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7/28/2019 MGT 524 - Part I - Fall 2011[1]
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Abu Dhabi University
Research Methods in Business
(MGT 524(
Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar
MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 1
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Definition of Business Research
Business research can be described as:
A systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem
that needs a solution.
A problem is a gap between desired and actual state.
Simply, there are five major and important steps involved in the
research process:
1) Defining the Problem
2) Research Design
3) Data Collection
4) Analysis5) Report Writing and Presentation
Survey research
A research method involving the use of questionnaires to gather data
about people and their thoughts and behaviors
Qualitative Research
Usually emphasizes words (like interview, open ended survey responses,
emails, notes, feedback forms, photos, videos and focus group) ratherthan quantification in the collection and analysis of data.
Quantitative Research
Usually emphasizes quantification in the collection and analysis of data.
Precise count of some behavior, knowledge, opinion, or attitude.
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A brief discussion on these steps is:
1) Problem audit and problem definition
What is the problem?
What are the various aspects of the problem?
What information is needed?
2) Conceptualization and operationalization - How exactly do we
define the concepts involved? How do we translate these
concepts into observable and measurable behaviors?
A Concept is a generalized idea that represents something of
meaning.
Concepts such as age, gender and education are relatively concreteproperties and present few problems in either definition or
measurement.
Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, and attitude and
so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and
measure
3) Hypothesis specification - What claim(s) do we want to test?
4) Research design specification - What type of methodology to
use? - Examples: questionnaire, survey.
5) Question specification. What questions to ask? In what order
6) Scale specification - How will preferences be rated?
7) Sampling design specification - What is the total population?
What sample size is necessary for this population? Whatsampling method to use?- examples:
Probability Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Area Sampling Double Sampling
MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 3
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(social_sciences)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypothesishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Questionnaire_constructionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scale_(social_sciences)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics)7/28/2019 MGT 524 - Part I - Fall 2011[1]
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Nonprobability Sampling
Convenience Sampling
Judgment Sampling
Quota Sampling.
8) Data collection - Use mail, telephone, internet, mall intercepts
9) Codification and re-specification - Make adjustments to the raw
data so it is compatible with statistical techniques and with the
objectives of the research - examples: assigning numbers,
consistency checks, substitutions, deletions, weighting, dummy
variables, scale transformations, scale standardization
10) Statistical analysis - Perform various descriptive and inferential
techniques. Make inferences from the sample to the whole
population. Test the results for statistical significance.
11) Interpret and integrate findings - What do the results mean?
What conclusions can be drawn? How do these findings relate to
similar research?
12) Write the research report - Report usually has headings such as:
Executive summary;
Objectives;
Methodology;
Main findings;
Detailed charts and diagrams. Present the report to the client in a 10
minute presentation. Be prepared for questions.
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_samplinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonprobability_sampling7/28/2019 MGT 524 - Part I - Fall 2011[1]
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 5
Objectives of the Course
Knowledge and Skills
Gained
Personal and Professional
Development
Identify Problem Areas
Conduct Interviews
Do Library Research
Develop Theoretical
Framework
Formulate Hypotheses
Make Research Design
Decision
Collect Data
Analyze and Interpret Data
Discuss Findings and
Implications
Discriminate Between
Good and Bad Research
Know The Manager-
Self Management Of Time,
Talents, and Other Resources
Develop Communication Skills
Take Personal Responsibility
For Learning and Information
Seeking Learn To Handle Ambiguity
Develop Logical Thinking and
A Feel For What Is Involved in
Managerial Decision Making
Develop Confidence In Your
Competence
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Problems come to light in a variety of ways, including:
Customer complaints
Conversations with company employees
Observation of inappropriate behavior or conditions in the firm
Deviation from the business plan
Success of the firms competitors
Company records and reports
Ground Rules for the Business Research
Always know what you are researching
Always test a research model
Never use only one information-gathering technique
When it comes to study a problem, keep it short and simple (KISS)
If necessary, hire a professional
Make the decision
Fundamental Types of Research
Basic Research
Research conducted to generate knowledge and understanding of
phenomena that would add to the existing body of knowledge for
future use
Applied Research
Research conducted in a particular setting with the specific intention
of solving an existing problem in the situation or conducted when a
decision must be made about a specific real-life problem.
Problems for Basic and Applied Research
Management
Employee behaviors such as performance, absenteeism, and
turnover. Employee attitudes such as job satisfaction, loyalty, and
organizational commitment.
Employee selection, recruitment, training, and retention.
Validation of performance appraisal system.
Evaluation of assessment centers
Marketing
What price should we charge for our product?
What distribution channels should be used?
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How well does the product match up with the competitor's product?
How effective is the company's advertising?
How well this new product be received by the consumers?
What percentage of market penetration does Product X have?
What is Product X's image in the consumer's mind?
Finance
What would be the market reaction to a new stock offering?
How does that typical investor view the company?
What is the market value of the fixed assets in the manufacturing
division?
What do the accounting supervisors think about the new computer
installation?
Manufacturing
Who is the most reliable vendor for this raw material?
What is the most efficient plant layout and location for product X?
Does Product X meet the quality control standard?
Would it be possible to substitute raw material Y for Z?
What automated warehouse system should be purchased?
What lighting system gives the highest increase in productivity?
What is the exact nature of this production task?
Personnel
What skills are required for this job?
What is the salary range for similar employees in this area?
What type of training would be desirable for this job?
How do employees feel about their job, the company and its
management?
How good is the communication among employees, supervisor andsubordinates?
Which employees are promotable?
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Why Should a Manager Know Research?
Facilitates good decision making
Become discrimination about research findings
Prevents vested interests
Educates to share pertinent and relevant information withresearcher
Helps take calculated risks with probabilities attached
Understand the complexity of the variables in organization
An integral part of professionalization of management
The Manager-Researcher Relationships
Each should know his/her role
Trust levels Acceptance of findings and implementation
Internal Researcher
Advantages
Better acceptance from staff
Knowledge about organization
Would be an integral part of implementation and evaluation of the
research recommendations
Disadvantages
Less fresh ideas
Possibility not valued as "experts" by staff
External Researchers
Advantages
Divergent and convergent thinking
Experience from several situations in different types of
organizations
Better technical training, usually
Disadvantages
Takes time to know and understand the organization system
Seldom welcomed by the employees
Not available for evaluation after implementation
Costs
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The Hallmarks of Scientific Research
Purposiveness
The situation in which research is focused on solving a well-identified
and defined problem.
Rigor
The theoretical and methodological precision adhered to in conducting
research.
Testability
The ability to subject the data collected to appropriate statistical tests
in order to accept or reject the hypotheses developed for the research
study.
Replicability
The replicability of similar results when identical research is
conducted at different times or in different organizational settings.
Precision and Confidence
Precision: refers to the closeness of the findings to reality based on a
sample. In other words, precision reflects the degree of accuracy of the
results on the basis of the sample, to what really exists in the universe.
Confidence: refers to the probability that our estimations are correct.That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is also important
that we can confidently claim that 95% of the time our results would
be true and there is only a 5% chance of our being wrong.
Objectivity
Interpretation of the results on the bases of the results of data analysis
should be objective, that is, they should be based on the facts of the
findings derived from actual data, and not on our own subjective or
emotional values as opposed to subjective or emotional interpretations
Generalizability
Generalizability refers to the scope of applicability of research
findings in one organizational setting to other settings. Obviously, the
wider the range of applicability of the solutions generated by research,
the more useful the research is to the user.
Parsimony
One of the main points in research is the achievement of a meaningfuland simple model rather than a complex one for problem solution.
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The Building Blocks of Scientific Research
Deduction and Induction
Answers to issues can be found either by the process of deduction or the
process of induction, or by a combination of the two.
Deduction is the process by which we arrive at a reasoned conclusion by
logical generalization of a known fact or the process of arriving at
conclusion based on the interpretation of the meaning of the results of
data analysis.
For example,
We know that all managers are human beings.
If we also know thatJohn Smith is a manager,
Then we can deduce thatJohn Smith is a human being.
Induction, on the other hand, is a process where we observe certain
phenomena and on this basis arrive at conclusion. In other words, in
induction we logically establish a general proposition based on observed
facts or the process by which general propositions based on observed
facts are established.
For example,
All managers that have ever been seen are human beings;
Therefore all managers are human beings.
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The Hypothetico-Deductive Method
The seven-step process in the Hypothetico-Deductive method in
organizations
Observation
Observation is the first stage, in which one sense that certain changes
are occurring, or that some new behaviors, attitudes, and feelings are
surfacing in one's environment (i.e., the workplace). When the
observed phenomena are seen to have potentially important
consequences, one would proceed to the next step.
Preliminary information gathering
Preliminary information gathering involves the seeking of information
in depth, of what is observed. A mass of observation would have beencollected through the interviews and library search.
Theory formulation
Is an attempt to integrate all the information in a logical manner, so
that the factors responsible for the problem can be tested. In this step
the critical variables are examined as to their contribution or influence
in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved.
Hypothesizing
From the theorized network of associations among the variables,
certain testable hypotheses can be generated.
Further scientific data collection
After the development of the hypotheses, data with respect to each
variable in the hypotheses need to be obtained. In other words, further
scientific data collection is needed to test the hypotheses that are
generated in the study.
Data analysis
The data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the hypotheses
that were generated have been supported.
Deduction
Is the process of arriving at conclusion by interpreting the meaning of
the results of the data analysis.
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Common Used Technologies in Business Research
The internet
Electronic mail
The intranet
Browsers
Web sites
Some Software Used in Business Research
Groupware
Neural networks
CAM/CAD
Data Analytic Software Programs SAS
SPSS
MINITAB
SYSTAT
SIGMASTAT
EXCEL
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Determining when to conduct business research
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Time Constraints
Is sufficient time available before amanagerial decision must be made?
Availability of Data
Is the information already on hand
inadequate for making the decision?
Nature of the Decision
Is the decision of considerable strategic or
tactical importance?
Benefits vs. Costs
Does the value of the research information
exceed the cost of conducting research?
Conducting Business Researech
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Do Not
Conduct
Business
Research
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Stages in the Research Process
Problem Discovery and Problem Definition
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than its solution
Informal gathering of background information to familiarize researchersor managers with the decision area
State the research questions and research objectives.
Research Proposal: A written statement of the research design that
includes a statement explaining the purpose of the study
Basic Questions that are related to the problem definition
What is the purpose of the study?
How much is already known?
Is additional background information necessary?What is to be measured? How?
Should research be conducted?
Research Design
What types of questions need to be answered?
Are descriptive or causal findings required?
What is the source of the data?
Basic research methods: Surveys, Experiments, Secondary data,
observation
Sampling
A sample is a subset of a large population
Who is to be sampled?
How large a sample?
How will sample units be selected?
Data Gathering
Who will gather the data?How long will data gathering take?
Data Processing and Analysis
How will the data be categorized?
What statistical software will be used?
What questions need to be answered?
Conclusions and Report
Who will read the report?
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 16
Step 1
Observation - The Broad Problem Area
Examples of broad problem areas that a manager could observe at the
workplace are as follows:
Training programs are perhaps not effective as anticipated
The sales volume of a product is not picking up
Minority group members in organizations are not advancing in
their careers
The newly installed information system is not being used by the
managers for whom it was primarily designed
The introduction of flexible work hours has created more problems
than it has solved in many companies
The anticipated results of a recent merger have not been
forthcoming
Inventory control is not effective
The installation of an MIS keeps getting stalled
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 17
Step 2
Preliminary Data Collection
Can be obtained from available published records,
the web site of the company, its archives, and other
sources), like,
The origin and history of the company.
Size in terms of employees, assets, or both.
Charter-purpose and ideology.
Location-regional, national, or other.
Resources-human and others.
Interdependent relations with other institutions.Financial position during the previous 5 to 10 years.
Background
information
of the
organization
Managerial
philosophy,
company
policies, and
other structural
aspects
Perceptions,
attitudes, and
behavioral
responses of
organizational
members and
client systems
Literature
Survey
Can be obtained from theorganizations records and
documents, like
Roles and position in the
organization and number of
employees at each job level.
Extent of specialization.
Communication channels.
Control systems.
Coordination and span of control.Reward systems.
Workflow systems and the like..
Nature of the work.
Workflow interdependencies.
Superiors in the organization
Participation in decision making.
Client systems.
Co-workers.
Rewards provided by the
organization, such as pay raises and
fringe benefits.Opportunities for advancement in
the organization.
Organizations attitudes toward
employee's family responsibilities.
Companys involvement with
community, civic, and other social
groups.
Next Page
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 18
Literature Survey
Literature survey is the documentation of a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary source of data in theareas of specific interest to the researcher.
(Secondary data can be collected from, library, books, journals,
newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings, doctorial dissertations,
masters theses, government publications, and financial, marketing, and
other reports)
Reasons for the Literature Survey
Important variables that are likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out of the study. A clearer idea emerges as to what variables would be most
important to consider, why they would be considered important,
and how they should be investigated to solve the problem. Thus,
the literature survey helps the development of the theoretical
framework and hypotheses testing.
The problem statement can be made with precision and clarity.
Testability and replicability of the findings of the current research
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 19
Step 3
Problem Definition
Is a clear and precise statement of the question or issue that is to be
investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution?
Thus, it is fruitful to define a problem as: any situation where gap exists
between the actual and the desired ideal states.
Problem definitions could pertain to
Exiting business problems where a manager is looking for a solution.
(Applied Research)
Situations that may not pose any current problems but which the
manager feels have scope for improvement. (Applied Research) Areas where some conceptual clarity is needed for better theory
building. (Basic Research)
Situations in which a researcher is trying to answer a research
question empirically because of interest in the topic. (Basic Research)
Examples of Well-Defined Problems
To what extent do the structure of the organization and type ofinformation systems installed account for the variance in the
perceived effectiveness of managerial decision making?
To what extent has the new advertising campaign been successful in
creating the high-quality, customer-centered corporate image that it
was intended to produce?
How has the new packaging affected the sales of the product?
Has the new advertising massage resulted in enhanced recall?
How do price and quality rate on consumer's evaluation of products?
Does better automation lead to greater asset investment per dollar of
output?
Does expansion of international operations result in an enhancement
of the firms image and value?
What are the effects of downsizing on the long-range growth patterns
of companies?
What are the components of quality of life?
What are the specific factors to be considered in creating a data
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MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 20
Step 4
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how one theorizes or
makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have
been identified as important to the problem.
From the theoretical framework, then, testable hypotheses can be developed
to examine whether the theory formulated is valid or not.
Since the theoretical framework is none other than identifying the network
of relationships among the variables considered important to the study ofany given problem situation, it is essential to understand what a variable
means and what the different types of variables are.
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Types of Variables
Dependent Independent Moderating Intervening
The dependent variable
is the variable of
primary interest to the
researcher. The
researcher's goal is to
explain or predict the
variability in the
dependent variable. Theresearcher is interested
in quantifying and
measuring this variable,
as well as the other
variables that influence
this variable.
Example
A manager is concerned
that the sales of a newproduct introduced after
market testing is not as
high as he had expected.
The dependent variable
here is sales. Since the
sales of the product can
vary- can be low,
medium, high- it is a
variable; since sales are
the main factor of
interest to the manager,
it is the dependent
variable.
An independent variable is one that
influences the dependent variable in
either a positive or a negative way.Example
Research studies indicate that successful
new product development has an
influence on the stock market price of the
company. That is, the more successful the
new product is believed to be, the higher
will be the stock market price of that firm.
Therefore, the success of the new product
is the independent variable, and stock
market price is the dependent variable.
A variable
that has a
strong effect
on the
independent
variable-
dependent
variablerelationship
A variable that
surfaces as a
function of the
independent
variable, and
helps in
conceptualizing
and explainingthe influence of
the independent
variable on the
dependent
variable.
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Example
Motivation to work as an independent variable
The performance of employees is influenced by their motivation to work.
IV DV
Motivation to work as an intervening variable
Employees performing better when they are given challenging jobs,
because such jobs tend to motivate them to work.
IV ITV DV
Motivation to work as a moderating variable
The performance of employees with low levels of motivation to work will
not improve despite increases in job challenge.
IV MO V DV
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nioMotivat Performance
Job Challenge Motivation Performance
Job Challenge Performance
Motivation
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Features that should be incorporated in any theoretical framework
The variables considered relevant to the study should be
clearly identified and labeled in the discussions.
The discussions should state how two or more variables are
related to one another. This should be done for the important
relationships that are theorized to exist among the variables.
If the nature and direction of the relationships can be theorized
on the basis of the findings of previous research, then there
should be an indication in the discussions as to whether the
relationships would be positive or negative.
There should be a clear explanation of why we would expect
these relationships to exist. A schematic diagram of the theoretical framework should be
given so that the reader can see and easily comprehend the
theoretical relationshi s.
Step 5
Hypotheses Development
A hypotheses can defined as a logically conjectured relationship between
two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement or to
test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true.
The steps to be followed in hypotheses testing are
State the null and alternative hypotheses
Choose the appropriate statistical test depending on whether the data
collected are parametric or nonparametric.
Determine the level of significance desired (p = 0.05, or more, or
less).
See if the output results from the computer analysis indicate that the
significance level is met.
When the resultant value is larger that the critical value, the null
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Purpose of the Study
Exploratory Descriptive Hypothesis testing Case study
Analytical PredictiveA research
study where
very little
knowledge
or
information
is available
on the
subject
under
investigation
A research study that
describes the
variables in a
situation of interest
to the researcher.
OR,
The elementary
transformation of
raw data in a way
that describes the
basic characteristics
such as central
tendency,
distribution, and
variability.
A research
study that
tries toexplain
why or
how certain
variables
influence
the
dependent
variable of
interest to
theresearcher
A research
study that
enables theprediction of
the
relationships
among the
variables in a
particular
situation
Step 6
A research study that involve in-depth,
appropriate analysis of similar situation
in other organizations, where the same
nature and definition of the problem
happen to be the same as experienced inthe current situation(i.e. A research approach that focuses ona detailed account of one or moreindividual cases (specific students or aspecific class))
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Descriptive Analysis
The transformation of raw data into a form that will make them
easy to understand and interpret; rearranging, ordering, and
manipulating data to generate descriptive information.
Frequency Table
The arrangement of statistical data in a row-and-column format
that exhibits the count of responses or observations for each
category assigned to a variable
Cross Tabulation
A technique for organizing data by groups, categories, or classes,
thus facilitating comparisons; a joint frequency distribution of
observations on two or more sets of variables
Contingency table- The results of a cross-tabulation of two
variables, such as survey questions
Analyze data by groups or categories
Compare differences
Contingency table
Percentage cross-tabulations
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Type of Investigation
Causal Correlation
A research study conducted to establish
cause-and-effect relationships among
variables.
A study that is designed to determine
whether one or more variables explain the
causes or effects of one or more outcome
(dependent variables
A causal study question:Does smoking cause cancer?
A research study conducted to
identify the important factors
associated with the variables of
interest.
A Correlational study question:
Are smoking and cancer related?
Study Settings
Contrivedor Unnatural Noncontrived or Natural
An artificial created or
"lab" environment in
which research is
conducted
A research conducted in a
natural environment
where activities take
place in the normal
manner
Time Horizon
Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
A research study for which
data are gathered just once to
answer the research question
A research study for which
data are gathered at several
points in time to answer the
research question
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Unit of Analysis
Refers to the level of aggregation of the data collection during the
subsequent data analysis stage.
The research question determines the unit of analysis
Individuals Dyads Groups Organizationsor Cultures
If the problem is to raise the motivational levels
of employees, then we are interested in
individual employees. We will be looking at the
data gathered from each individual and treating
each employee's response as an individual data
source
If the
researcher is
interested in
studying
two-person
interactions,then several
two-person
groups will
become the
unit of
analysis.
If the
problem
statement is
related to
groups, then
the unit ofanalysis
would be at
the group
level.
If the problem
statement is
related to
organizations
or cultures,
then the unitof analysis
would be at
the
organization
or culture
level.
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Variables
Anything that can take on differing or varying values. The values can differ
at various times for the same object or person, or the values can differ at the
same time for different objects or persons.
Objective
Can be measured
Subjective
Can't be measured
because of its
subjective nature
There are ways of
measuring thesubjective feelings
and perceptions of
individuals. One
technique is to
reduce the abstract
notions, or concepts
such as motivation,
involvement,
satisfaction, buyerbehavior to
observable behavior
and characteristics
Qualitative
-Brand of PC-Marital status
-Hair color
Quantitative
Discrete
-Children
in a family.
-Number of
Students in
class.
Continuous
-Amount of
income
-Weight of
Students
Example
Answer to the following questions from the respondents would be one
way of measuring the level of achievement motivation.
o To what extent would you say you push yourself to get the job
done on time?o How often do you neglect personal matters because you are
preoccupied with your job?
o How frequently do you think of your work when you are at home?
o To what extent would you prefer to take on extremely difficult
assi nments rather than moderatel challen in ones?
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Levels of Data
Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio
Data may
only be
classified
Data are
ranked
Meaningful difference
between values-Equal
Intervals
Meaningful zero
point and ratio
between values
Gender
Nationality
Your
rank in
class
Temperature Weight
Height
Len th
-Data
categories are
mutually
exclusive and
exhaustive.
-Data
categories have
no logical order
or distancerelationship
and have no
arithmetic
origin.
-Interval scale have the
power of nominal and
ordinal scales plus an
additional strength: they
incorporate the concept of
equality of interval. The
time between 3 and 6am
equals the time between 4
and 7am. One cannot say,6am is twice as late as 3am
because "zero time is an
arbitrary origin. 80F is
hotter than 40F but you
cannot conclude that the
40F is twice as cold as 80F
because this is a scaling
system.
80F = (80-32)*5/9 = 26.7C
40F = (40-32)*5/9 = 4.4C
-Ordinal scale
includes the
characteristics
of the nominal
scale plus an
indicator of
order.
-If a > b and
b > c, then a > cwithout stating
how much
greater or less.
-Ratio scale
has the power
of the interval
scale plus the
provision for
absolute zero
or origin. Ratio
data represent
the actualamounts of the
variable.
-Data
classifications
are ordered
according to
the amount of
the
characteristic
they possess.
-The zero point
is the absence
of the
characteristic.
Mode, Median, Mean, Standard deviation, Variance, t and Z-test.
One way ANOVA (for more than two groups). Correlation
Coefficient. Regression Analysis.
Frequency
table,
Proportion
(Percentages)Mode.
Chi-square test
(Difference
among two or
more
independent
groups)
Z-test (two
ro ortions
Median,
Percentile, and
Rank-order
correlations.
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Scales
Is a tool or mechanism by which individuals, events, or objects are distinguished on
the variables of interest in some meaningful way.
Scales that are commonly used in business research can be generally classified as
rating scales and ranking scales.
Rating
ScalesHave
several
response
categories
and are
used to
obtain
responses
with regard
to the
object,event, or
person
studied
Ranking Scales (Ordinal Scale)
This type of question requires the participant to rank order a list of items.Example: What are the most important three considerations in selecting a supermarket?
Location O Price O Meat quality O Cleanliness O Service O
Paired Comparison
Is used when, among a small number of objects, respondent are asked to choose between
two objects at a time.
Pair-wise comparison generally refers to any process of comparing entities in pairs to
judge which of each pair is preferred
An evaluation of two products that are given values based on set criteria as means of
comparing the two items.
A ranking technique that compares each job being evaluated individually to every otherjob in a pair-wise fashion to determine which job has a higher value. Ranks of jobs are
created which can than be pegged to the market via benchmark jobs.
Forced Choice
Enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternative
provided. This is easier for the respondents, particularly if the number of choices to be
ranked is limited in number.
Example: Rank the following news papers that you would like to subscribe to in the order
of preference, assuming 1 for the most preferred choice and 5 for the last preferred
Gulf News --- Al Itehad --- Al Bayan ---
Khaleej Times--- Middle East ---
Comparative Scale
Ask respondents to rate a concept in comparison with a benchmark explicitly used as a
frame of reference.
Example: Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares
with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position
Too Much About Right Too Little
1 2 3
Example: In an unusual financial environment, compared to stocks, how wise or useful is
it to invest in Treasury bonds? Please circle the appropriate responseMore Useful About the Same Less Useful
1 2 3 4 5
Measurements
We know the four different types of data levels (scales) that can be used to measure
the operationally defined dimensions and elements of a variable, it is necessary to
examine the methods of scaling (that is, assigning numbers or symbols) to obtain the
attitudinal responses of subjects toward objects, events, or persons.
Next Page
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Rating Scales
Dichotomous Scale: (Closed-Ended Questions) (Nominal Scale)
This question uses an either/or or yes/no response.
Example:
I have good communication with my supervisor. Yes O No O
The color in our new store is generally. Attractive O Not attractive O
Do you own a car? Yes O No O
Category Scale (Multiple choice) (Nominal Scale): Uses multiple items to obtain a single
response (the most correct one).
Example:
What is your age? Less than 30 O 30 to 39 O 40 to 49 O More than 49 O
Likert Scale (Interval Scale)
Is designed to examine how strongly subjects agree or disagree with statements on a 5-point
scale with the following anchors:
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neither Agree nor Disagree Agree Strongly AgreeExample:
Please indicate the degree to which you agree with each of the following statements:
Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Agree Strongly
Disagree nor Disagree Agree
My work is very interesting 1 2 3 4 5
Life without my work will be dull 1 2 3 4 5
Carrefour is the best supermarket in Dubai 1 2 3 4 5
I am not engrossed in my work at all 1 2 3 4 5
Semantic Differential: (Interval Scale)This method measures attitude by displaying pairs of opposite terms and asking respondents to
check which term better describes their feelings toward the concept or topic. Each pair consists
of a positive and negative adjective reflecting the extremes, such as: "honest, dishonest",
"efficient, inefficient", "powerful, week". The adjectives are placed at opposite ends of the line,
which is divided into an equal number of segments. Respondents can select the degree to which
the adjective describes the topic. It is important to reverse some of the items so that people don't
develop a "response set" marking the same column out of habit. In the following example you
can see some positive terms on the left column and some on the right column:
Example:
Happy ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Sad
Not helpful ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- helpful
Slow ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- ----- Fast
Numerical Scale (Interval Scale)
Similar to the semantic differential scale, with the difference that numbers on a 5-point or 7-
point scale are provided.
Extremely Pleased 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Extremely Displeased
Itemized Rating Scale (Interval Scale)
A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors, as needed, is provided for each item and the respondent
states the appropriate number on the side of each item or circle the relevant number againsteach item.
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Example:
Respond to each item using the scale below, and indicate your response number on the line by
each item.
1 2 3 4 5
Very Unlikely Unlikely Neither Unlikely Nor Likely Likely Very Likely
I will be changing my job within the next 12 months -------
Fixed or Constant Sum Scale (Ordinal Scale)
The respondent are here asked to distribute a given number of points across various items
Example:
In choosing toilet soap, indicate the importance you attach to each of the following five aspects
by assigning points for each to total 100 in all
Fragrance ---
Color ---
Shape ---
Size ---
Texture of lather ---
Total points 100
Stapel Scale (Interval Scale)
Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential when it is difficult to create
pairs of bipolar adjectives.
This scale simultaneously measures both the direction and intensity of the attitude toward the
items under study. The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the center with a
numerical scale ranging, say, from +3 to -3, on either side of the item. This gives an idea of how
close or distant the individual response to the stimulus is.
Example:
State how you would rate your supervisor's abilities with respect to each of the characteristics
mentioned below, by circling the appropriate number.3 3 3
2 2 2
1 1 1
Adopting Modern Product Innovation Interpersonal Skills
Technology
-1 -1 -1
-2 -2 -2
-3 -3 -3
Graphic Rating Scale (Interval Scale)
A graphical representation helps the respondents to indicate on this scale their answers to a
particular question by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the lineExample: On a scale of 1 to 10 how would you rate your instructor?
1 Very bad
5 All right
10 Excellent
Open-Ended Questions:
This type of question allows the respondent to give an unlimited answer.Example:
Why do you shop at Carrefour?
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Concept
A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or
processes. Or a generalized idea that represents something of meaning.
Concepts such as age, gender, and education are relatively concreteproperties and present few problems in either definition or measurement.
Concepts such as brand loyalty, corporate culture, media skepticism, and
so on are more abstract and are more difficult to both define and measure.
Operational Definition
Specifies what the researcher must do to measure the concept under
investigation
Media Skepticism
Conceptual Definition
Media skepticism - the degree to which individuals are skeptical toward
the reality presented in the mass media. Media skepticism varies across
individuals, from those who are mildly skeptical and accept most of what
they see and hear in the media to those who completely discount and
disbelieve the facts, values, and portrayal of reality in the media.
Media Skepticism
Operational Definition
Please tell me how true each statement is about the media. Is it very true,
not very true, or not at all true?
1. The program was not very accurate in its portrayal of the problem.
2. Most of the story was staged for entertainment purposes.
3. The presentation was slanted and unfair
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Source of Data
Primary
Information obtained firsthand by the
researcher on the variables of interest for the
specific purpose of the study, like individuals,
focus groups, panels and unobtrusive methods
Secondary
Information
gathered from
sources already
existing, as for
example,
company records
or archives,
government
publications,
industry analysisoffered by the
media, web sites,
the Internet, and
so on.
Focus Groups
A group consisting of 8 to 10 members
randomly selected, who discus a product
or any given topic for about 2 hours with
a moderator present, so that their opinions
can serve as the basis for further research.
Focus group are used for
Exploratory studies
Making generalizations based on
the information generated by them.
Conducting sample surveys.
Panels
Whereas focus groups meet for a one-time group session, panels (ofmembers) meet more than once. In cases where the effects of certain
changes are to be studied over a period of time.
Unobtrusive Sources Data Collection
Trace measures as they are also called, originate from a primary source that
does not involve people. For example, the number of different brands of
soft drink cans found in trash bags also provides a measure of their
consumption levels.
Individuals
Who provide information when
interviewed, administered
questionnaire, or observed.
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Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a preformulated written set of questions to which respondents record
their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. Questionnaires are an
efficient data collection mechanism when the researcher known exactly what is requiredand how to measure the variables of interest.
Gathering information via surveys is quick, inexpensive, efficient, accurate and flexible.
Preliminary Factors Necessary for Effective Surveys
The researcher must determine what information is needed to meet the purpose of
the research project.
The researcher must determine that the survey approach will be the best method
for collecting the needed information.
Before a survey project is implemented, the researcher must have a good
understanding of the population from which the sample for the survey will be
drawn.
How questions are worded and the level of sophistication of the language used.
The type and form of questions asked
Test the Questions
Pretest any questionnaire by administering the survey to a small group of people
people similar to those who will be asked to respond to the final version.
Responses to the pretest will tell you how well people understand the questions.The feedback will help you refine the questions to eliminate misunderstandings
and confusion.
Stages of an interview
The interview precedes through stages, beginning with introduction an entry.
Interviewers are trained to make appropriate opening remarks that will convince the
person that his or her cooperation is important.
Asslamm-o-Alaykum
My name is..
I am working for (or calling from, for a telephone interview.(
We are conducting a survey concerning
I would like to get a few of your ideas
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Draft and Develop the Questions
Validity
Validity is the degree to which the item
measures what the researcher want to
measure.
Or the ability of a scale to measure what was
intended to measure
One method of improving validity is to be
assured that the question will not produce a
biased response. Emotionally packed words
and questions that lead the respondenttoward an obviously preferred answer should
be avoid.
Reliability
Reliability is the degree to which
the item is likely to get the same
results consistently.
Questions that obtain reasonably
consistent results when
administered to similar samples (or
the same sample at different times)
are said to be reliable.
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Important Remarks
Once the questions have been tested, they should be integrated into a clean, straightforward
questionnaire that provides clear instructions on how it should be completed.
Numbering each question and all possible responses will help facilitate the coding process.
The final version of the questionnaire should be psychologically attractive, leaving ample
white space. Don't crowd the information; it'll look imposing to the reader and may reduce the
number of responses.
The questionnaire should have as many questions as necessary, but as few as possible.
Responses for multiple-choice questions should be mutually exclusive from the other choices.
Each choice is different from the others. Eliminate any ambiguous options.
The questionnaire should be titled and professionally reproduced. An attractively printed
survey will be positively received and will yield a higher response rate.
A good questionnaire should include both positively and negatively worded questions.
Double-barreled questions should be eliminated, like
"Do you think there is a good market for the product and that it will sell well?"
Ambiguous questions should be avoided
Recall-Dependent questions should be avoided.
Leading Questions
Questions should not be phrased in such a way that they lead the respondents to give the
responses that the researcher would like or want them to give, like
"Don't you think that in these days of escalating costs of living, employees should be given
good pay raises?"
Another way of asking the question"To what extent do you agree that employees should be given higher pay raises?"
Simple and short questions are preferable to long ones. As a rule of thumb, a question or a
statement in the questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed one full line in print.
Organize the questions logically in appropriate sections and providing instructions on how to
complete the items in each section will help the respondents to answer them without
difficulty.
Information of a very private and personal nature such as income, state of health, and so on
should be asked at the end of the questionnaire. Such questions should be justified by
explaining how this information might contribute to knowledge and problem solving.
The questionnaire could include an open-ended question at the end allowing respondents tocomment on any aspect they choose, like
"Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided"
The questionnaire would end with an expression of sincere thanks to respondents, like:
"I sincerely appreciate your time and cooperation. Please check to make sure that you have
not skipped any question, and then drop the questionnaire in the locked box".
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Ethics in Data Collection
Ethical Behaviors
of Sponsors
Ethical Behaviors of
Researchers
Ethical Behaviors of
Respondents
-The sponsors should
ask for the study to
be done to better the
purpose of the
organization, and not
for any other self-
serving reason.
-The sponsors should
respect the
confidentiality of the
data obtained by the
researcher and not
ask for the individual
or group responses
to be disclosed to
them, or ask to see
the questionnaire.-The sponsors should
have an open mind
in accepting the
results and
recommendations in
the report presented
by the researcher.
-Treating the
information given
by the respondent
as strictly
confidential and
guarding his or her
privacy is one of
the primary
responsibilities of
the researcher.
-The researcher
should not
misrepresent the
nature of the study
to subjects,
especially in lab
experiment. Thepurpose of the
study must be
explained to them.
-No one should be
forced to respond
to the survey.
- The subject, once
having exercised
the choice to
participate in a
study, should
cooperate fully in
the tasks ahead,
such as responding
to a survey or
taking part in an
experiment.
-The respondent
also has an
obligation to be
truthful and honest
in the responses.
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Sampling
Surveys are useful and powerful in finding answers to research questions through data
collection and subsequent analysis, but they can do more harm than good if thepopulation is not correctly targeted. That is not collected from the people, events, or
objects that can provide the correct answers to solve the problem. The process of
selecting the right individuals, objects, or events for study is known as sampling.
Population
Is the entire group of people, events, or things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
Element
A single member of the population
Population Frame
A listing of all the elements in the population from which the sample is drawn
Sample
A subset or subgroup of the population
Subject
A single member of the sample
Reasons to Sample
To contact the whole population would often be time consuming
The cost of studying all the items in a population is often prohibitive
The physical impossibility of checking all items in the population
The destructive nature of certain tests.
Remarks
Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are appropriate for most research.
Where samples are to be broken into subsamples, (Male/Female), a minimum
sample size of 30 for each category is necessary
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Systematic
Sampling
Stratified
Sampling
Cluster
Sampling
Probability Sampling Non-probability Sampling
Area
Sampling
Double
Sampling
Unrestricted or Simple
Random Sampling
Restricted or Complex
Probability Sampling
Every element in the population
has a known and equal chance
of being selected as a subject
Next Page
A probability sampling
design that involves
choosing every nth
element in the population
for the sample.
Suppose you want to
sample 8 houses from a
street of 120 houses.
120/8=15, so every 15th
house is chosen after a
random starting point
between 1 and 15. If therandom starting point is
11, then the houses
selected are 11, 26, 41,
56, 71, 86, 101, and 116.
A probability
sampling design
that first dividesthe population
into meaningful
non-overlapping
subsets (called
strata), e.g.
geographical
areas, age
group, genders.
A sample istaken from each
stratum.
The entire
population of interest
is divided intogroups, or clusters,
and a random sample
of theses clusters is
selected.Then the
required information
is collected from the
elements within each
selected group or
cluster
A type ofclustersamplingwheregeographicalareas are theclusters.
A probability sampling design where
initially a sample is used in a study to
collect some preliminary information
of interest, and later a sub-sample of
this primary sample is used to examine
the matter in more details.
Note: In stratified sampling, a
random sample is drawn from
each of the strata, whereas in
cluster sampling only theselected clusters are studied.
Types of Sampling
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Determine the Sample Size You Need
The following table gives us a simple way to calculate the sample size,
if the size of the population is approximately known.
A Sample Size Table Degree of Accuracy = 0.05
Population Sample Population Sample Population Sample
10 9 260 155 3000 340
20 19 300 168 5000 356
40 36 400 196 10000 36960 52 500 217 20000 376
80 66 700 248 50000 381
100 79 900 269 70000 382
140 102 1000 277 120000 282
180 122 1500 305 160000 383
220 140 2000 322 1,000,000 383
MGT 534 - Research Methods in Business Dr. AbdelMagid Mattar 43
Non-probability
Convenience Purposive
QuotaJudgment
Information or data for
the researcher are
gathered from members
of the population
conveniently accessible
to the researcher.
The required information
is gathered from special
or specific targets or
groups of people on some
rational basis
The sample subject is
chosen on the basis of the
individual's ability to
provide the type of
special information
needed by the researcher
Predetermined proportion of people from different
subgroups is sampled
A non-probability stratified sampling procedure ( thepopulation is first segmented into mutually exclusive sub-
groups) in which units are selected for the sample from
each group to adhere to certain proportions of
characteristics
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Data Analysis Process
Getting Data Ready for Analysis
Feel forData
Goodness
of Data
Hypotheses
Testing
Creating data
file
Editing
Handling
blank
responses
Coding
Categorizing
The process of going over the dataand ensuring that they are complete
and acceptable for data analysis
If 25% of the items in the
questionnaire have been left
unanswered, it may be a good idea
to throw out the questionnaire
Assign the midpoint in the scale as
the response to that particular item
Assign the mean value of theresponses of all those who have
responded to that particular item
Assign the mean value of the
responses of this particular
respondent to all other questions
measuring this variable
Assign a random number within the
range for that scale to that
particular item.
Several items measuring a
concept should be grouped
together.
Responses to negatively
worded questions should be
reversed so that all answers
are in the same direction
Data Analysis
Frequency distribution for the
demographic variables
Measures of central tendency
Measures of dispersion
Correlations
To test the reliability and
validity of the measures
-Chi-Square Test: A
nonparametric testestablishes the
independence between
two nominal variables.
-t-Test: A statistical
test that establishes a
significant mean
difference in a
variable between two
groups.
-ANOVA Test:: tests
for significant mean
differences in
variables among
multiple groups
Interpretation of results and report
writing
Pearson Correlation Coefficient is used to indicate
the direction, strength, and significance of the
bivariate relationships of all the variables in the
study measured on an interval or ratio scale.
Spearman's rank correlation and Kendall's rank
correlation are used to examine relationships
between two ordinal variables.
If correlations were higher than 0.75, we might have
had to suspect whether or not the correlated
variables are two different and distinct variables and
would have doubted the validity of the measures.
Fisher exact probability test and the Cochran Q test
are used to determine the relationshipbetween twonominally scaled variables.
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Goodness of Data
To test the reliability and validity of the measures
Reliability
The reliability of a measure is
established by testing for both
consistency and stability.
Validity
Evidence that the instrument,
technique, or process used to
measure a concept does indeed
measure the intended concept.
Consistency of measure
Indicates how will the
items measuring aconcept hang together
as a set.
Stability of a measure
The ability of the measure
to repeat the same results
over time with low
vulnerability to changes in
the situation.
Cronbach's Alpha ()
Cronbach's Alpha is a reliability
coefficient that indicates how
well the items in a set are
positively correlated to one
another. Cronbach's alpha is
computed in terms of theaverage intercorrelations among
the items measuring the
concept. The closer Cronbach's
Alpha is to 1, the higher the
internal consistency reliability.
Reliability less than 0.6 are
considered to be poor, those in
the 0.7 range are acceptable,
and those over 0.8 are good.
Criterion-relate validity can
be established by testing
for the power of themeasure to differentiate
individuals who are known
to be different
Convergent validity can be
established when there is high
degree of correlation between
two different sources
responding to the same
measure
Discriminant validity can be
established when two distinctly
different concepts are not related
to each other
Note: negatively worded items in
the questionnaire should be
reversed before the items are
submitted for reliability tests.
Cronbach's Alpha = )1(1*
+ NMIIC
MIICN
Where:
N:= Number of items
MIIC:= Mean Inter-Item-Correlation
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One Sample Two Samples More than two Samples
-Sign Test
-Kolmogorov-
Smirnov Test
-Median Test
-Chi-Square
Test 2 with
nominal data
Related Independent
Sign Test:
For two
related
samples
measured
on ordinalscale
-Fisher exact probability Test: For
two independent samples measured
on nominal scale
-Mann-Whitney or Kolmogorov-
Smirnov (KS) Tests: For two
independent samples on ordinal
Scale. (Analogue of the twoindependent sample t-test).
-Chi-Square 2 with nominal data.
-KS test is a more powerful test
than 2 or Mann-Whitney U
Related
-Cochran Test: For more than two
related samples measured on
nominal scale
-Friedman two-way ANOVA Test:
For more than two related samples
measured on ordinal scale
-Kruskal-Wallis Test: For more than
two independent samples measured on
an ordinal scale.(An alternative to one-
way ANOVA where normality of
distributions cannot be assumed)
-Friedman two-way ANOVA: For more
than two related samples measured onordinal scale. (A good alternative to
two-way ANOVA where normality
cannot be assumed)
-Chi-Square 2 with nominal data
Some Nonparametric Tests
Independent
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Example
The following questionnaire consists of 6 demographic variables and
16 items measuring involvement and satisfaction
Demographic variables
1. Age 2.Education 3. Job Level 4.Gender 5. Work Shift 6. EmploymentStatus
[1] 55 [5] PhD [5]
Technician
[6] Other [6] Other
Here are some questions that ask you to tell us how you experienceyour work life in general.
Please circle the appropriate number on the scales below.
To what extent would you agree with the following statements, on a
scale of 1 to 7, 1 denoting very low agreement, and 7 denoting very
high agreement?
7 The major happiness of my life comes from my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 Time at work flies by quickly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
9 I live, eat, and breath my job 1 2 3 4 5 6 710 My work is fascinating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
11 My work gives me a sense of accomplishment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
12 My supervisor praises good work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
13 The opportunities for advancement are very good here 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
14 My coworkers are very stimulating 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
15 People can live comfortably with their pay in the organization 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
16 I get a lot of cooperation at the workplace 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
17 My supervisor is not very capable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
18 Most things in life are more important than work 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
19 Working here is a drug 1 2 3 4 5 6 720 The promotion policies here are very unfair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
21 My pay is barely adequate to take care of my expenses 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
22 My work is not the most important part in my life 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
23. Please make any additional comments needed in the space provided