhk`, nmpm`nk`je` tfm strhk` ec tfm dhsknkesperm. ]suhiiy smvmrhi dhsknkesperms ec nkccmrm`tstrhk`s k`cmgt tfm sham imhc h`n prenugm aygmikh ec detf (+) h`n (-) strhk`s.Hctmr h cmw nhys ec k`cmgtke` tfm aygmikh dmgeam hjjrmjhtmn k`tepsmunephrm`gfyahteus ahssms dm`mhtf tfm imhc mpknmraks h`n cera




spmraeje`kh e` pyg`knkh. ^fm spmraeje`kh hrm ymiiewksf cihsl sfhpmnstrugturms, nmvmiepmn e` tfm uppmr surchgm ec tfm imhc. ^fmy ahy dm ec (+) er(-) strhk` , nmpm`nk`j e` tfm strhk` ec tfm aygmikua. ^fm spmraeje`kuaepm`s e` tfm uppmr surchgm ec tfm imhc dy h akùtm perm ghiimn estkeim. ^fmestkeim ks juhrnmn dy h tuct ec u`drh`gfmn , thpmrk`j , erh`jm ‗ geieurmnstmrkim fhkrs, lèw` hs pmrkpfysms. Hae`jst tfm pmrkpfysms tfk` ‗ whiimndrh`gfmn cimxueus fypfhm (rmgmptkvm fypfhm) hrm hise prmsm`t h`n tfmsmfypfhm preomgt augf dmye`n tfm pmrkpfysms. ^fm whii ec tfm spmraeje`kuaks ik`mn k`tmr`hiiy wktf h phikshnm ‗ iklm ihymr ec ùamreus , u`kùgimhtmthpmrk`j gmiis , lèw` hs spmrahtkepferms (pyg`kepferms). Mhgf spmrahtkepferms hdstrkgts ah`y sahii , u`kùgimhtm spmrahtkh (pyg`kesperms) . Wpmrahtkh eezm eut tfreujf tfm estkeim h`n hrm fmin dy tfmpmrkpfysms k` stkgly nrep ec ikqukn. ^fm spmrahtkh hrm sahii, evhi te spfmrkghih`n saeetf sperms. ^fmy ahy dm ec (+) er (-) strhk`.

Zfm` sperms hrm rmimhsmn , tfm spmraeje`kua smgrmtms `mgthr nreps wfkgfhttrhgt k`smgts. ^fm sperms ec e`m strhk` hrm trh`scmrrmn te tfm cimxueus fypfhmec tfm eppesktm strhk` dy k`smgts. ^fks pregmss ks lèw` hs spmrahtkzhtke`.

Nurk`j tfm geursm ec spmraeje`khi cerahtke` , seam fypfhm ec mhgf ahtk`jtypm cera pretehmgknkh e` rmhgfk`j tfm iewmr surchgm ec tfm imhc. ^fmpretehmgknkh hppmhr hs jiedesm ahss ec fypfhm. ^fmy ne èt jrew curtfmr kctfmrm ks è spmrahtkzhtke` , dut kc tfmrm ks spmrahtkzhtke`, tfm pretehmgknkuanmvmieps k`te h` hmgknkua.

(KK) Hmgkesperm sthjm?

Hmgknkh hrm gup sfhpmn strugturms ceramn e` tfm iewmr surchgm ec tfmdhrdmrry imhc. ^fmy nmvmiep crea tfm sham aygmikua wfkgf cera pyg`knkh e`tfm uppmr surchgm. ^fm aygmikua dmgeams nklhryetkg num te spmrahtkzhtke`h`n tfks nklhryetkg aygmikua ceras tfm reec ec tfm pretehmgknkua. ^fm gmiisec tfm pretehmgknkua hrm lèw` hs hmgknkepferms. Mhgf hmgknkepferm guts eccùamreus dkùgimhtm gmiis wfkgf hrm hrrh`jmn k` h gfhk`. ^fmsm gfhk`s hrmahnm up ec ie`j h`n sfert gmiis hrrh`jmn hitmr`htmiy. ^fm ie`j gmiis ahturmk`te hmgkesperms , wfmrmhs sfert gmiis , lèw` hs nksou`gter

, rmahk` stmrkim h`n see` nksk`tmjrhtm. Wkauith`meusiy wktf tfm cerahtke` echmgkesperms , tfm pmrkpfmrhi gmiis ec hmgknkua nkvknm te cera h tfkgl pretmgtkvm

gevmrk`j , lèw` hs pmrknkua.^fm nmvmiepam`t ec hmgkesperm gfhk`s k`sknm tfm hmgknkua mxmrts h prmssurme` tfm pmrknkua, Hs h rmsuit kt dursts tewhrns tfm mpknmraks. Ht hdeut tfmsham tkam , nksou`gter gmiis prmsm`t k` dmtwmm` hmgkesperms nksk`tmjrhtm h`ntfus hmgkesperms hrm rmimhsmn.Hmgkesperms hrm u`kgmiiuihr , dkùgimhtm , tfk` whiimn h`n erh`jm geieurmnstrugturms. K` yeu`j sthjms , hmgkesperms hrm peiyfmnrhi dut ht ahturkty tfmy



64

dmgeam jiedesm dy hdserdk`j whtmr. ^fm hmgkesperms hrm k`ghphdim eck`cmgtk`j dhrdmrry pih`ts , dut tfmy gh` k`cmgt wfmht pih`ts.^fmy hrm nkspmrsmn dy wk`n . ^fmy jmrak`htm e` tfm surchgm ec tfm prkahryfest dy prenugk`j jmra tudms. ^fm jmra tudm pm`mtrhtms steah h`n jrew k`tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms ec tfm fest tkssum h`n ceras nklhryetkg aygmikua. ^fmnklhryetkg aygmikua sthrts prenugk`j urmnesperms wktfk` 82 ‗ 84 nhys.






6>

]`kt S

X8 Nmsgrkdm k` nmthki tfm ikcm fkstery ec h saut cu`jus5

H`s ^fm jmùs ]stkihje k`giunms aerm tfh` 722 spmgkms, geaaeìy lèw` hssaut cu`jk. ^fm rmprenugtke` thlms pihgm dy tfm cerahtke` ecgfihaynesperms h`n dhsknkesperms.

8 Cerahtke` ec Gfihaynesperms?Gfihaynesperms hrm ceramn e` nklhryetkg aygmikua. Nurk`j tfm diesseapmrken ec tfm fest , tfm aygmikua dmgeams aerm hgtkvm h`n k`cmgts tfmmadrye`kg spklmimts e` rmhgfk`j tfm k`ciermsgm`gm rmjke`. ^fm aygmikua tfm`hjjrmjhtms k` tfm yeu`j evhrkms h`n ceras nm`sm ahssms ec fypfhm. ^fmsmfypfhm, lèw` hs sperejmèus fypfhm , nkvknm k`te nklhryetkg gmiis. Mhgfnklhryetkg gmii ceras h dkùgimhtm gfihaynesperms. ^fmsm dkùgimhtmgfihaynesperms hrm hise lèw` hs tmimutesperms, drh`n sperms er saut

sperms h`n tfm sperm ahss , saut dhii er serus.

Hii spmgkms ec ]stkihje sfew tfm sham aenm ec Gfihaynesperm cerahtke` dutk` ieesm sauts tfm sperejmèus fypfhm jrew k` dmtwmm` tfm h`tkgik`hi whiisec tfm mpknmraks ec tfm k`cmgtmn erjh` h`n hs sugf tfm mpknmraks ks nmstreymn.

Wtrugturm ec Gfihaynesperms?

^fm gfihaynesperms hrm jiedesm er miikptkghi , ikjft drew`. ^fm sperm whii ksnkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h` eutmr tfkgl mxk`m h`n h` k``mr tfk` k`tk`m. ^fm mxk`m

ahy dm saeetf (]. fernmk ) er er`ham`tmn (]. ahynks). ^fm gfihaynespermshrm dkùgimhtm hs tfmy hrm ceramn e` nklhryetkg smge`nhry aygmikua. ^fmgfihaynesperms hrm dkùgimhtm hs tfmy hrm ceramn e` nklhryetkg smge`nhry

aygmikua.7 Jmrak`htke` ec Gfihaynesperms h`n nmvmiepam`t ec dhsknkua.?

^fm gfihaynesperms hrm rmhnkiy nkssmak`htmn dy wk`n. ^fmy rmahk` vkhdimup te = er 3 ae`tfs. ^fm ahturm sperms ec ]. ùnh vhr. trktkgk jmrak`htm see`hctmr nkssmak`htke` h`n k`cmgt tfm fmhitfy pih`ts. Dut k` aest ec tfm spmgkms ec




]stkihje, tfm gfihaynesperms u`nmrje h pmrken ec rmst h`n tfmy jmrak`htm k`tfm `mxt smhse` kc ge`nktke`s hrm chveurhdim.

Dmcerm jmrak`htke` , tfm twe ùgimk ec tfm dkùgimhtm gfihaynesperm cusm te

cera h nkpiekn ùgimus. Nurk`j jmrak`htke` , tfm sperm swmiis dy hdserdk`jwhtmr , tfm mxk`m dursts h`n tfm k`tk`m geams eut k` tfm cera ec h jmra tudm. ,lèw` hs preaygmikua er dhsknkua. Ht tfks sthjm , tfm nkpiekn ùgimus ec tfmgfihaynesperm u`nmrjems h rmnugtke` nkvkske` h`n ceras ceur fhpieknùgimk, twe ec + strhk` h`n twe ec ‗ strhk`. Hctmr rmnugtke` nkvkske` , tfmdhsknkua dmgeams > ‗ gmiimn dy tfm cerahtke` ec smpth. Mhgf gmii ec tfmdhsknkua fhs h sk`jim fhpiekn ùgimus. ^fm ihttmr nkvknms te cera twenhujftmr ùgimk, e`m ec tfmsm ùgimk rmahk`s k` tfm jmra gmii ( k.m. k` tfmdhsknkhi gmii) h`n tfm etfmr phssms k`te tfm dhsknkesperms tfreujf stmrkjahth.Ec tfm ceur dhsknkesperms ceramn k` h dhsknkua , twe hrm ec ‖+‛strhk` h`n twe

ec - strhk`. ^fm rmahk`k`j ùgimus k` tfm jmra gmii ahy u`nmrje rmpmhtmnnkvkske`s h`n hs sugf mhgf gmii ec tfm dhsknkua ahy cera ùamreusdhsknkesperms. ( sperknkh) . ^fm dhsknkesperms hrm tfk` whiimn , u`kùgimhtmh`n jiedesm er evhi strugturms h`n ahy hise auitkpiy dy dunnk`j.



63

Jmrak`htke` ec dhsknkesperms?

^fm fhpiekn dhsknkesperms jmrak`htm te cera aeèlhryetkg aygmikua . ^fksaygmikua ahy dm ec (+) er (-) strhk`, nmpm`nk`j e` tfm strhk` ec tfm sperm.

Wpmgkms ec ]stkihje sfew nkccmrm`t aenms ec k`cmgtke` . K` gevmrmn sauts , tfmgfihaynesperms hrm usuhiiy prmsm`t k`sknm tfm jrhk` h`n wfm` sugf smmns hrmsew`, tfm aygmikua ks ceramn k`sknm tfm fest tkssum dy tfm jmrak`htke` ecsperms. Wugf aenm ec k`cmgtke` ks lèw` hs smmnik`j k`cmgtke`. K` ieesm sauts, tfm k`cmgtke` eggurs ht tfm ciewmrk`j tkam, wfm` tfm aygmikua m`tmrs tfmyeu`j tkssums ht tfm dhsm ec tfm evhry. Wmge`nhry k`cmgtke` eggurs dygfihaynesperms, diew` hwhy dy tfm wk`n. ^fks aenm ec k`cmgtke` ks lèw`hs diessea k`cmgtke`.

X4 Nmsgrkdm tfm aerpfeiejy h`n rmprenugtke` k` Hitmr`hrkh. @ham seamkaperth`t nksmhsms ghusmn dy kt.

H`s ^fm cera ‗ spmgkms ec Hitmr`hrkh hrm shprepfytms er phrhsktms h`n hrmnkstrkdutmn tfreujfeut tfm werin. ^fm shprepfytkg spmgkms jrew e` tfm nmhnerjh`kg ahtmrkhi h`n fmip k` kts nksk`tmjrhtke`., wfmrmhs tfm phrhsktkg spmgkmsghusm smvmrhi nksmhsms k` pih`ts.

Smjmthtkvm strugturm?

^fm precusmiy drh`gfmn h`n smpthtm aygmikua ks ikjft drew` k` geieur. ^fm

gmiis hrm auitkùgimhtm bK` tfm mhriy sthjm ec k`cmgtke` , tfm fypfhm ec tfmphrhsktkg spmgkms hrm k`tmrgmiiuihr dut ihtmr e` tfmy dmgeam k`trhgmiiuihr.

Tmprenugtke`?

Wmxuhi sthjms hrm èt lèw` k` Hitmr`hrkh h`n tfm hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` thlmspihgm dy mxejmèusiy ceramn ge`knkh. ^fm ge`knkh hrm prenugmn sk`jiy er k`gfhk`s ht tfm tkps ec tfm drh`gfmn er u`drh`gfmn ge`knkepferms. ^fmge`knkepferms hrm u`nkccmrm`tkhtmn h`n mamrjm tfreujf tfm steahth ec tfmk`cmgtmn imhc.

^fm nhrl geieurmn ge`knkh hrm auitkgmiiuihr h`n edgihvhtm , edevekn eraurkcera k` sfhpm . ^fmy hrm detf trh`svmrsmiy h`n ie`jktunk`hiiy smpthtm.^fmrm hrm hdeut =- 82 smpth k` mhgf ge`knkua, h`n tfm ùadmr ec smpth ksnmpm`nm`t e` m`vkreàm`thi ge`nktke`s. ^fm ge`knkua amhsurm 72 a- 872ιak` im`jtf h`n 84 -72ιa k` drmhntf. Kt ks surreu`nmn dy h twe ihymrmn whii ,wfmrm tfm eutmr ihymr ks pkjam`tmn.




Jmrak`htke` ec ge`knkh?

^fm ge`knkh hrm rmhnkiy nkssmak`htmn dy wk`n. E` dmk`j nmthgfmn crea tfmge`knkepferm, tfmy jmrak`htm e` h sukthdim sudstrhtua . Fuakn ge`nktke`s

chveur tfmkr jmrak`htke`. ^fm ge`knkua prenugms =- 82 jmra tudms . usuhiiye`m crea mhgf smjam`t. ^fm jmra tudms m`tmr tfreujf tfm steahth ec tfm festimhc h`n see` nmvmiep k`te `mw aygmikh wktfk` tfm k`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms.

Wyapteas?

^fm nksmhsm syapteas hppmhr wfm` tfm pih`ts hrm 7- > wmmls ein. ^fm mhriysyapteas hrm k` tfm cera ec sahii , ymiiewksf drew` spets e` tfm imhvmswfkgf mìhrjm te crea ge`gm`trkg rk`js. ^fmsm hrm lèw` hs thrjmt dehrnsyapteas. ^fm pfetesy`tfmtkg hrmh h`n mvm`tuhiiy tfm imhc nrkms h`n chiis ecc.K` smvmrm k`cmgtke` , m`tkrm ihak`h , pmtkeim h`n stma ks dhniy nhahjmn.

Hitmr`hrkh seih`k mvm` k`cmgts tfm tudmrs h`n tfm pethte puip tur`s drew` h`ndmgeams gerly k` tmxturm.

Weam kaperth`t phtfejm`kg spmgkms ec Hitmr`hrkh hrm hs ceiiews?

(8) H. seih`k ghusms mhriy dikjft ec pethte h`n ec etfmr seih`hgmeus pih`ts.(4) H .guguahrk`h k`cmgts tfm amadmrs ec tfm chakiy Gugurdkthgmhm iklm

whtmr amie` , guguadmr h`n jeurn.(7) H. tmùks ghusms dihgl pek`t nksmhsm k` wfmht.

X7 Nksguss tfm hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi rmprenugtke` ec Hjhrkgus k` nmthki

H`s Hjhrkgus rmprenugms dy vmjmthtkvm, hsmxuhi h`n smxuhi amh`s.

(K) Smjmthtkvm rmprenugtke`?^fm mnkdim ausfreeas hrm prephjhtmn dy vmjmthtkvm amh`s. Wahii pkmgms ecnklhryetkg aygmikua hrm usmn hs kèguiua. ^fm pkmgms hrm jrew` k` seki rkgfk` erjh`kg ahùrm te edthk` dhsknkeghrps.

(KK) Hsmxuhi rmprenugtke`?Kt ks èt h geaae` amtfen ec prephjhtke` k` Hjhrkgus. Kt thlms pihgm dy

gfihaynesperms cerahtke`. ^fm gfihaynesperms nmvmiep k` tmrak`hi erk`tmrghihry pesktke`s e` tfm smge`nhry aygmikua. ^fmy jmrak`htm te prenugmnklhryetkg aygmikua.K` seam spmgkms eknkh hrm hise ceramn , dut tfmsm hrm k`veivmn ahkìy k`nklhryetkshtke` rhtfmr tfh` nmvmiepk`j nkrmgtiy k`te `mw aygmikh.

(KKK) Wmxuhi rmprenugtke`?



66

Aest spmgkms ec Hjhrkgus hrm fmtmretfhiikg ( H. dksperus ks feaetfhiikg) , duttfmy ne èt fhvm smx erjh`s k` trhnktke`hi sm`sm. Rrkahry aygmikh ceramn dytfm jmrak`htke` ec dhsknkesperms ec twe nkccmrm`t strhk`s hgt hs ahim h`ncmahim smx erjh`s.

^fmrm ks seahtejhay dmtwmm` tfm seahtkg fypfhm ec eppesktm strhk`s h`ntfks rmsuits k` nkpieknkzhtke` h`n cerahtke` ec tfm smge`nhry aygmikua. ^fmsmge`nhry aygmikua ihtmr nmvmieps cruktk`j denkms , lèw` hs dhsknkeghrps.Weahtejhay dmtwmm` twe prkahry fypfh ec eppesktm strhk`s thlms pihgmtfreujf tfm ceiiewk`j stmps?

( h) Rihsaejhay?

K` tfks stmp . twe prkahry aeèlhryetkg fypfhm ec eppesktm strhk`s geam k`ge`thgt wktf mhgf etfmr. Ht tfm pek`t ec tfmkr ge`thgt , tfm gmii whiis hrmnksseivmn h`n h nklhrye` ks ceramn. H nklhryetkg aygmikua nmvmieps dy

suggmsskvm nkvkske`s ec tfm nklhryetkg gmii. Ht tfm tkam ec tfm nkvkske` ecnklhryetkg gmii, detf ùgimk ec tfm nklhrye` nkvknm sy`gfreèusiy h`n ceraceur fhpiekn nhujftmr ùgimk , twe ec (-) h`n twe ec (+) strhk`. Eut ec tfmsm ,twe ùgimk (e`m ec (+) h`n e`m ec (-) strhk` ) hrm trh`scmrrmn te tfm nhujftmrgmii dy tfm cerahtke` ec gihap ge``mgtke`.^fm nklhryetkg aygmikua ks pmrm``khi h`n sudtmrrh`mh` . Kt prenugmsdhsknkeghrps u`nmr chveurhdim ge`nktke`s .

(d) Lhryejhay?

K` tfks stmp , detf ùgimk ec h nklhrye` cusm te cera h nkpiekn ùgimus.Lhryejhay thlms pihgm k` yeu`j dhsknkua.

( g) Amkesks? Wee` hctmr lhryejhay , amkesks thlms pihgm k` tfm dhsknkua. ^fmdhsknkesperms tfus ceramn k` tfm dhsknkua , hrm fhpiekn .

8. Nmvmiepam`t ec dhsknkeghrp?^fm sudtmrrh`mh` smge`nhry aygmikua thlms ùtrkm`ts crea tfm seki h`n tfm`ceras tfm cruktk`j deny er dhsknkeghrp. Dhsknkeghrps nmvmiep hs sahii wfktmlèt iklm strugturms ht tfm tkps ec tfm u`nmrjreu`n fypfhm. ^fmsm fypfhi

lèts mìhrjm jrhnuhiiy h`n jkvm rksm te dutte` sthjm. Ht tfks sthjm , tfmnmvmiepk`j dhsknkeghrp ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h dhshi duideus phrt h`n h`hpkghi fmakspfmrkghi rmjke` . ^fm dhshi duideus phrt ceras tfm stkpm, h`n tfmhpkghi fmakspfmrkghi phrt, pkimus . Weam fypfhm ht tfm ou`gtke` ec tfm stkpmh`n pkimus hrm nrhw` hphrt h`n cera h rk`j iklm gfhadmr , ghiimn prm-

ihamiihr gfhadmr. ^fm k``mr surchgm ec tfm reec ec tfm prm ‗ ihamiihr gfhadmrdmgeams nmmpiy ge`ghvm h`n kt ks ik`mn wktf hitmr`htk`j rhnkhi dh`ns ec siewh`n rhpkniy nkvknk`j gmiis. ^fm ihttmr cera jkii prkaernkh, wfkgf nmvmiep k`te




jkii ihamiihm tfht fh`j new`whrn k`te tfm prmihamiihr gfhadmr. Hs pkimusmxph`ns , tfmrm ks h` k`grmhsm k` rhnkhi k`tmrsphgms dmtwmm` tfm jkiis. Hamadrh`m ,ghiimn vmiua er k``mr vmki ge``mgts tfm ahrjk` ec tfm pkimus wktftfm stkpm.Num te tfm mie`jhtke` ec sthil, tfm dutte`s hrm rhksmn e` tfm seki surchgm. ^fmuppmr fmakspfmrkghi rmjke` ec tfm dutte` jrews aerm rhpkniy tfh` tfm sthil.^fks ghusms rupturm ec tfm vmiua h`n tfm uppmr fmakspfmrkghi rmjke` ck`hiiymxph`ns eut hs h` epm` uadrmiih ‗ iklm strugturm wktf ùamreus jkiishtthgfmn te kts iewmr surchgm. ^fm jkiis hrm mxpesmn dy tfm rupturm ec tfmvmiua. Ht tfks sthjm , rma`h`ts ec tfm vmiua hrm stkii htthgfmn te tfm stkpm k`tfm cera ec h rk`j , ghiimn h`ùius.

K` nry smhse` , wfm` seki ks fhrn , dutte`s ne èt jrew h`n rmahkù`nmrjreu`n. K` rhk`y smhse`, wfm` seki ks aekst , tfmy jrew rhpkniy h`ngeam eut ec tfm seki surchgm. Fm`gm, ah`y dhsknkeghrps gh` dm smm` k` rhk`y

smhse` e` tfm seki surchgm.

4 . Wtrugturm ec ahturm dhsknkeghrp?^fm ahturm dhsknkeghrp ks h` uadrmiih ‗ sfhpmn strugturm wktf h ie`jahsskvm stkpm h`n h drehn pkimus. ^fm stkpm ks h tfkgl , cimsfy h`n gyik`nrkghistrugturm , ikjft pk`l er wfktm k` geieur . H` uadrmiih iklm pkimus , =-84 ga k`nkhamtmr , ks prmsm`t ht tfm nksthi m`n ec tfm stkpm. ^fm uppmr ge`vmx surchgm ectfm pkimus ks wfktm, ikjft drew` er ymiiew k` geieur. Hdeut 722- 322 rhnkhiiyhrrh`jmn jkiis fh`j new` crea tfm k``mr surchgm ec tfm pkimus. Hii jkiis hrm ètec tfm sham im`jtf < tfmy ahy dm ec cuii, fhic er quhrtmr im`jtf. ^fm surchgm ec

tfm jkii ks m`vmiepmn dy h cmrtkim ihymr , tfm fyam`kua. ^fm jkiis hrm ec ikjftpk`l geieur wfm` yeu`j , dut tfmy tur` drew` er purpiksf dihgl ht ahturkty.



;2



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;8

7 K`tmr`hi strugturm ec dhsknkeghrp?

^fm dhsknkeghrp ks ahnm up ec psmunephrm`gfyahteus ahss ec fypfhm.(h) K`tmr`hi strugturm ec stkpm?^fm stkpm ks geapesmn ec ùamreus ie`jktunk`hiiy k`tmrtwk`mn fypfhm. ^fmfypfhm hrm geaphgtiy hrrh`jmn h`n cera h psmunephrm`gfyahteus tkssum k`tfm pmrkpfmrhi rmjke` , wfmrmhs tfmy hrm ieesmiy hrrh`jmn wktf ihrjmk`tmrgmiiuihr sphgms, k` tfm gm`trhi rmjke`. ^fm pmrkpfmrhi rmjke` ec tfm stkpm kslèw` hs gertmx h`n tfm gm`trhi rmjke` ks amnuiih.

(d) K`tmr`hi strugturm ec Rkimus?

^fm k`tmr`hi strugturm ec tfm pkimus ks skakihr te tfht ec tfm stkpm. ^fm pkimus kshise nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te h` eutmr gertmx h`n h gm`trhi amnuiih. ^fm fypfhm ectfm stkpm rmjke` mxtm`n k` tfm nksthi m`n te cera pkimus.

( g) K`tmr`hi strugturm ec tfm jkiis?^fm k`tmr`hi strugturm ec tfm jkiis ks geapimx h`n tfm ceiiewk`j tfrmm rmjke`shrm nksgmr`kdim?



;4

(k) ^rhah? ^fks ks tfm gm`trhi stmrkim rmjke` ec tfm jkii. Kt ge`sksts ec ah`y ieesmiyhrrh`jmn k`tmrwevm` fypfhm.

(kk)Wud ‗fyam`kua? ( Fypetfmgkua) .^fks rmjke` ks sktuhtmn e` detf sknms ec tfm trhah. Kt ks ceramn dy tfm ihtmrhidrh`gfms ec tfm fypfhm ec trhah rmjke`. ^fm gmiis ec tfmsm fypfhi drh`gfmshrm ksenkhamtrkg h`n 4-7 ùgimhtm. ^fks ks hise h stmrkim ze`m iklm trhah.

(kkk) Fyam`kua?

^fks ks tfm eutmraest ihymr ec tfm jkii. Kt ks cmrtkim h`n geapesmn ec tfmsudfyam`kua rmjke`. K` tfks rmjke` , tfm gmiis hrm hrrh`jmn k` phikshnm- iklmihymr . ^fmsm hsmpthtm cmrtkim gmiis hrm lèw` hs dhsknkh. Giud ‗sfhpmn stmrkimphrhpfysks eggur k` dmtwmm` tfm cmrtkim gmiis.

^fm yeu`j dhsknkua ks h nklhrye` h`n hs tfm dhsknkua ahturms tfm tweùgimk cusm te cera h nkpiekn ùgimus. ^fks nkpiepfhsm ks mpfmamrhi h`n hctmrlhryejhay tfm nkpiekn ùgimus nkvknms amketkghiiy te cera ceur fhpieknùgimk. Ec tfmsm ceur ùgimk , twe hrm ec (+) strhk` h`n twe ec (-) strhk`. Ht tfmnksthi m`n ec tfm dhsknkua , ceur pmj iklm eutjrewtfs hrm ceramn. ^fmsmeutjrewtfs hrm lèw` hs stmrkjahth. ^fm stmrkjahth swmii ht tfmkr tkps h`nmhgf ceras h sk`jim dhsknkesperm. ^fus, ceur aeèlhryetkg fhpiekndhsknkesperms hrm ceramn k` h dhsknkua. ^fm yeu`j dhsknkesperm ksu`pkjam`tmn dut kt nmvmieps drew` er dihgl pkjam`ts ht ahturkty.

(>) Nkspmrshi h`n jmrak`htke` ec dhsknkesperms?Hs tfm dhsknkesperm ahturms , h nrep ec ikqukn hppmhrs ht tfm fkihr hppm`nkgs

wfkgf rmahk`s surreu`nmn dy h ikaktk`j amadrh`m . ^fm dhsknkesperm ikms oust hdevm tfks nrep. ^fm nrep k`grmhsms k` skzm jrhnuhiiy h`n htthk`s skzm echdeut e`m -ckctf ec tfm sperm. ^fm` tfm dhsknkesperm ks sunnmìy sfet hwhycrea tfm stmrkjah. ^fm ceur dhsknkesperms ec h dhsknkua hrm nkspmrsmn k`rhpkn suggmsske`.Zfm` tfm dhsknkesperm chiis e` h sukthdim sudstrhtua , kt jmrak`htms dyprenugk`j h jmra tudm tfht jrews k`te h prkahry aeèlhryetkg aygmikua.Nmpm`nk`j e` tfm strhk` ec tfm dhsknkesperm , tfm aygmikua ahy dm ec (+) er (-

) strhk`.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;7

Auitkpim Gfekgm Xumstke`Dhgtmrkh

8 Wurchgm hppm`nhjms usmn dy Dhgtmrkh te htthgl te e`m hètfmr h`n tefest erjh`ksa hrm ghiimn?

(h) Rkik (d) Wpkrkiih( g) amseseams (n) tfyihlekns

4 Geaphrmn te Jrha ‖-vm‛ dhgtmrkh , Jrha ‖+vm‛ dhgtmrkh

(h) Fhvm imss Rmptknejiygh`(d) rmthk` tfm grysthi vkeimt nym( g) fhvm aerm geapimx gmii whiis(n) hrm aerm rmsksth`t te h`tkdketkgs

7 H crmm ikvk`j Dhgtmrkua ghphdim ec ckxk`j `ktrejm` ks?(h) Tfkzedkua (d) Hzetedhgtmr( g) Rsmuneae`hs (n) Wtrmptegeggus

> Zfm` dhgtmrkh hrm ren sfhpmn , tfmy hrm ghiimn(h) Geggk (d) dhgkiik

( g) spkrkih (n) Skdrke

= ; + 8 ckdrkiihr hrrh`jmam`t ks prmsm`t k`?( h) mulhryetkg cihjmiih ( d) dhgtmrkhi ckadrkhm( g) dhgtmrkhi cihjmiih (n) ^> dhgtmrkepfhjm

3 Dhgtmrkua tfht aust fhvm erjh`kg aeimguims detf cer m`mrjy h`n hs hseurgm ec ghrde` ks ghiimn ?(h) Gfmaefmtmretrepfs (d) gfmaehutetrepfs( g) pfetefmtmretrepfs (n) pfetehutetrepfs

: Dhgtmrkh ihgl ?( h) Gytepihsa (d) N@H( g) gmii amadrh`m (n) m`nepihsakg rmtkguiua



;>

6 Jm`mtkg mimam`t k` dhgtmrkh tfht gh` rmpikghtm k` tfm gytepihsa er gh`k`tmjrhtm k`te tfm dhgtmrkhi gfreaeseam h`n rmpikghtm wktf tfm festgfreaeseam ks?(h) Tmtrevkrus ( d) pihsakn(g ) mpkseam (n) pihsteam

; Dhgtmrkua tfht ghusms ‖detuiksa‛ dmie`js te tfm jmùs?( h) Giestrknkua (d) Rsmuneae`hs( g) Dhgkiius (n) Wthpfyiegeggus

82 Zfm` N@H ks mxgfh`jmn , vkh gytepihsakg drknjms , dmtwmm` twedhgtmrkh , tfm pregmss ks ghiimn?( h) jm`mrhi trh`snugtke` (d) geòujhtke`(g) trh`scerahtke` (n) rmstrkgtmn trh`snugtke`

88 Dhgtmrkh wmrm ckrst nksgevmrmn dy?( h) Tedmrt Legf (d) H.S. Immuwm`feml( g) @.N. _k`nmr (n) Tedmrt Feelm

84 Dhgtmrkh tfht fhvm h tuct ec cihjmiih ht e`m m`n hrm ghiimn?( h) aeètrkgfeus (d) iepfetrkgfeus( g) hapfktrkgfeus ( n) pmrktrkgfeus

87 Dhgtmrkh wfkgf k` hssegkhtke` wktf imjuam reets , ckx htaespfmrkg`ktrejm` hrm ghiimn?( h) Hzetedhgtmr (d) Tfkzedkua( g) Rsmuneae`hs (n) M.geik

8> Dhgtmrkh tfesm jmt tfmkr m`mrjy dy cmram`thtke` h`n exyjm` ks imtfhi certfma hrm ghiimn?( h) edikjhtm hmredms (d) chguithtkvm hmredms( g) edikjhtm h`hmred ( n) chguithtkvm h`hmredms

8= Wahii, gkrguihr , smic ‗ rmpikghtk`j N@H ceu`n k` M.geik?( h) Gfreaeseams (d) Rihstkns(g) pihsakns (n) Tkdeseams

83 Zfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j ks èt h prelhryetm5( h) Dhgtmrkua d) Haemdh( g) Dium jrmm` hijhm (n) Hrgfhmdhgtmrkh



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;=

8: Wgkm`tkst wfe cer tfm ckrst tkam nmae`strhtmn tfm prk`gkpim eckaau`kzhtke`5( h) Ieuks Rhstmur ( d) Mnwhrn Om``mr( g) Oef` ^y`nhii ( n) Tedmrt Legf

86 @ham ec tfm sgkm`tkst wfe edsmrvmn akgre ‗ erjh`ksas cer tfm ckrsttkam ?( h) Jrkccktf ( d) H.S. Immuwm`feml( g) Ihzhre Wphiih`zh`k ( n) Tedmrt Feelm

8; @4 ckxk`j dhgtmrkh k` seki wmrm nksgevmrmn dy?( h) Oef` @mmnfha ( d) W.@. Zkèjrhnsly( g) Zhnnk`jte` (n) Zhitmr Tmmn

42 Zfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j dhgtmrkh exknkzms cmrreus geapeu`ns k`tecmrrkg e`ms5( h) Tfkzedkua (d) Ihgtedhgkiius( g) Rsmucerae`hs (n ) Imptetfrkx egfrhghm

48 Zfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j dhgtmrkh exknkzms aeimguihr fynrejm` k`tewhtmr k` seki5( h) Rm`kgkiikua èthtua ( d) Dhgkiius pm`tetrepfus( g) Tfkzedkua ènuikcerams (n ) è`m ec tfmsm

44 Jrewtf k` dhgtmrkh rmcimgts?( h) Jrewtf k` ùadmr ( d) Jrewtf k` wmkjft( g) Jrewtf k` veiuam ( n) Gfh`jms k` sfhpm h`n skzm

47 Wpfmrkghi dhgtmrkh hrrh`jmn k` h jrhpm du`gf ah``mr ?( h) Wpkrkiiua (d) Gegk( d) Dhgkiik ( n) Wthpfyiegeggk

4> K` seam dhgtmrkh , ghpsuim surreu`nk`j tfm gmii whii ks ahnm up ec ?

( h) Gmiiuiesm ( d) Reiyshggfhrknms( g) Reiypmptknm (n) ^mkgfekg hgkns

4= Zfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j pregmssms nems èt rmsuit k` rmgeadk`htke`5( h) Geòujhtke` ( d) ^rh`scerahtke`( g) ^rh`snugtke` ( n) ^rh`sihtke`



;3

43 Dhgtmrkh tfht rmqukrm mimvhtmn tmapmrhturm ( hdevm ==¿G) cer jrewtfhrm ghiimn?( h) psygfrepfkims (d) tfmraepfkims( g) fhiepfkims ( n) amsepfkims

4: ^fmraepkims jrew k` ge`nktke`s ec fkjf ?( h) ^mapmrhturm (d) Whit( g) GE4 (n) Ceen

H`swmrs? X8( h) X4( d) X7 (d) > (d) X= (d) X3 (h) X: ( n) X 6 ( d) X; (h) X82

( d) X 88 ( d) X 84 (d) X87 ( d) X 8> ( g) X8= (g) X83 (d) X8: (h) X86(d) X8;(h) X42 ( n) X48 ( d) X44 ( h) X47( g) X4> (d) 4= (n) X 43 (d) X4: (h)

Ruggk`kh

8. K` Ruggk`kh wfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j ks ihglk`j ?(h) Neikperm (d) mpkdhsknkua( g) Ryg`knkesperm ( n) nklhryepfhsm

4 Drew` rust ec wfmht ks ghusmn dy ?( h) R. rmge`nkth (d) R. jrhak`ks( g) R. strkkceraks (n) R. fernmk

7 ^fm hitmr`htm fest ec Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks ks ?( h) Dmrdmrks vuijhrks (d) Ahkzm( g) wfmht (n) ^fhikgtrua

> [miiew rust ec wfmht ks ghusmn dy ?(h) Ruggk`kh strkkceraks (d)Ruggk`kh rmge`nkth

( g) Ruggk`kh gere`hth (n) R . jrhak`ks

= ^fm prkahry fest ec Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks ks( h) wfmht (d) Dmrdmrks vuijhrks( g) Ahkzm (n) h & d detf

3 @ham h` hutemgkeus& fmtmremgkeus rust cu`jus.



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;:

( h) Ruggk`kh (d) Hiduje( g) Hitmr`hrkh (n) ]stkihje

: Dihgl rust ec wfmht ks ghusmn dy ?( h) Ruggk`kh jrhak`ks (d) Ruggk`kh fernmk( g) Ruggk`kh strkkceraks (n) R. rmge`nkth

6 Nurk`j wfkgf pregmss nems tfm nklhryetkshtke` ec tfm fypfhm k`Ruggk`kh thlms pihgm 5( h) spmrahtkzhtke` ( d) Weahtejhay( g) Eejhay (n) Rihsaejhay

; @ham tfm aest pepuihr jreup ec nksmhsms ghusmn dy ]rmnk`hims ecDhsknkeaygmtms5

( h) rust (d) saut( g) rmn ret ec sujhrgh`m (n) Mrjet ec rym

H`swmrs ? X8 ( h) X4 ( h) X7 ( h) X>( h) X=( h) X3 ( h) X: ( h) X6 ( h) X; (h)

Rmzkzh

8 Fyam`kua k` Rmzkzh ks geapesmn ec?(h) Eìy hsgus (d) eìy phrhpfysms(g ) hsgus h`n phrhpfysms (n) stmrkim fypfhm.

4 Rmzkzh ks geaaeìy ghiimn hs ?( h) gup cu`jk (d) spe`jm ausfreea( g) saut cu`jk (n ) lulhrautth

7 ^fm cruktk`j deny ec Rmzkzh ks ghiimn hs ?( h) Fypetfmgkua (d)Rmrktfmgkua

( g) mpkjmhi fypetfmgkua (n) mpkjmhi hpetfmgkua> K` Rmzkzh mhgf hsgus ks?

( h) evhi & gepmrguihtm (d) gyik`nrkghi & gepmrguihtm( g) gyik`nrkghi (n) giud ‗ sfhpmn

= K` Rmzkzh Wmxuhi rmprenugtke` eggurs dy?( h) seahtejhaeus gepuihtke`



;6

(d) jhamth`jkhi ge`thgt( g) Rihèjhamtkg gepuihtke`(n) Jhamth`jkhi gepuihtke`

3 ^fm rmjke` ceu`n ieghtmn dmiew tfm Fyam`kua k` tfm Hpetfmgkuak` Rmzkzh ks ghiimn?( h) Fypetfmgkua (d) Mxgkpuiua( g) Epmrguiua (n) è`m ec tfm hdevm

: Rmzkzh ks h <( h) shprepfytkg & geprepfkieus cu`jus(d) phrhsktkg cu`jus

( g) syadke`t(n) edikjhtm phrhsktkg cu`jus

6 ^fm aygmikua ec Rmzkzh ks?( h) drh`gfmn , smpthtm , u`kùgimhtm(d) drh`gfmn , gemègytkg, auitkùgimhtm( g) drh`gfmn , smpthtm , auitkùgimhtm( n) è`m ec tfmsm

H`swmrs X8 ( g) X4 (h) X7 (n) X> (d) X= (h) X3 (h) X: (h) X6 (h)

8 Tfkzepus ks(h ) h shprepfytkg cu`jus (d) phrhsktkg cu`jus( g) fmtmretrepfkg cu`jus (n) hutetrepfkg cu`jus

4 Drmhn aeuin ks geaae` `ham ec ?( h) Hiduje ( d) Tfkzepus( g) Gihvkgmps (n) [mhst

7 ^fm aygmikua ec Tfkzepus ks ?( h) u`kgmiiuihr (d) auitkgmiiuihr( g) hsmpthtm gemègytkg (n) smpthtm

> Geiuamiih ks ceu`n k`?(h) K` tfm sperh`jkua ec Tfkzepus



Akgredkeikjy, Aygeiejy h`n Rih`t phtfeiejy ;;

(d) K` tfm sperh`jkua ec Hiduje( g ) K` tfm sperh`jkua ec ymhst(n) K` tfm sperh`jkua ec Rm`kgkiikua

= K` Tfkzepus smxuhi rmprenugtke` ks ?( h) Ksejhaeus (d) h`ksejhaeus( g) fmtmrejhaeus (n) eejhaeus

3 ^fm rmsmrvm ceen ahtmrkhi ceu`n k` sperh`jkesperm ec Tfkzepus ks?( h) Wthrgf (d) Wujhr(g ) Jiygejm` h`n eki (n) Rretmk`

: ^fm Ikaktk`j fypfhi whii ec tfm aygmikua h`n sperh`jkua k`Tfkzepus ks ahnm up ec?

( h) Gmiiuiesm ( d) Rmgtk`(g ) Gmiiuiesm h`n Rmgtk` (n) Gfktk`

6 @ham tfm nksmhsm ghusmn dy Tfkzepus steie`kcmr e` Wwmmt pethte5( h) Wect ret nksmhsm (d) Dikjft ec phnny( g) Gktrus gh`lmr (n) @e`m ec tfmsm

; Nurk`j sghrgkty ec whtmr h`n k` nry ge`nktke`s , Tfkzepus rmprenugmshsmxuhiiy dy tfm cerahtke` ec ?( h) ge`knkh (d) Wperh`jkesperms

( g) hpihèsperms ( n) Gfihaynesperms

H`swmrs X8 (h) X4 (d) X7 (g) X> (h) X= (h) X3 (g ) X: (n) X6 (h) X; (n)

Hiduje

8 K` Hiduje gemègm`trua ks ceu`n k` ?( h) H`tfmrknkua (d) Eeje`kua( g) Wperh`jkua ( n) eesperm

4 Zfktm rust ec Grugkcmrs ks ghusmn dy ?( h)Gystepus (d) Ruggk`kh( g) ]stkihje (n) Rytfkua



822

7 K` Hiduje ge`knkh hrm ?( h) evhi er spfmrkghi (d) mie`jhtmn( g) cihttm`mn (n) spkrhi

> K` Hiduje , tfm pretepihst ec tfm Eeje`kua ks nkccmrm`tkhtmn k`te ?( h) pmrkpihsa & eepihsa ( d) mjj & pmrkpihsa( g) eepihsa h`n eesperm (n) eìy pmrkpihsa

= K` Hiduje , hsmxuhi rmprenugtke` eggurs dy ?( h) ge`knkh er zeesperms (d) hpihèsperms( g) sperh`jkesperms (n) Fypèsperms

3 ^fm ernmr te wfkgf Hiduje dmie`js ks?( h) Rmreèsperhims (d) Whpreimj`khims

( g) Augerhims ( n) Wpfhmrkhims

: @uadmr ec ùgimk ceu`n k` tfm nerah`t eesperm k` Hiduje hrm?( h) : fhpiekn ùgimk ( d) 6 ùgimk( g) 74 fhpiekn ùgimk (n) 72 ùgimk

]stkihje

8 @ham h`y saut cu`jus?( h) Ruggk`kh ( d) ]stkihje( g) Hjhrkgus ( n) Aergfmiih

4 K` ]stkihje gfihaynesperms hrm ceramn e` wfkgf aygmikua5( h) prkahry aygmikua (d) smge`nhry aygmikua( g) tmrtkhry aygmikua ( n) hii ec tfmsm

7 K` ]stkihje wfkgf ec tfm ceiiewk`j sperms hrm ceu`n5( h) ]rmnesperms h`n dhsknkesperms ( d) hmgkesperms&tmimutesperms( g) gfihaynesperms & dhsknkesperms ( n) tmimutesperms& dhsknkesperms

> Ieesm saut ec Dhrimy ks ghusmn dy?( h) ]stkihje ùnh vhr. fernmk (d) ]stkihje ùnh vhr. ahynks( g) ]stkihje ùnh vhr. trktkgk (n) ]stkihje hvm`hm

= Ghushi erjh`ksa ec Ieesm Waut ec wfmht ks?




( h) ]stkihje ùnh vhr.trktkgk (d) ]stkihje leiimrk( g) ]stkihje ùnh vhr. ahynks ( n) è`m ec tfmsm

3 Gevmrmn saut ec Wujhrgh`m ks ghusm dy ?(h ) ]stkihje sgkthak`mhm ( d) ]stkihje fernmk( g) ]stkihje leiimrk (n) ]stkihje hvm`hm

: Diessea k`cmgtke` ks ceu`n k` wfkgf cu`jus?( h) ]stkihje (d) Ruggk`kh( g) Hitmr`hrkh (n) Gihvkgmps

6 ^fm tmimutesperms ec ]stkihje hrm hise ghiimn hs ?( h) Waut sperms (d) drh`n sperms( g) Gfihaynesperms ( n) hii tfm hdevm

; @ham tfm amtfen dy wfkgf nklhryetkshtke` ec aygmikua thlms pihgm k`]stkihje.(h) Dy u`ke` ec k`cmgtke` tfrmhns(d) Dy cuske` dmtwmm` prkahry fypfhm( g) Dy geòujhtke` dmtwmm` tfm dhsknkesperms( n) hii tfm hdevm

Rih`t Nksmhsms

8 Mhriy dikjft ec pethte ks ghusmn dy?(h) Hitmr`hrkh seih`k (d) Rfytepftferh k`cmsth`s( g) Wy`gfytrkua m`nedketkgua (n) Mrwk`kh ghreteverh

4 ^fm Krksf pethte chak`m eggurrmn k` @ertf Murepm nurk`j 86>= , whsghusmn dy?(h) Hitmr`hrkh seih`k (d) Rfytepftferh k`cmsth`s

( g) Wy`gfytrkua m`nedketkgua (n) Weihùa vkrus -8>.

7 H pih`t nksmhsm k` wfkgf tfm phtfejm` ks smm` hs h gette`y jrewtf e` tfmsurchgm ec tfm fest ks ghiimn?( h) new`y akinmw (d) pewnmry akinmw(g ) saut (n) rust



824

> ^kllh nksmhsm ks ghusmn dy ?( h) Cushrkua (d) Gmrgesperh( g) Geiimtetrkgfua (n) Ruggk`kh

= ^fm wfkp nksmhsm ec sujhrgh`m ks ghusmn dy?(h) ]stkihje sgkthak`hm (d) ]stkihje hvm`hm(g) Ruggk`kh strkkceraks (n) Hjhrkgusghapmstrks




Lmy tmras

Hgmrvuius? H aht ec fypfhm jkvk`j rksm te sfert ge`knkepferms giesmiyphglmn tejmtfmr cerak`j h dmn ‗iklm ahss.

Hjjiutk`htke`? Giuapk`j ec gmiis.

H`hmredm? H` erjh`ksa tfht jrews k` tfm hdsm`gm ec aeimguihr exyjm`.

H`tkdkesks? H`thje`kstkg hssegkhtke` dmtwmm` twe erjh`ksas k` wfkgf e`m kshnvmrsmiy hccmgtmn.

Hsgestreah? H streahtkg hsgeghrp dmhrk`j hsgk nkrmgtiy k` ieguims wktfk` tfm

streah.Hsgus? H shg iklm strugturm , gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfm Hsgeaygmtms , k` wfkgfhsgesperms hrm prenugmn.

Hutegihvm< H` hpphrhtus usk`j stmha u`nmr prmssurm cer stmrkikzhtke`.

Dhgtmrkepfhjm? H vkrus tfht k`cmgts dhgtmrkh h`n ghusm iysks ec dhgtmrkhi gmiis.

Detuiksa? Ceen pekse`k`j num te tfm texk` ec Giestrknkua detuikùa.

Ghpskn? ^fm pretmk` geht ec h vkrus.

Gihap ge``mgtke`? H drknjm -iklm fypfhi ge``mgtke` gfhrhgtmrkstkg ec tfmsmge`nhry aygmikua ec ah`y Dhsknkeaygmtms.

Gie`m? H pepuihtke` ec gmiis nmsgm`nmn crea h sk`jim gmii.

Geikpfhjm? H vkrus tfht k`cmgts Msgfmrkgfkh geik.

Geòujhtm ùgimhr nkvkske`? ^fm skauith`meus nkvkske` ec tfm twe ùgimk k` hnklhrye` , jkvk`j rksm te ceur nhujftmr ùgimk.

Geprepfkieus? Jrewk`j e` nu`j.

Nkpih`mtkg? Tmcmrs te h spmgkms wfkgf prenugms twe typms ec zeesperms h`n k`wfkgf twe swhrak`j pmrkens eggur.

Neikperm smptua? H smptua wfkgf cihrms eut k` tfm aknnim pertke` ec hfypfh, cerak`j h dhrrmi ‗ sfhpmn strugturm wktf epm` m`ns.



82>

M`nedketkg? H` erjh`ksa wfkgf ikvms wktfk` kts sudstrhtua , usuhiiy tfm gmiisec kts fest.

Mpkdketkg? H` erjh`ksa wfesm rmprenugtkvm erjh`s hrm e` tfm surchgm ec tfm

sudstrhtua , dut phrt er hii ec wfesm seah ks wktfk` tfm sudstrhtua.Mpknmakeiejy? ^fm stuny ec tfm chgters tfht k`cium`gm tfm eggurrm`gm h`nnkstrkdutke` ec nksmhsm k` jreup ec k`nkvknuhis.

Mtkeiejy? ^fm stuny ec tfm ghusm ec h nksmhsm.

Mughrpkg? Cerak`j rmprenugtkvm strugturms e` gmrthk` pertke`s ec tfm tfhiius ,tfm tfhiius ktsmic ge`tkùk`j te pmrcera kts seahtkg cu`gtke`s.

Jhamth`jkhi ge`thgt? H amtfen ec smxuhi rmprenugtke` k` wfkgf twejhamth`jkh geam k` ge`thgt dut ne èt cusm. ^fm ahim ùgimus akjrhtmstfreujf h cmrtkikzhtke` tudm k`te tfm cmahim jhamth`jkua.

Jhamth`jkhi gepuihtke`< H amtfen ec smxuhi rmprenugtke` k` wfkgf twejhamth`jkh er tfmkr pretepihsts cusm h`n jkvm rksm te h zyjetm wfkgf nmvmiepsk`te h rmstk`j sperm.

Jrha sthk`? H nkccmrm`tkhi sthk` dy wfkgf dhgtmrkh hrm gihssmn hs jrha ‗pesktkvm er jrha ‗ `mjhtkvm nmpm`nk`j upe` wfmtfmr tfmy rmthk` er iesm tfmprkahry sthk` ( grysthi vkeimt) wfm` sudomgtmn te trmhtam`t wktf h nmgeierkzk`jhjm`t.

Fmtmrelhryesks? H ge`nktke` k` wfkgf jm`mtkghiiy nkccmrm`t ùgimk hrmhssegkhtmn k` tfm sham pretepihst.

Feieghrpkg? Tmcmrs te h` erjh`ksa wfesm tfhiius k` m`tkrmiy ge`vmrtmn k`tee`m er aerm rmprenugtkvm strugturms.

Feaelhryetkg? H` k`nkvknuhi wfesm ùgimk hrm jm`mtkghiiy hiklm

Fest? H ikvk`j erjh`ksa fhrderk`j h phrhsktm.

Fypmrtrepfy? Mxgmsskvm mìhrjmam`t ec gmiis

Legf‛s pestuihtms? Juknmik`ms te prevm tfht h nksmhsm ks ghusmn dy h spmgkckgakgre ‗ erjh`ksa.

Ahgregygikg? Ie`j ‗gygimn < hppikmn te tfesm spmgkms ec rusts wfkgf prenugme`m er aerm typms ec dkùgimhtm sperms k` hnnktke` te tmimutesperms.

Akgregygikg ? Wfert ‗ gygimn, hppikmn te tfesm spmgkms ec rusts wfkgf prenugmè dkùgimhtm sperms etfmr tfh` tmimutesperms.




Aeèpih`mtkg? Tmcmrs te h spmgkms wfkgf prenugms eìy e`m typm ec zeespermh`n k` wfkgf tfmrm ks dut e`m swhrak`j pmrken.

Rhrhsmxuhikty? H pregmss k` wfkgf Rihsaejhay , Lhryejhay h`n

fydrknkzhtke` thlm pihgm k` smqum`gm , dut èt ht spmgkckmn pek`ts k` tfm ikcmgygim ec h` k`nkvknuhi.

Rhrhsktm? H` erjh`ksa tfht nmrkvms kts èurksfam`t crea h ikvk`j erjh`ksa. (fest)

Rhtfejm`? H` erjh`ksa ghphdim ec prenugk`j nksmhsm.

Rihèjhamtkg gepuihtke`? Cuske` ec `hlmn jhamtms , e`m er detf ec wfkgf hrmaetkim.

Tfkzespfmrm? ^fm seki rmjke` sudomgt te tfm k`cium`gm ec pih`t reets h`ngfhrhgtmrkzmn dy h ze`m ec k`grmhsmn akgredkeiejkghi hgtkvkty.

Whprepfytm? H` erjh`ksa ikvk`j e` nmhn erjh`kg ahttmr.

Wmic ‗geaphtkdim? Wmic ‗ stmrkim , rmcmrs te h tfhiius wfkgf rmprenugms smxuhiiydy ktsmic.

Wpmrahtkzhtke`? Rihsaejhay dy tfm u`ke` ec h spmrahtkua wktf h rmgmptkvmstrugturm.

Wtmrkikzhtke`? ^fm pregmss ec ahlk`j stmrkim , tfm lkiik`j ec hii ceras ec ikcm.

Wy`nream? H jreup ec skj`s h`n syapteas tfht gfhrhgtmrkzms h nksmhsm.

^rh`snugtke`? ^rh`scmr ec jm`mtkg ahtmrkhi crea e`m dhgtmrkua te hètfmrtfreujf tfm hjm`gy ec h vkrus.



823

Dkdikejrhpfy

Hjhr , Fkinh N. , h`n F.G. Neujihs. 8;=:. Wtunkms e` tfm gyteiejkghi strugturmec tfm ymhst? mimgtre` akgresgepy ec tfk` smgtke`s . O. Dhgtm. :7? 73=- 7:=

Hk`swertf, J.G. 8;:8. Hk`swertf h`n Dksdy‛s Nkgtke`hry ec tfm Cu`jk . 3 Mn.Geaae`wmhitf Aygeiejkghi K`stktutm , Lmw , Wurrmy , M`jih`n.

Dhtrh ,I.T. 8;=;. H geaphrhtkvm aerpfeiejkghi h`n pfyskeiejkghi stuny ec tfmspmgkms ec Nkpenhsgus. Aygeiejkh =8? 74; ‗ 7==

Dmglmtt , H.,T. W. Kiik`jwertf h`n H.F. Tesm. 8;:7. Hsgesperm whiinmvmiepam`t k` Whggfhreaygms gmrmvkskhm . O. Dhgtm. 887? 82=>- 82=:

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Microbiology, Mycology and Plant Pathology