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Ans 1: The term Neolithic Revolution was coined in 19! "# $% &ordon 'hilde to

descri"e the (rst in a series o) agricultural revolutions in Middle *astern histor#% The

+eriod is descri"ed as a ,revolution, to denote its im+ortance- and the great

signi(cance and degree o) change a.ecting the communities in which new

agricultural +ractices were graduall# ado+ted and re(ned%

The "eginning o) this +rocess in di.erent regions has "een dated )rom 10-000 to

/-000 ' in the ertile 'rescent and +erha+s /000 ' in the 2u3 *arl# Agricultural

4ite o) Melanesia to 500 ' in 4u"saharan A)rica- with some considering the

develo+ments o) 9000–6000 ' in the ertile 'rescent to "e the most im+ortant%

This transition ever#where seems associated with a change )rom a largel# nomadic

hunter7gatherer wa# o) li)e to a more settled- agrarian7"ased one- with the ince+tion

o) the domestication o) various +lant and animal s+ecies8de+ending on the s+ecies

locall# availa"le- and +ro"a"l# also inuenced "# local culture% Recent

archaeological research suggests that in some regions such as the 4outheast Asian

+eninsula- the transition )rom hunter7gatherer to agriculturalist was not linear- "utregion7s+eci(c

The Neolithic Revolution was a )undamental change in the wa# +eo+le lived% The

shi)t )rom hunting gathering to agriculture led to +ermanent settlements- the

esta"lishment o) social classes- and the eventual rise o) civili;ations% The Neolithic

Revolution is a ma<or turning +oint in human histor#%

&reat =iscoveries

A"out 10-000 '*- humans "egan to cultivate cro+s and domesticate certain

animals% This was a change )rom the s#stem o) hunting and gathering that had

sustained humans )rom earliest times% As a result- +ermanent settlements were

esta"lished% Neolithic villages continued to divide wor3 "etween men and women%

However- women>s status declined as men too3 the lead in in most areas o) these

earl# societies%

$illages were usuall# run "# a 'ouncil o) *lders com+osed o) the heads o) the

village>s various )amilies% 4ome o) these villages ma# have had a chie) elder as a

single leader% ?hen resources "ecame scarce- war)are among villages increased%

=uring war- some men gained stature as great warriors% This usuall# trans)erred

over to village li)e with these warriors "ecoming the leaders in societ#% *arl# social

class divisions develo+ed as a result% A +erson>s social class was usuall#determined "# the wor3 the# did- such as )armer- cra)tsman- +riest- and warrior%

=e+ending on the societ#- +riests and warriors were usuall# at the to+- with )armers

and cra)tsman at the "ottom%

New technologies develo+ed in res+onse to the need )or "etter tools and wea+ons

to go along with the new wa# o) living% Neolithic )armers created a sim+le calendar

to 3ee+ trac3 o) +lanting and harvesting% The# also develo+ed sim+le metal tools

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such as +lows- to hel+ with their wor3% 4ome grou+s even ma# have used animals

to +ull these +lows- again ma3ing wor3 easier% Metal wea+ons were develo+ed as

villages needed to +rotect their valua"le resources%

*.ects

The Neolithic Revolution changed the wa# humans lived% The use o) agriculture

allowed humans to develo+ +ermanent settlements- social classes- and new

technologies% 4ome o) these earl# grou+s settled in the )ertile valle#s o) the Nile-

Tigris7*u+hrates- @ellow- and Indus Rivers% This resulted in the rise o) the great

civili;ations in *g#+t- Meso+otamia- 'hina- and India%

Ans !: n 5 Novem"er 196!- )ollowing the "lood# su++ression o) Athens

Pol#technic u+rising on the 16th- the hardliner rigadier =imitrios Ioannides

overthrew Pa+ado+oulos and tried to continue the dictatorshi+ des+ite the +o+ular

unrest the u+rising had triggered% Ioannides> attem+t in Bul# 196C to overthrow

Arch"isho+ Ma3arios- the President o) '#+rus- "rought &reece to the "rin3 o) warwith Tur3e#- which invaded '#+rus and occu+ied +art o) the island%

4enior &ree3 militar# oDcers then withdrew their su++ort )rom the <unta- which

colla+sed% 'onstantine 2aramanlis returned )rom eEile in rance to esta"lish a

government o) national unit# until elections could "e held% 2aramanlis wor3ed to

de)use the ris3 o) war with Tur3e# and also legalised the 'ommunist Part#- which

had "een illegal since 19C6% His newl# organi;ed +art#- New =emocrac# FN=G- won

the elections held in Novem"er 196C "# a wide margin- and he "ecame +rime

minister%

ollowing the 196C re)erendum which resulted in the a"olition o) the monarch#- anew constitution was a++roved "# +arliament on 19 Bune 1965% Parliament elected

'onstantine Tsatsos as President o) the Re+u"lic% In the +arliamentar# elections o)

1966- New =emocrac# again won a ma<orit# o) seats% In Ma# 19/0- Prime Minister

2aramanlis was elected to succeed Tsatsos as President% &eorge Rallis succeeded

2aramanlis as Prime Minister%

n 1 Banuar# 19/1- &reece "ecame the tenth mem"er o) the *uro+ean 'ommunit#

Fnow the *uro+ean nionG% In +arliamentar# elections held on 1/ cto"er 19/1-

&reece elected its (rst socialist government when the Panhellenic 4ocialist

Movement FPA42G- led "# Andreas Pa+andreou- won 16 o) !00 seats% n 9 March

19/5- a)ter Prime Minister Pa+andreou declined to su++ort President 2aramanlis )or

a second term- 4u+reme 'ourt Bustice 'hristos 4art;eta3is was elected +resident "#

the &ree3 +arliament%

&reece had two rounds o) +arliamentar# elections in 19/9 "oth +roduced wea3

coalition governments with limited mandates% Part# leaders withdrew their su++ort

in e"ruar# 1990- and elections were held on / A+ril% New =emocrac#- led "#

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'onstantine Mitsota3is- won 150 seats in that election and su"seJuentl# gained two

others% However- a s+lit "etween Mitsota3is and his (rst oreign Minister- Antonis

4amaras- in 199- led to 4amaras> dismissal and the eventual colla+se o) the N=

government% In new elections in 4e+tem"er 199!- Pa+andreou returned to +ower%

n 16 Banuar# 199K- )ollowing a +rotracted illness- Pa+andreou resigned and wasre+laced as Prime Minister "# )ormer Minister o) Trade and Industr# 'ostas 4imitis%

?ithin da#s- the new +rime minister had to handle a ma<or &ree37Tur3ish crisis over

the ImiaL2arda3 islands% 4imitis su"seJuentl# won re7election in the 199K and 000

elections% In 00C- 4imitis retired and &eorge Pa+andreou succeeded him as PA42

leader%

In the March 00C elections- PA42 was de)eated "# New =emocrac#- led "# 2ostas

2aramanlis- the ne+hew o) the )ormer President% The government called earl#

elections in 4e+tem"er 006 Fnormall#- elections would have "een held in March

00/G- and New =emocrac# again was the ma<orit# +art# in the Parliament% As a

result o) that de)eat- PA42 undertoo3 a +art# election )or a new leader% In that

contest- &eorge Pa+andreou was reelected as the head o) the socialist +art# in

&reece% In the 009 elections however- PA42 "ecame the ma<orit# +art# in the

Parliament and &eorge Pa+andreou "ecame Prime Minister o) &reece% A)ter PA42

lost its ma<orit# in the Parliament- N= and PA42 <oined the smaller Po+ular

rthodoE Rall# in a grand coalition- +ledging their +arliamentar# su++ort )or a

government o) national unit# headed "# )ormer *uro+ean 'entral an3 vice7

+resident ucas Pa+ademos%

4ection II

Ans 6: Before we begin, we should note that the men and women of the middle ages never talked

about feudalism. Feudalism is a term invented in the sixteenth century by royal lawyers -

primarily in ngland - to describe the decentrali!ed and complex social, political, and economic

society out of which the modern state was emerging. "he term #feudalism# came from the

$erman vieh, or #cow,# the measure of wealth among the early $ermans, a term that gave rise to

the medieval word fief . #%ief# simply meant #something of value.# &n the agricultural world of

the time, #something of value# was usually land. But the sixteenth-century lawyers pictured this

land as having been under the control of a powerful king who distributed much of it to his

followers, men of distinction whose breeding and upbringing particularly fitted them for

governing and giving battle.

&t has been argued that historians have interpreted medieval documents and histories in terms of

this view, and that, when we examine the documents more closely, there is actually very littleevidence that society was really organi!ed in such a fashion. "his may very well be true, but a

new and different picture of medieval society in the ninth through the fourteenth centuries has

yet to be developed. 'acking anything possible better, it is only reasonable that we should turn

our attention to the traditional portrayal of feudal society.

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(pon the death of )harlemagne, his mpire passed to his son 'ouis. "his ruler is sometimescalled #'ouis the *ious,# because he was so friendly to the )hurch+ and sometimes #'ouis the

$ood-natured,# because he was so easy-going and allowed himself to be guided by his wife and

his favorites.

(nder his rule the mpire lost much of the strength that it had possessed under )harlemagne+and after 'ouiss death, it was still further weakened. is sons had begun fighting for the

kingdom even while their father lived. After his death they fought a great battle in which troops

of all the %rankish lands took part. "he old writers describe this as a terrible struggle,moreterrible than any since Attila and his uns were driven back by the /omans and the $oths, or the

0oors were defeated by )harles 0artel. "hose battles had been fought by the )hristians against

peoples who were not )hristians+ but now )hristians fought against )hristians, %ranks against%ranks. #0ay the day of that battle be accursed1# wrote a writer who himself took part in the

struggle. #0ay it never more be counted among the days of the year, but be wiped out from all

remembrance1 0ay it lack the light of the sun, and have neither dawning nor twilight1 0ay thatnight also be accursed+ that terrible night in which so many brave and skillful warriors met their

deaths1 2ever was there a worse slaughter1 0en fell in lakes of blood+ and the garments of thedead whitened the whole field.#

The eEistence o) )eudalism is one o) the most im+ortant )acts a"out the Middle

Ages% It is this which ma3es the government o) that +eriod so di.erent )rom the

governments o) &reece and Rome- and also )rom the governments o) to7da#%

eudalism- moreover- led to other im+ortant changes% In the 'hurch it made the

a""ots and "isho+s the vassals o) the 3ings and no"les )or the land which the

'hurch held and since vassals owed militar# service- the "isho+s and a""ots o)ten

"ecame more li3e )eudal warriors than mild and hol# servants o) 'hrist% ecause the

chie) "usiness o) vassals and lords was (ghting- much attention was +aid to arms

and armor- and to training )or war% In this wa# arose the wonder)ul coats o) mail and

suits o) armor o) the Middle Ages in this wa# also arose the long training which one

had to go through to "ecome a 3night- and the eEciting ,tournaments, in which the

3nights tried their s3ill against one another%

Ans /: The scienti(c revolution was the emergence o) modern science during the

earl# modern +eriod- when develo+ments in mathematics- +h#sics- astronom#-

"iolog# Fincluding human anatom#G and chemistr# trans)ormed views o) societ# and

nature% The scienti(c revolution "egan in *uro+e towards the end o) the

Renaissance +eriod and continued through the late 1/th centur#- inuencing the

intellectual social movement 3nown as the *nlightenment% ?hile its dates aredis+uted- the +u"lication in 15C! o) Nicolaus 'o+ernicus>s =e revolutioni"us or"ium

coelestium Fn the Revolutions o) the Heavenl# 4+heresG is o)ten cited as mar3ing

the "eginning o) the scienti(c revolution% A (rst +hase o) the scienti(c revolution-

)ocused on the recover# o) the 3nowledge o) the ancients- can "e descri"ed as the

4cienti(c Renaissance and is considered to have ended in 1K! with +u"lication o)

&alileo>s =ialogue 'oncerning the Two 'hie) ?orld 4#stems% The com+letion o) the

scienti(c revolution is attri"uted to the ,grand s#nthesis, o) Isaac Newton>s 1K/6

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Princi+ia- that )ormulated the laws o) motion and universal gravitation% # the end

o) the 1/th centur#- the scienti(c revolution had given wa# to the ,Age o)

Reection,%

The conce+t o) a scienti(c revolution ta3ing +lace over an eEtended +eriod emerged

in the eighteenth centur# in the wor3 o) Bean 4#lvain aill#- who saw a two7stage+rocess o) swee+ing awa# the old and esta"lishing the new%

The +eriod saw a )undamental trans)ormation in scienti(c ideas across

mathematics- +h#sics- astronom#- and "iolog# in institutions su++orting scienti(c

investigation and in the more widel# held +icture o) the universe% The scienti(c

revolution led to the esta"lishment o) several modern sciences% In 19/C- Bose+h

en7=avid wrote:

Ra+id accumulation o) 3nowledge- which has characteri;ed the develo+ment o)

science since the 16th centur#- had never occurred "e)ore that time% The new 3ind

o) scienti(c activit# emerged onl# in a )ew countries o) ?estern *uro+e- and it wasrestricted to that small area )or a"out two hundred #ears%

Man# contem+orar# writers and modern historians claim that there was a

revolutionar# change in world view% In 1K11 the *nglish +oet- Bohn =onne- wrote:

TheO new Philoso+h# calls all in dou"t- The *lement o) (re is Juite +ut out

The 4un is lost- and th>earth- and no man>s wit- 'an well direct him where to

loo3 )or it%

Mid70th centur# historian Her"ert utter(eld was less disconcerted- "ut

nevertheless saw the change as )undamental:

4ince that revolution turned the authorit# in *nglish not onl# o) the Middle Ages

"ut o) the ancient world8since it started not onl# in the ecli+se o) scholastic

+hiloso+h# "ut in the destruction o) Aristotelian +h#sics8it outshines ever#thing

since the rise o) 'hristianit# and reduces the Renaissance and Re)ormation to the

ran3 o) mere e+isodes- mere internal dis+lacements within the s#stem o) medieval

'hristendom%%%% ItO looms so large as the real origin "oth o) the modern world and o)

the modern mentalit# that our customar# +eriodi;ation o) *uro+ean histor# has

"ecome an anachronism and an encum"rance%

The histor# +ro)essor Peter Harrison attri"utes 'hristianit# to having contri"uted to

the rise o) the scienti(c revolution:

historians o) science have long 3nown that religious )actors +la#ed a signi(cantl#

+ositive role in the emergence and +ersistence o) modern science in the ?est% Not

onl# were man# o) the 3e# (gures in the rise o) science individuals with sincere

religious commitments- "ut the new a++roaches to nature that the# +ioneered were

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under+inned in various wa#s "# religious assum+tions% %%% @et- man# o) the leading

(gures in the scienti(c revolution imagined themselves to "e cham+ions o) a

science that was more com+ati"le with 'hristianit# than the medieval ideas a"out

the natural world that the# re+laced%

Ans 10: "G: Printing is a +rocess )or re+roducing teEt and images using a master)orm or tem+late% The earliest eEam+les include '#linder seals and other o"<ects

such as the '#rus '#linder and the '#linders o) Na"onidus% The earliest 3nown )orm

o) wood"loc3 +rinting came )rom 'hina dating to "e)ore 0 A%=% ater

develo+ments in +rinting include the mova"le t#+e- (rst develo+ed "# i 4heng in

'hina% The +rinting +ress- a more eDcient +rinting +rocess )or western languages

with their more limited al+ha"ets- was develo+ed "# Bohannes &uten"erg in the

()teenth centur#%

Modern +rinting is done t#+icall# with in3 on +a+er using a +rinting +ress% It is also

)reJuentl# done on metals- +lastics- cloth and com+osite materials% n +a+er it is

o)ten carried out as a large7scale industrial +rocess and is an essential +art o)

+u"lishing and transaction +rinting%

All printing process are concerned with two kinds of areas on the final output:

3. &mage Area 4printing areas5

. 2on-image Area 4non-printing areas5

After the information has been prepared for production 4the prepress step5, each printing process

has definitive means of separating the image from the non-image areas.

)onventional printing has four types of process:

3. *lanographics, in which the printing and non-printing areas are on the same plane surface

and the difference between them is maintained chemically or by physical properties, the

examples are: offset lithography, collotype, and screenless printing.

. /elief, in which the printing areas are on a plane surface and the non printing areas are below the surface, examples: flexography and letterpress.

7. &ntaglio, in which the non-printing areas are on a plane surface and the printing area areetched or engraved below the surface, examples: steel die engraving, gravure

8. *orous, in which the printing areas are on fine mesh screens through which ink can penetrate, and the non-printing areas are a stencil over the screen to block the flow of ink

in those areas, examples: screen printing, stencil duplicator.

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Ans 10 cG: The 'ounter7Re)ormation Falso the 'atholic Revival or 'atholic

Re)ormationG was the +eriod o) 'atholic resurgence "eginning with the 'ouncil o)

Trent F15C5–15K!G and ending at the close o) the Thirt# @ears> ?ar F1KC/G- and was

initiated in res+onse to the Protestant Re)ormation% The 'ounter7Re)ormation was a

com+rehensive e.ort com+osed o) )our ma<or elements:

*cclesiastical or structural recon(guration

Religious orders

4+iritual movements

Political dimensions

4uch re)orms included the )oundation o) seminaries )or the +ro+er training o) +riests

in the s+iritual li)e and the theological traditions o) the 'hurch- the re)orm o)

religious li)e "# returning orders to their s+iritual )oundations- and new s+iritual

movements )ocusing on the devotional li)e and a +ersonal relationshi+ with 'hrist-

including the 4+anish m#stics and the rench school o) s+iritualit#% It also involved

+olitical activities that included the Roman InJuisition% ne +rimar# em+hasis o) the

'ounter7Re)ormation was a mission to reach +arts o) the world that had "een

coloni;ed as +redominantl# 'atholic and also tr# to reconvert areas such as 4weden

and *ngland that were at one time Roman 'atholic%

The 1Cth- 15th and 1Kth centuries saw a s+iritual revival in *uro+e- in which the

Juestion o) salvation "ecame central% This "ecame 3nown as the 'atholic

Re)ormation% 4everal theologians har3ed "ac3 to the earl# da#s o) 'hristianit# and

Juestioned their s+iritualit#% Their de"ates eE+anded across the whole o) *uro+e inthe 15th and 1Kth centuries- whilst secular critics also eEamined religious +ractice-

clerical "ehavior and the 'hurch>s +ositions% 4everal varied currents o) thought were

active- "ut the ideas o) re)orm and renewal were led "# the clerg#%

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