7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

1/33

CHAPTER 2 - THE CL I ENT ST ATE

Thi s chapt er f ur ther el uci dat es t he concept of t he cl i entst at e, whi ch was f i r st i nt r oduced i n chapt er 1. Some t heor et i call i t er at ur e on t he nat ur e of t he st at e and on r el at ed concept s i sf i r st r evi ewed. Thi s i s f ol l owed by an exam nat i on of t he r ol epl ayed by t he st at e i n t he pr ocess of i ndus t r i al i zat i on. Theconcept of t he cl i ent st at e i s t hen el abor at ed i n gr eat er det ai lon t he basi s of t hi s di scussi on, and i s r el at ed t o t he mat er i alpr esent ed i n chapt er 1 by exam ni ng how a cl i ent st at e can emer geunder a cl i ency r el at i onshi p. Thi s chapt er concl udes w t h adi scussi on of t he possi bl e consequences of t he est abl i shment of acl i ent st at e f or t he cl i ent soci et y and f or t he l ong- t er m i nt er -est s of t he pat r on power .

1) THE STATE AND SOCI ETY

DEF I NI T I ONS OF STATE, GOVERNMENT, AND REGI ME

The st at e i s an adm ni s t r at i ve body whi ch cl ai ms l egi t i macy i nsoci et y by vi r t ue of t he par amount r ol e i t assumes i n or gani zi ng

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

2/33

PAG E 28

and mai nt ai ni ng t he soci al structur e. I t s most pr om nent f unct i onsi n f ul f i l l i ng t hi s r ol e ar e: i ) t he mai nt enance of soci al dom -nat i on, t hr ough i t s monopol y over t he l egi t i mat e means ofcoer ci on, i t s i deol ogi cal appar atuses, and i t s var i ous r edi st r i bu-t i ve and al l ocat i ve or gans; i i ) mai nt enance of t he economy,t hr ough act i ons such as f i scal and monet ar y pol i cy, soci al wel f ar epol i ci es, and or gani zat i on of t he econom c i nf r ast r uct ur e; andi i i ) t he conduct of f or ei gn pol i cy, i ncl udi ng cooper at i ve andhost i l e r el at i ons w th ot her st at es and f or ei gn i nt er vent i ons onbehal f of soci et y as a whol e and par t i cul ar pr i vat e i nt erests. lThe st at e may al so under t ake a var i et y of ot her t asks whi ch may beaccor ded var yi ng degr ees of l egi t i macy. These i ncl ude f ore i gnexpansi oni sm sel f - aggrandi zement , and t he dest r uct i on of oppo-si t i on gr oups and or gani zat i ons.

The sta te i s di st i ngui shed f r om t he gover nment , def i ned as t hegr oup of i ndi vi dual s who ar e f or mal l y aut hor i zed t o exer ci se stat epower . z I n pr act i ce t hi s t er m i s of t en used t o r ef er t o t he gr oupof t op st at e of f i ci al s whose t enure i s associ at ed w t h t hat of t hehead of st at e, such as t he "Mossadeq gover nment . " The t er ms pat r ongover nment and cl i ent gover nment wer e used i n chapt er I t o r ef ert o t he i ndi vi dual s who exer ci se st at e power i n count r i es engaged1n a cl i ency r el at i onshi p. As i s cl ear f r om t he di scussi on t her e,t he patron and cl i ent gover nment s ar e t he mai n gr oups di r ect l yi nvol ved i n t he cl i ency r el at i onshi p. 3 The t er m cl i ent gover nmentw l l appl y i n any cl i ent count r y, r egar dl ess of whet her a cl i entst at e ( whi ch r ef er s t o a par t i cul ar pat t er n of st at e- soci et yr el at i ons) i s sai d t o exi st . I n a monar chy such as t he one whi chexi st ed i n I r an bef or e t he 1978- 1979 r evol ut i on t he r oyal cour tr ef er s t o t he t i t ul ar head of st at e ( who mayor may not ex~r ci seef f ect i ve st at e power ) and hi s ent our age.

The st at e i s al so di st i ngui shed f r om t he r eoi me, whi ch r ef er st o t he syst em of gover nment al r ol es and pr ocesses, i ncl udi ng t he

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

3/33

PAGE 29

met hods of r epr esent at i on, r epr essi on, and l eader shi p sel ect i on. 4Thi s t er m i s al so used t o re fer t o t he per i od of t enur e of apar t i cul ar monar ch or head of st at e havi ng a di st i nct i ve st yl e ofl eader shi p, such as t he "Reza Shah r egi me. " I n t hi s cont ext " t her egi me" and " t he government " ar e of t en used i nt er changabl y.

CONTENDI NG VI EWS OF STATE- SOCI E TY RELATI ONS

Despi t e t he l egi t i macy i t may be gr ant ed and i t s cont rol overt he coer ci ve f or ces and ot her power f ul st at e appar at uses, t hest at e i s soci et al pr essur es.Rat her , by

not i ndependent of I soci et y andi t s ver y nat ur e t He st at e i s nor mal l y engaged i n a

of r ec i procal r eJ at i ons w t hompl ex web t he var i ous gr oups i nor gani zi ng and mai n-oci et y. The par amount r ol e oJ t he st at e i n

t ai ni ng t he soci al st r uct ur e el sur es t hat i t s acti ons ar e of gr eati nt er est t o al l domest i c gr ou~s. Many of i t s pol i ci es i nher ent l yser ve t he i nt er est s of some gr oups at t he expense of ot her s,maki ng i t t he obj ect of compet i t i on and pr essur es f r om t he gr oupsaf f ect ed by par t i cul ar pol i ci es. Fur ther mor e, t he st at e i s depend-ent on cer t ai n ki nds of suppor t and mat er i al r esour ces f r omdi f f er ent gr oups i n soci et y. ~hi S dependence conf er s subst ant i alpower on t hese gr oups, enabl i ~g t hem t o i nf l uence t he st at e' sact i ons. St at e pol i cy consequent l y r ef l ect s i n a gener al way t hechangi ng conf i gur at i on of power i n soci et y, medi at ed t hr ough t heconf l i ct s char acter i zend pol i t i cal pr ocesses whi chi ntra-soci et al r el at i ons.

Si nce t hi s st udy f ocuses on t he domest i c pol i t i cs of t he cl i entcount r y, i t i s usef ul t o r evi ew a number of conceptual f r amewor kswhi ch embody di f f er ent vi ews on t he r el at i onshi p bet ween t he st at e

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

4/33

PAGE 30pal di mensi ons, as shown i n f i gur e 2. The f i r st di mensi on r ef l ectst he degr ee of equal i t y i n t he i nf l uence exer ci sed by di f f er entgr oups over t he st at e. The second di mensi on embodi es t he degr ee t owhi ch t he st at e' s pol i 6i es ar e act ual l y a f fect ed by t hose gr oupswhi ch have i nf l uence over i t . Fi ve maj or vi ews of st ate-soci et yr el at i ons ar e gr ouped al ong t hese di mensi ons i n f i gure 2. Two oft hese vi ews ( t hose of t he st at i st s and el i t e t heor i st s, del i neat edw t h a quest i on mar k) do not expl i ci t l y addr ess one or t he ot herof t hese i ssues, and so ar e pl aced i n mor e t han one cat egor y.

- f i gur e 2 about her e-

The pl ur al i st concept i on of st ate-soci et y r el at i ons hol ds t hatal l gr oups have some i nf l uence over st at e pol i cy. I n t hi s vi ewi nf l uence i s di sper sed t hr ough~ut soci et y mai nl y because of mul t i -pl e, over l appi ng gr oup member ~hi p and because t he st at e act i vel ywor ks t o equal i ze gr oup i nf l ence. s Pr omnent wr i t er s i n t hi st r adi t i on such as Rober t Dahl l nd Nel son Pol sby ar gue f ur t her t hatt hese f act or s ensur e t hat al l gr oups have vi r t ual l y equal i nf l u-ence over t he st at e. 6 However , mor e r ecent st udi es, i ncl udi ng a

sent at i ve i nst i t ut i ons cer t ai n gr oup ar e of t en ef f ec t i vel yl at er wor k by Dahl , have f ound t hat even I n count r i es w t h r epre-

excl uded f r om par t i c i pat i on. 7

A ver y di f f er ent vi ew I S hel d by el i t e t heor i st s and by Mar x-i st s, who ar gue t hat onl y one or a f ew part i cul ar gr oups can exer tr eal i nf l uence over t he st at e. For el i t e t heor i st s, i nf l uence i s

and t he ver y r i ch. Thi s i nf l uencel i m t ed t o t op pol i t i c i ans and bur eaucr at s, cor por at e execut i ves,m l i t ar y l eader s, cel ebr i t i es,i s due t o cer t ai n qual i t i es whi ch char act er i ze t he member s oft hese gr oups, such as t hei r gr eat weal th, power f ul posi t i ons,super i or educat i on, and ext ensi ve soci al connecti ons. s Mar xi s t sargue t hat t he cl ass whi ch owns t he means of pr oduct i on haspr eponder ant i nf l uence over t he sta te. The"preponder ant i nf l uence

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

5/33

J }

Di s per s i onofI nf l uenceAmongGr oups

J J J

F i gur e 2 - Di f f e rent Concept i ons of St at e- Soc i et y Rel at i ons

all gr oupshave near l ypquali nf l uenc e( democr at i cr e gi me)s ome gr oupshav e muc hmor e L " 1f l uenc et han ot her s(au t hor i t ar i anr eg i me)

Respons i v enes s of St a t e Pol i cy t o Soc i et al Pr es s u r e ss t at e pol i c yent i r el y de t er m ne dby s oc i et al pr es s ur es( weak s t a t e )

s t at e pol i c yl ar ge l y i ndependentof s oc i e t al pr es s ur es(s t r o ng s t at e)r---------l---~-!- - - - - - 1 pl ur al i s t s ! s t at i s t s (?) !! I! I

I I 1I --,-~---. +- (I

! s t at i s t s (?). . ! el i t e t heor i s t s (?) 1J i ns t r umenta l Nar xi s t s I s t r u c t ur al Har xi s t s 1I el i t e t heor i s t s (?) . 1 ( r e l at i vel y jI aut onomous s t at e) iI II ... !

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

6/33

PAGE 31of t hi s cl ass i s due t o t he power i nher ent i n i t s cont r ol over t heproduct i on pr ocess. Many Mar xi st s concede, however , t hat t he st at emust occasi onal l y make concessi ons t o t he l ower cl asses 1n or dert o f ul l y ser ve t he i nt er est s of t he dom nant cl ass .

The i ssue of whi ch gr oups have i nf l uence over t he st at e and ar econsequent l y ser ved by i ts pol i ci es i s of such i mpor t ance t hat t hest at e cannot be f ul l y under st ood w t hout expl i ci t l y i dent i f yi ngt hese gr oups. I t i s usef ul t o speci f y t he f or m of st at e by r ef er -r i ng t o t he gr oups whi ch have pr eponder ant i nf l uence over t hest at e and whose i nt er est s ar e consequent l y ser ved by i t . Thi s t er mi s adopt ed f r om t he wor k of Ni cos Poul ant zas, who uses i t t o i den-t i f y t he hegemoni c f r act i on of t he cl ass whi ch owns t he means ofpr oduct i on. 9 The cl i ent st at e was def i ned i n chapt er 1 as apar t i cul ar f or m of st at e i n or der t o emphasi ze t he i dea t hatdomest i c qr oups exer t l i t t l e or no i nf l uence over a st at e of t hi s

The f or m of st at e has an i mpor t ant bear i ng on t he t ype ofone i n whi ch t he st at e ext ends ategi me. A democr at i c r egi me

l east l i m t ed r epr esent at i on t o al l gr oups i n soci et y. An aut hor i -t ar i an r eoi me i s one i n whi ch cer t ai n gr oups, general l y popul argr oups, ar e excl uded f r om ef f ect i ve part i c i pat i on. The pl ur al i stvi si on of uni ver sal r epr esent at i on cl ear l y hol ds onl y under ademocrat i c r egi me, whi l e t he vi l ws of el i t e t heor i st s and Marx i stsi mpl y an aut hor i t ar i an r egi me. The t ype of r egi me can be f ur theri dent i f i ed by speci f yi ng t he f o m of r epr esent at i ve bodi es ( i f anyexi st ) , t he degr ee of soci al mobi l i zat i on, t he gui di ng i deol ogy,and t he mechani sms of soci al dom nat i on. 1o

The second di mensi on al ong whi ch vi ews of st at e- soci et yr el at i ons ar e di s t i ngui shed i n f i gur e 2 concer ns t he degr ee t owhi ch t he st at e' s pol i ci es ar e actual l y af f ect ed by those groups

Iwhi ch exer t ef f ect i ve i nf l uence over i t . For pl ur al i st s, st at e

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

7/33

PAGE 32

pol i cy i s t he r esul t ant of t he conf l l ct i ng pr ess ur es exer t ed byal l gr oups i n soci ~t y, and i t i s ~nt i r el y det er m ned by t hesepr essur es. Thi s vi ew r ef l ect s t he l i ber al not i on t hat t he wel f ar eof soci et y i s maxi m zed when al l gr oups ar e r epr esent ed and whent he st at e cannot act i ndependent l y of soci et y. I I A ver y di f f er entvi ew i s t aken by st at i st s such as Kr asner . who ar gue t hat st at epol i cy i s of t en ent i r el y i ndependent of soci et al pressur es. Thest at e f r equent l y pur sues goal s whi ch t r anscend cl ass and ot herdi st i nct i ons. These st at e goal s may i ncl ude econom c gr owt h, f ul lempl oyment , nat i onal secur i t y, and domest i c or der . The st at epursues t hese goal s not because i t i s compel l ed t o by cert ai ngr oups but because t hey f al l w t hi n t he pur vi ew of i t s obl i gat i ont o mai nt ai n t he soci al st r uct ur e. 12 To t hese l egi t i mat e goal s maybe added ot her sta te goal s such as f or ei gn aggressi on andsel f - aggr andi zement whi ch may ser ve onl y t he i nt er est s of t hegover nment and whi ch ar e gener al l y pursued i ndependent l y of socl e-t al pr essur es. The st at i st per spect i ve does not expl i ci t l yaddr ess whet her i nf l uence over t he st at e i s di spersed equal l yt hr oughout soci et y, and hence i s pl aced i n t wo cat egor i es i nf i gur e 2.

Whi l e al l Mar xi st s agr ~~ t hat t he st at e ul t i mat el y ser ves onl yt he i nterest s of t he cl ass whi ch owns t he means of pr oducti on, ani mpor t ant debat e has emer ged i n recent Mar xi st l i t er at ur e overexact l y how t hi s occurs. I n a vi ew whi ch r esembl es t he pl ur al i star gument , i nst r ument al Mar xi st , such as Ral ph M l i band see st at epol i cy as det er m ned ent i r el y bt pr essur es exer t ed by t he dom nantcl ass . The st at e ser ves t he i n er est s of t hi s cl ass because i t scont rol over t he means of pr od ct i on makes i t suf f i ci ent l y power -f ul t o i mpose i t s w l l on t h~ tate.13 A di f f er ent vi ew i s t akenby st r uct ur al i st s such as Poul ant zas, who ar gue t hat t he st at e i sre l at i vel Y aut onomous f r om di r ect pr ess ur es by t he dom nant cl ass.Whi l e t he st at e ser ves t he l ong- t er m i nt erest s of t hi s cl ass bymai nt ai ni ng t he ~xi st i ng mode of pr oduct i on, i t s r el at i ve aut onomy

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

8/33

PAGE 33

enabl es i t t o occasi onal l y act agai nst t he i mmedi at e i nt er est s oft he dom nant cl ass by maki ng concessi ons t o ot her cl asses. Theseconcessi ons may i ncl ude soci al wel f ar e pol i c i es, r ecogni t i on ofl abor uni ons, and l i m t ed r epresent at i on i n t he f or m of f reeel ect i ons and ot her democr at i c pr ocesses. The st at e makes t heseconcessi ons i n or der t o r educe cl ass conf l i ct and t hus pr eser vet he hegemony of t he dom nant cl ass. 14

The pl ur al i st / s t at i st and i nst r ument al / s t r uct ur al Mar xi s tdi st i nct i ons bot h concer n t he degr ee t o whi ch t he st at e i senmeshed by t he pr essur es and i nf l uences of var i ous gr oups 1nsoci et y. Each can be seen as def i ni ng a cont i nuum al ong whi ch t hei ndependence of t he st at e f r om soci et y var i es. For pl ur al i s t s andi nst r ument al Mar xi st s t he st at e i s weak, bei ng dom nat ed by pr es-sures f r om t hose domest i c gr oups whi ch ar e r epr esent ed. Forst at i st s and st ruct ur al Mar xi st s t hl a st at e i s stron9L and can actt o some ext ent i ndependent l y of domest i c gr oups. I S

The mai n di f f er ence bet wee t hese t wo appr oaches i s t hat f orMar xi st s t he sta te ul t i mat el y ser ves onl y t he i nt er est s of t hecl ass whi ch owns t he means of Rr oduct i on, whi l e f or pl ur al i s t s and

ci ent pol i t i cal power . Fur t her mor e. Mar xi s t s ar gue t hat i t i s t hest at i st s t he sta te' s pol i ci es ser ve any gr oup t hat w el ds suf f i -

mode of pr oduct i on whi ch f undament al l y det er m nes whi ch cl ass 1Sdom nant i n soci et y, si nce i ~ i dent i f i es t he dom nant means ofpr oduct i on. Consequent l y, even i f t he st at e i s ent i r el y i ndepend-ent of pr essur es f r om soci et y i t ser ves t he i nt er est s of t he dom -nant cl ass si mpl y by act i ng t o ~mai nt ai n t he soci al st r uct ur e. Thevi ews of st at i st s and st r uc ur al Mar xi s t s ar e t hus cl osel yr el at ed, si nce, i n t he cont ext f a capi t al i st mode of product i on,"one man' s ( mai nt enance of t hp soci al st r uct ur e) i s anot her ' sl ong- ter m pr eser vat i on of capi t al i smH16

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

9/33

PAGE 34MECHANI SMS OF GROUP I NFLUENCE

The t wo di mensi ons al ong whi ch vi ews of st at e- soci et y r el at i onshave been di st i ngui shed her e each r el at e t o t he abi l i t y of di f f er -ent gr oups t o pr essur e t he st at e 50 as t o obt ai n mor e f avor abl epol i ~ es f r om i t . As such, a soci et y w l l be l ocat ed al ong t hese

' di mensi ons accor di ng t o t he degr ee of i nf l uence whi ch t he di f f er -ent gr oups i n i t have over t he st at e. Soci et i es wher e t he weakestgr oups ar e never t hel ess suf f i c i ent l v power f ul t o exer t some i nf l u-ence w l l t end t owar d t he democr at i c model . Those i n whi ch t hesegr oups ar e near l y power l ess can be consi der ed aut hor i t ar i an. Soci -et i es. i n whi ch t he most power f ul gr oups st i l l have l i m t ed i nf l u-ence over t he st at e ar e char act er i zed by an aut onomous or st rongst at e. Those wher e t he most power f ul gr oups dom nat e t he st at ear e sai d t o have a weak st at e.

I n or der t o det er m ne wher e a soci et y l i es al ong t hese t wodi mensi ons i t i s necessar y t o exam ne t he condi t i ons whi ch af f ectt he abi l i t y of di f f er ent gr oup~ t o i nf l uence t he st at e. The wr i t -er s di scussed above i dent i f y J number of i mpor t ant f actors whi ch

The si mpl est expl anat i ons of how gr oups i nf l uence t he st at e ar e

Thesef f ect t he amount of i nf l uence di f f er ent gr oups can exert .f act or s f or m a basi s f or char ct er - i zi ng st at e- soci et y r el at i onsal ong t hese t wo di mensi ons, and f or under st andi ng t he dynam ccondi t i ons whi ch bear on t he f or m of st at e and t he t ype of r egi me.

gi ven by el i t e t heor i st s such 61

s C. W i ght M l l s and by i nst r u-ment al Marx i sts such as Gabri el Kol ko and Ral ph M l i band. These

I

wr i t er s ar gue t hat st at e pol i cy ser ves t he i nt er est s of t he el i t eor of t he capi t al i st cl ass because t he st at e i s pr i mar i l y st af f edby empl oyees ei t her dr awn f r om or ow ng al l egi ance t o t hesegr oups. St at e pol i cymaker s make deci si ons on t he basi s of t hei rval ues. habi t s. and bel i ef s. These r ef l ect t hei r upper cl ass back-

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

10/33

PAGE 35

gr ounds or per sonal connect i ons, and hence t hei r deci si ons i nvar i -abl y ser ve t he i nt er est s of t he upper cl asses. Lower cl ass st at eempl oyees under go a pr ocess of nbour geoi si f i cat i onn i n whi ch uppercl ass val ues and bel i ef s ar e i nst i l l ed i n t hem 17 Si nce l egi t i mat er epr esent at i ves of t he l ower cl ass es ar e not empl oyed by t hest at e, st at e pol i cy does not ser ve t he i nt er est s of t hese cl asses.

A second, mor e sophi st i cat ed expl anat i on of gr oup i nf l uencesees st at e pol i cy as t he r esul t ant of di r ect pr essur es exer t ed ont he st at e by conf l i ct i ng gr oups, t ar get ed at ei t her . si ngl e i ssuesor at a br oad r ange of pol i ci es. Thi s gener al appr oach i s t aken bya var i et y of di f f er ent wr i t er s, r angi ng f r om pl ur al i st s t o i nst r u-ment al Mar xi st s. I n t hi s vi ew t he st at e' s act i ons ar e ent i r el ydet er m ned by di r ect pr essures exer t ed on i t by soci et y. Thesepressur es ar e appl i ed t o t he st at e i n t he f or m of cooper at i on oropposi t i on on par t i cul ar pol i cy i ssues. mani pul at i on of publ i copi ni on. f i nanci al per suasi on. coal i t i ons w th ot her gr oups, et c.The abi l i t y of gr oups t o exer t pr essur e i n t hese f or ms dependsbr oadl y on t hei r degr ee of pol i t i cal power r el at i ve t o ot hergr oups. The sour ces of t hi s pol i t i cal power , and hence al so t heabi l i t y of di f f er ent gr oups t o i nf l uence t he st at e, ar e t he mai ni s sues on whi ch wr i t er s t aki ng t hi s appr oach di f f er .

Pl ur al i st s hol d t hat a br oad r ange of f act or s can af f ect t hepol i t i cal power of di f f er ent gr oups. Tr uman summar i zQs t hesQ i nt hr ee mai n cat egor i es: i ) a gr oup' s st r at egi c posi t i on i n soci et y,i ncl udi ng i t s soci al st at us, member shi p among governmentof f i ci al s, and usef ul ness t o t he gover nment ; i i ) i t s i nt er nalchar act er i st i cs. such as i t s or gani zat i on, cohesi on, l eader shi p,si ze, and Weal t h; and i i i ) cer t ai n char act er i st i cs of st at e i nst i -t ut i ons, i ncl udi ng t hei r oper at ~ng st r ucture and gr oup l i f e. ls Oft hese. Tr uman pl aces t he gr eat est emphasi s on gr oup or gani zat i on.cohesi on. and l eader shi p, devot i ng a chapt er of hi s book t o Qach.For pl ur al i st s such as Tr uman, t he br oad r ange of f act or s af f ect -

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

11/33

PAGE 36

i ng gr oup pow~r and var i at i ons i n t he degr ee t o whi ch gr oups act u-al l y exer t t hei r power r esul t i n a r ough par i t y among t he gr oupsseeki ng t o i nf l uence t he st at e. Thus whi l e el i t e gr oups may havehi gher soci al st at us, cl os~ t i ~s w t h gover nment of f i ci al s, andext ensi ve f i nanci al r esources, popul ar gr oups ar e gener al l y muchl ar ger , may be bet t er or gani zed, and may have mor e ef f ect i ve l ead-er shi p.

For Mar xi st s such as M l i band, a gr oup' s pol i t i cal powerdepends on i t s r el at i on t o t he means of pr oduct i on. Rat her t handenyi ng t he i mportanc~ of t h~ f actors emphasi 2ed by pl ur al i st s,M l i band sees t hem as bei ng st r uct ur ed by under l yi ngsoci o- econom c condi t i ons. Owner shi p of t h~ means of pr oduct i onconf er s enor mous power on t he capi t al i st cl ass. Thi s power i s mostvi si bl e i n t he f or m of f i nanci al r esour ces, but al so i ncl udes t h~abi l i t y t o ai d or f rust r at e st at e pol i ci es and act i ndependent l yagai nst ot her gr oups ( such as or gani zed l abor ) by usi ng t her esour ces owned and cont r ol l ed by t hi s cl ass . The st at e has gr eatdi f f i c ul t y i mposi ng i t s w l l on t he capi t al i st cl ass, and mustr et ai n i t s conf i dence i n or der t o I ~f f ect i vel y i mpl ement pol i ci es.By contrast , t he onl y sour ce of wor ki ng cl ass power i s t he st r i ke,based on i t s or gani zat i on and si ze. Wor ki ng cl ass cohesi on i sof t en weak and i t s l eader shi p cor r upt . I t i s subj ect t o cr i t i calat t acks by t he st at e and t he medi a. and i s weakened by pol i t i calsoci al i zat i on whi ch r ei nf or ces t he i deol ogy and bel i ef s of t hecapi t al i st cl ass . 19

Thi s expl anat i on of gr oup nf l uence based on t he abi l i t y ofgr oup~ t o di r ectl y pr essur e t he st at e i s much mor e convi nci ng t hant he previ ous expl ai nat i on ba?ed on t he gr oupIaf f i l i at i ons of st at e empl oye~s_ Bi ases i n st at eone gr oup or cl ass f ract i on ovl r ot her s t hat ar e

membershi p andpol i cy f avor i ngr epr esent ed ar e

due t o t he unequal di st r i but i on of power among t hese gr oups.Changes i n t he or i ent at i on of st at e pol i cy t o f avor anot her gr oup

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

12/33

PAGE 37

or cl ass f r act i on r esul t f r om changes i n t he under l yi ng di s tr i b-ut i on of power . By at t r i but i ng some pol i t i cal power t o t he dom -nated c l asses, t hi s expl anat i on can even expl ai n why t he st at emakes concessi ons t o t hese cl asses, an i ssue whi ch has been t hesubj ect of much debat e i n r ecent Mar xi st l i t er at ur e. However , byexpl ai ni ng al l st at e act i ons on t he basi s of di r ect pr essur es bysoci al gr oups, t hi s Vl ew does not al l ow f or t he sor t of st at eaut onomy di scussed by st at i st s and st r uct ur al Mar xi st s. I t cannotexpl ai n why t he st at e may t ake act i ons whi ch do not r ef l ect t hei nt er est s of any spec i f i c gr oup or whi ch ar e cont r ar y t o t heshort- ter m i nt er est s of t he dom nant cl asses.

An appr oach whi ch sheds some l i ght on t hi s pr obl em i s t aken byHar ol d Laski . Laski ar gues t hat t he st at e i s dom nat ed by, but notsubordi nat ed t o, a dom nant cl ass. Rat her t han act i ng on t he basi sof di r ect pr essur es, t he st at e f or mul at es pol i cy on t he basi s ofi deol ogi cal bel i ef s and pr i nci pl es whi ch r ef l ect t he i nt er est s oft hi s cl ass. I n Laski ' s wor ds: "hi st or y i s meani ngl ess when r ead asa st r uggl e bet ween compet i ng sel f i sh i nt er est s . . . . i t i s r at her t hecompet i t i on of i deal s f or sur vi val . "20 Laski ' s key poi nt , however,i s t hat t he i deol ogy whi ch gui des t he st at e i s t he i deol ogy of t hegr oups whi ch have sei zed and cont r ol st at e power . The st at e doesnot ul t i mat el y ser ve t he i nt er est s of t he dom nant cl asses becauseof di r ect pr essur es exer t ed by t hem but r at her because t hey havei nst al l ed i t and pr esumabl y can over t hr ow i t . 21

Thi s Vl ew suggest s a t hi r d, i ndi r ect way i n whi ch gr oups cani nf l uence st at e pol i cy. A gr oup, or a coal i t i on of gr oups, whi chi s suf f i ci ent l y power f ul t o sei ze t he st at e appar at us, ~ t h~r byPQacef ul or by vi ol ent means, can i nst al l a gover nment whi ch i s t oi t s l i ki ng. St at e pol i cy w l l t hen general l y r ef l ect t he i nt er est sof t hi s gr oup or coal i t i on, si nce t he gover nment has been sel ect edf or i t s bel i ef s, l oyal t y, et c. Shoul d t he st at e begi n t o act i n amanner whi ch ser i ousl y t hr eat ens t hese i nt er est s i t w l l pr esuma-I

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

13/33

PAGE 38

bl y be over t hr own. The st at e i s r el at i vel y aut onomous i n t he senset hat i t s act i ons ar e not ent i r el y det er mned by di r ect pr essur esf r om t he dom ndnt gr oups. I t w l l never t hel ess ser ve t he l ong- t er mi nt er est s of t hese gr oups si nce t hey have i nst al l ed t he gover nmentand si nce i t s t enur e depends on t hei r cont i nued suppor t . ThedQgr ee of st at e aut onomy depends l ar gel y on t he abi l i t y and w l l -i ngness of t he dom nant gr oups t o change t he gover nment . Shoul dt he st at e go t oo f ar i n maki ng conceSS10ns t o ot her cl asses or i not her w se i gnor i ng t he shor t - t er m i nt er est s of t he dom nant cl ass-es t hey w l l t ake deci s i ve act i ons.

Thi s expl anat i on of i ndi r ect gr oup i nf l uence r ef i nes andcompl ement s t he ot her expl anat i ons di scussed above. St at e of f i -ci al s do act i n par t on t he basi s of t hei r val ues and bel i ef s, asemphasi zed by el i t e t heor i st s and by i nst r ument al Mar xi st s . Howev-er , t he i mpor t ant poi nt i s t hat t hese of f i ci al s do not j ust happent o ent er t he gover nment , but ar e sel ect ed i n some manner by t hedom nant gr oups i n soci et y ( or by t hei r r epr esent at i ves) . I t i si nf l uence over t hi s sel ect i on pr ocess, r at her t han t he val ues andbel i ef s of par t i cul ar st at e of f i ci al s per se, whi ch shapes t hegui di ng i deol ogy of t he st at e and gi ves power f ul gr oupsi nor di nat e, i f i ndi r ect , i nf l uence.

As w t h di r ect gr oup pr essur e, t he abi l i t y t o i ndi r ect l y i nf l u-ence t he st at e i n t hi s manner depends br oadl y on a gr oup' s pol i -t i cal power . However , i ndi r ect gr oup i nf l uence i s based on asomewhat di f f er ent set of f act or s t han di r ect gr oup i nf l uence.Sei zur e of t he st at e may occur ei t her vi ol ent l y t hr ough ~ r evo-l ut i on or coup d' et at or peacef ul l y as power f ul gr oups gai n i nf l u-ence over t he sel ect i on of st at e of f i ci al s. I n t he l at t er case, agr oup' s i ndi r ect i nf l uence i s due t o f act or s si m l ar t o t hosewhi ch af f ect di r ect i nf l uence. A vi ol ent sei z ur e of power , howev-er , r equi r es t hat a gr oup have suf f i ci ent si ze, or gani zat i on,l eader shi p, and coer ci ve f or ce, or t hat i t j oi n i n a coal i t i on

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

14/33

PAGE 39

w t h such a gr oup ( of t en a m l i t ar y f act i on) . Because of t hei rsi ze. popul ar gr oups have an i nher ent l y gr eat er abi l i t y t o sei zet he st at e vi ol ent l y t han do el i t e gr oups. Consequent l y, t he st at ef r equent l y seeks t o neut r al i ze threat s f r om t hese gr oups byr epr essi ng t hem or by of f er i ng t hem concessi ons. Ext r act i ngconcessi ons t hr ough t he t hr eat of vi ol ent t akeover ( whet her l at entor over t ) amount s t o a f or m of di r ect i nf l uence. Thi s i s, i nf act , of t en t he most pot ent sour ce of i nf l uence over t he st at e f orpopul ar groups.

SUMM ARY

I t shoul d be cl ear f r om t hi s di scussi on t hat t he st at e i s. i ngener al , bound up i n a compl ex syst em of r el at i onshi ps w t h t hevar i ous gr oups i n soci et y. Di f f er ent gr oups w t h di f f er ent sour cesand degr ees of power at t empt t o i nf l uence t he st at e i n or der t omake i t s pol i ci es mor e f avor abl e t o t hem Thi s i nf l uence may t aket he f or m of di r ect pr essur es, t ypi f i ed by act i ons such asl obbyi ng, br i ber y, and agr eement s t o exchange cooper at i on on onei ssue f or anot her , or i ndi r ect i nf l uence i n t he f or m of pol i t i calst r uggl es t o mai nt ai n or al t er t he f or m of st at e. The st at e i ssuscept i bl e t o di r ect and i ndi r ect i nf l uence because t he gover n-ment needs cooper at i on i n car r yi ng out st at e pol i ci es, because oft he par t i cul ar val ues and bel i ef s i t hol ds. because i t i s cor r upt .or . most i mportant l y, because i t needs suppor t i n i t s st r uggl e t or et ai n st at e power . The government sat i sf i es t hese needs by~al ! Or l ng s t at e pol j cy t o ser ve t he i nt er est s of t he gr oups i t i sdependent on. The st at e i s st r ong or aut onomous t o t he ext ent t hatt he government can r esi s t di r ect pressur es f r om t he most powerfu lgr oups i n soci et y whi l e mai nt ai ni ng i t sel f i n power . I t mai nt ai nsan aut hor i t ar i an r egl me i f l t f eel s some sor t of l mper at i ve t hat

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

15/33

PAGE 40cer t ai n gr oups must be excl uded and i f i t can ef f ect i vel y r es i stdi rect and i ndi r ect pr essur es f r om t hese gr oups.

2) THE POL I TI CAL ECONOMY OF STATE- SOCI ETY RELAT I ONS

Bef or e di scussi ng how a cl i ency r el at i onshi p can af f ect t hi scompl ex syst em of st at e- soci et y r el at i ons, i t i s usef ul t o vi ewsome of t hese concept s i n a mor e concr et e and dynam c cont ext . I nt hi s sect i on sever al r el at ed st udi es deal i ng w t h t he pol i t i caleconomy of devel opment ar e di scussed. These st udi es exam ne t her ol es of aut hor i t ar i ani sm and st at e aut onomy i n t he pr ocess ofi ndust r i al i zat i on. Because of t he par amount r ol e of t he st at e i nst r uctur i ng soci et y and because t he st at e i s const ant l y subj ect t osoci et al pr essur es, t he r el at i onshi p bet ween t he st at e and soci et yI s a key f act or i n t he hi st or i cal evol ut i on of soci et y. Thesest udi es i l l ustrat e how st at e- soci et y r el at i ons ar e af f ect ed by,and how t hey shape, econom c devel opment . Si nce cl i ency can have asubst ant i al i mpact on sta te- soci et y r el at i ons, t hese st udi es al sopr ovi de a usef ul basi s f or under st andi ng t he l ong- t er m conse-quences of cl i ency f or econom c devel opment and f or ot her maj orchanges af fect i ng t he cl i ent soci et y.

Per haps t he most f amous wr i t er t aki ng t hi s appr oach has beenBar r i ngt on Moor e, who argues t hat aut hor i t ar i an excl usi on of t hel ower cl asses was necessar y f or l at e i ndust r i al i zi ng count r i essuch as J apan and Ger many t o achi eve i ndust r i al i zat i on. Aut hor i -t ar i ani sm emer ged because of t he hi st or i cal l y weak posi t i on of t hepeasant r y and because of econom c cr i ses associ at ed w t h l at edevel opment . I n or der t o be compet i t i ve w t h t he i ndust r i al i zedcount r i es of t he day, t hese count r i es had t o keep wages l ow byadopt i ng " l abor r epr essi ve" pol i ci es. Aut hor i t ar i ani sm enabl ed t he

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

16/33

PAGE 41st at e t o enf or ce such pol i ci es and t hus pr omot e r api d i ndust r i al i -zat i on. 22

A si m l ar ar gument i s made by Gui l l er mo O' Donnel l i n t hecont ext of cont empor ar y under devel oped ( or l ate - l at e i ndust r i al i z-i ng) count r i es such as Br azi l and Ar gent i na. O' Donnel l ar gues t hatt he st at e was sei zed i n t hese count r i es by a "coup coal i t i on"seeki ng t o r esol ve econom c cr i ses associ at ed w t h t he exhaust i onof t he "easy" st age of i mpor t subst i t ut i ng i ndust r i al i zat i on. Thi sgr oup used t he st at e appar at us t o r ol l back i ndus t r i al wages andpr omot e capi t al concent r at i on i n or der t o "deepen" t he economy byest abl i shi ng a capi t al goods i ndust r y. 23 Ot her wr i ter s have ar guedt hat t he goal of t hi s gr oup was t o i mpl ement ef f ect i ve st abi l i za-t i on pol i c i es t o cur b t he hi gh i nf l at i on caused by i mpor t subst i -t ut i on. 24

I n a r el at ed approach, sever al ot her wr i t er s have ar gued t hat astat e whi ch i s aut onomous f r om di r ect pr essur es by t he dom nantcl asses i s abl e t o undert ake t he deci s i ve pol i ci es necess ar y t oi ndust r i al i ze or t o otherw se t r ansf or m t he economy. Poul ant zasvi ews aut onomy as a f undament al char act er i st i c of t he "except i onalst at e, " a f or m of stat e whi ch cor responds t o t he per i od of t ransi -t i on bet ween st ages of a mode of pr oduct i on. Thi s t r ansi t i on i sbrought on by t he i nher ent cont r adi ct i ons of capi t al i sm whi chweaken t he cl ass whi ch had been hegemoni c i n t he ear l i er st age.The st at e i s aut onomous because of t he decl i ne of t hi s ol d cl assand because t he dom nant cl ass of t he new st age i s not yet suf f i -ci ent l y power f ul t o achi eve hegemony. Aut onomy enabl es t he st at et o car ry out t he pol i ci es necessar y t o br i ng about t r ansi t i on t ot he new ~t age. 2S

El l en Tr i mber ger t akes a si m l ar appr oach, vi ew ng aut onomy asan essent i al pr econdi t i on f or t he " r evol ut i ons f r om above" whi chtransfor med Tur key and J apan f r om f eudal t o i ndust r i al i zi ng soci e-

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

17/33

PAGE 42

t i es. Aut onomy ar ose i n t hese count r i es because of t he decl i ne oft he l andowni ng cl asses and t he est abl i shment of a cent r al i zedbureaucr acy. As w t h Poul ant zas, autonomy gave t he st at e t he l at i -t ude necessar y t o t r ansf or m t he economy. 26 By cont r ast , ThedaSkocpol ar gues t hat t he st at e was not suf f i ci ent l y aut onomous i nFr ance, Russi a, and Chi na t o ef f ect such a t r ansf or mat i on, andconsequent l y was overthrown. 27

The gener al t hr ust of t hese wr i t er s i s t hat econom c cr i ses i nl at e and l at e- l at e i ndust r i al i zi ng count r i es al t er ed t he pol i t i calst r uct ur e of st at e- soci et y r el at i ons i n such a way t hat t he st at ewas abl e t o t ake a deci si ve r ol e i n t r ansformng t he economy.These cr i ses wer e l ar gel y a consequence of par t i ci pat i on i n t hewor l d economy. The need t o compet e i n f or ei gn mar ket s or avoi dpenet r at i on of home mar ket s by mor e advanced count r i es cr eatedst rong pr essur es t o i ndust r i al i ze or t o est abl i sh par t i cul ari ndust r i es. Thi s made t he capi t al i st cl ass, or f r act i ons of i t ,mor e power f ul by gi vi ng i t a mor e pr om nent r ol e i n t he economy,i ncr easi ng i t s f i nanci al r esour ces, et c. The st r engt heni ng of t hecapi t al i st cl ass or par t i cul ar f r act i ons of t hi s cl ass changed t heconf i gur at i on of power a~ong t he gr oups compet i ng t o i nf l uence t hest at e. For Poul ant zas and Tr i mber ger i t l ed t o t he decl i ne of t hel andowner s or of t he pr evi ousl y hegemoni c f r act i on, and conse-quent l y gr eat er autonomy f or t he st at e f r om t hese ol d cl asses. ForMoor e and O' Donnel l , t oget her w t h t he i mper at i ve t hat wages bel ower ed t o make i ndust r y mor e compet i t i ve or st i mul at e i nvest ment ,i t l ed t o t he accessi on of a gover nment whi ch excl uded t he l owercl asses.

I n each case, t he st at e' spar t i cul ar gr oups ( i n t he f or mgave i t t he l at i t ude necessar y t ot he t r ansf or mat i on of t hQ Qconomy.

f r eedom f r om di r ect pr essur es byof aut onomy or aut hor i t ar i ani s m

under t ake pol i ci es whi ch l ed t oHowQvQr , i t shoul d bQ Qmpha-

si zed t hat aut onomy or aut hor i t ar i ani sm as such do not necessari l y

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

18/33

PAGE 43guar ant ee t hat t he st at e w l l at t empt t o t r ansf or m t he economy. ort hat i t w l l t r ansf or m i t i n t he pr oper manner . or s ucces sf ul l y.Rat her . t he f r eedom of t he stat e f r om soci et al pr essur es i s si mpl ya necessar y pr econdi t i on f or t aki ng t he deci si ve act i ons r equi r edt o ef f ect such a t r ansf or mat i on.

Never t hel ess, i n t he cases st udi ed by t hese aut hor s t he st at edi d at t empt t o t r ansf or m t he economy. I t di d so f or t wo mal nr easons. Fi rst , i n t hese cases t he st at e became aut onomous oraut hor i t ar i an i n a per i od of sever e econom c cr i si s. By vi r t ur e ofi t s r ol e as t he mai n body char ged w t h mai ntai ni ng t he soci als t r ucture. t he st at e was obl i ged t o t ake some act i ons t o r el i evet hi s cr i s i s . Second, and mor e i mport ant l y. i n each of t hese casest her e wer e di rect or i ndi r ect pr essur es on t he st at e t o t r ansf or mt he economy, and t o t r ansf or m i t i n a cer t ai n manner . I n t he casesof author i t ar i ani sm di scussed by Moor e and O' Donnel l , t he st at ecame under t he cont r ol of a dom nant cl ass whose i nt er est s wer et i ed t o i ndust ri al i z at i on or t o t he est abl i shment of a capi t algoods i ndust r y. I n t he except i onal st at e di scussed by Poul ant zas,i ndi r ect pr es sur es by t he capi t al i st cl ass as a whol e compel t hest at e t o ef f ect t r ansi t i on t o t he next st age of capi tal i sm ForTr i mber ger t he aut onomous bur eaucr at i c- m l i t ar y coal i t i ons whi chcar r i ed out r evol ut i ons f r om above wer e f or ced t o i ndust r i al i ze i nor der t o r et ai n t hei r cont r ol over t he st at e.

For each of t hese wr i t er s, whi l e t he st at e was f r ee f r om di r ectpr essur es by cer t ai n key gr oups and hence was abl e t o under t akedeci si ve pol i ci es, i ndi r ect pr essur es never t hel ess compel l ed i t t oact t o r esol ve t he econom c cr i si s by t r ansf or m ng t he economy i na cer t ai n way. Thi s suggest s t hat a ki nd of sel f - r egul at i ng mech-ani sm op~r at ~s t hr ough st at e- soci ~t y r el at i ons whi ch bear s somer esembl ance t o t he l i ber al V1Sl on under l yi ng t he pl ur al i stapproach. For pl ur al i st s, soci al wel f ar e i s maxi m zed when al lgr oups have equal access t o t he st at e and when st at e pol i cy i s

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

19/33

PAGE 44

ent i r el y det er m ned by di r ect pr essur e f r om t hese gr oups. I n t hevi ew of t he wr i t er s di scussed here, di rect gr oup pr es sur es mer el yhi nder t he st at e. Fur t her mor e, a cl ear st r at i f i cat i on exi st s i nt he i nf l uence di f f er ent gr oups exer t on t he st at e, and t he changesbr ought about by t he stat e do not r ef l ect t he gener al i nt er est s ofsoci et y. Never t hel ess, t he wel f ar e of t he dom nant gr oups i n soci -et y i s maxi m zed ( i n t he f or m of st at e act i ons t o r esol ve econom ccr i ses) because t hese gr oups r et ai n i ndi r ect i nf l uence over t hestate.

3) THE POLI TI CS OF THE CLI ENT STATE

The mai n t hesi s of t hi s st udy i s t hat cl i ency can make thest at e mor e aut onomous and aut hor i t ar i an by enabl i ng t he cl i entgover nment t o under m ne t he sour ces of power of di f f er ent domest i cgr oups and t hus weaken t hei r abi l i t y t o exer t i nf l uence over i t .Thi s happens because t he ser vi ces and mat er i al r esour ces t r ans-fe r r ed under a cl i ency r el at i onshi p can be used by t he cl i entgover nment t o weaken bot h popul ar and el i t e gr oups. A st at e i nwhi ch cl i ency has si gni f i cant l y cont r i but ed t o aut hor i t ar i ani sm oraut onomy i n t hi s manner i s r ef erred t o her e as a cl i ent st at e.

Thi s sect i on br i ngs t oget her t he mater i al pr esent ed i n chapt er1 and sect i on 1 of t hi s chapt er t o el uci dat e t hese i deas mor econcr et el y. The l ong- t er m i mpl i cat i ons of t hi s scenar i o f or t hedomest i c pol i t i cs of t he cl i ent count r y and f or t he i nt er est s oft he pat r on power ar e al so br i ef l y di scussed.

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

20/33

PAGE 45THE REL ATI ONSHI P BETWEEN CL I ENCY AND AUTHORI TARI ANI SM

Aut hor i t ar i ani sm was char act er i zed above as a t ype of r egi me i nwhi ch t he abi l i t ~ of popul ar gr oups t o i nf l uence st at e pol i cy i ssever el y l i mted. Si nce popul ar gr oups gener al l y have meagerf i nanci al r esources, do not occupy posi t i ons of aut hor i t y i n t heeconomy, and have weak t i es w t h gover nment of f i ci al s, t hei r abi l -i t y t o i nf l uence t he st at e depends mai nl y on t hei r abi l i t y t oengage i n mass ac t i on. Cl i ency cont r i but es t o aut hor i t ar i ani sm t ot he ext ent t hat i t enabl es t he cl i ent gover nment t o under m ne t hi sbasi c sour ce of popul ar pol i t i cal power .

Mass act i on can be used t o i nf l uence st at e pol i cy i n a numberof ways. Si nce t he st at e must obt ai n at l east some cooper at i onf r om popul ar gr oups t o achi eve such basi c goal s as domest i c or derand a f unct i oni ng economy, st r i kes and boycot t s can be used byt hese gr oups t o gai n cer t ai n concessi ons f r om t he st at e. I n t het er m nol ogy devel oped above t hi s i s a f or m of di r ect pol i t i calpower . Popul ar demonst r at i ons and or gani zed act s of vi ol ence cansi m l ar l y be used t o w n concessi ons f rom t he st at e or f or ce i t t omodi f y par t i cul ar pol i ci es.

I n a compet i t i ve el ect or al r egi me mass- based pol i t i cal par t i esand popul ar part i ci pat i on i n el ect i ons can dr amat i cal l y change t hecomposi t i on of t he gover nment and hence t he f or m of st at e. Shor tof such a dr amat i c change, mass act i on can st i l l exer t extensi vei nf l uence over st at e pol i cy t hr ough t he el ect or al pr ocess. I nnon- democr at i c r egi mes, l arge- scal e popul ar vi ol ence cul m nat i ngi n a r evol ut i onar y sei zur e of power i s, of cour se, t he ul t i mat er ecour se of di senf r anchi sed popul ar gr oups, t hough one t hat i sr ar el y used successf ul l y. The sei zur e of st at e power , whet hert hr ough el ect i ons or t hr ough popul dr vi ol ence, conf er s enor mous

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

21/33

PAGE 46pol i t i c al power on t he ascendant gr oups. Thi s f or m of power wasdescr i bed above as i ndi r ect pol i t i cal power .

I n what ever f or m i t t akes, t he abi l i t y of mass act i on t o i nf l u-ence st at e pol i cy depends on t he degr ee t o whi ch par t i cul ar gr oupsar e mobi l i zed and on t he st r engt h and ef f ect i veness of t hei r l ead-ershi p and pol i t i cal or gani zat i ons. Gr oups i n whi ch onl y a smal lper cent age of i ndi vi dual s ar e pol i t i cal l y act i ve ar e i nher ent l yweaker t han hi ghl y- mobi l i zed gr oups. Or gani zat i ons r epr esent i ngunder - mobi l i zed or i nar t i c ul at e gr oups may f i nd i t di f f i cul t t ocl ai m l egi t i macy and hence gai n accept ance i n pol i t i cal ci r cl es.Gr oups whi ch ar e poor l y- or gani zed or have weak l eader shi p cannotcompet e ef f ect i vel y w t h ot her gr oups and t end t o respond sl ow yt o novel or f or t ui t uous ci r cumst ances. A cl i ency r el at i onshi p canenabl e t he cl i ent gover nment t o underm ne popul ar pol i t i cal move-ment s by pr ovi di ng i t w t h r esour ces whi ch can be used t o cooptand demobi l i ze popul ar gr oups and weaken t hei r l eadershi p andpol i t i cal or gani zat i ons. These r esour ces i ncl ude m l i t ar y andeconom c ai d, over t and cover t i nt er vent i ons, and var i ous ki nds ofsecur i t y agr eements.

Econom c ai d, when gi ven i n su f f i ci ent quant i t i es, can be ani mportant pol i t i cal r esour ce i n t he hands of t he r eci pi ent gover n-ment . B y augment i ng domest i F demand or cont r i but i ng t o t heeconom c i nf rast ruct ur e, f or ei gn ai d can st i mul at e t he reci pi entcount r y' s economy and can t hu hel p t o pl acat e popul ar unr est .Gr eat er popul ar sat i sf act i on due t o i mpr oved econom c condi t i ons,even i f t he i mpr ovement s ar e due t o f l ows of f or ei gn ai d r at hert han t o changes i n t he state' s pol i ci es, can r esul t i n popul ardemobi l i zati on and can t hus under m ne suppor t f or pol i t i cal move-ment s. Ai d can be par t i cul ar l y usef ul i n t hi s manner i n t i mes ofeconom c cr i s i s , when popul ar l unrest i s gener al l y most acut e.Mor eover , econom c ai d can be sel ect i vel y al l ocated t o par t i cul arr egi ons or soci al st r at a, gi vi ng t he r eci pi ent gover nment a meas-

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

22/33

PAGE 47

ur e of f l exi bi l i t y i n i t s use as a pol i t i cal r esource.

M l i t ar y and secur i t y- or i ent ed t r ansf er s, and econom c ai dwhi ch al l ows ot her f unds t o be di ver t ed t o t he secur i t y appar at us ,can hel p t he r eci pi ent gover nment under m ne pol i t i cal or gani z a-t i ons and successf ul l y combat ar med movement s. Speci al t r ai ni ngcan i ncr ease t he ef f ect i veness and mor al e of secur i t y f or ces.Tr ansf er s of sophi s t i cat ed equi pment can i mpr ove t he capabi l i t i esof t he secur i t y f or ces i n ar eas t hat ar e i mpor t ant f or mai nt ai ni ngdomest i c secur i t y, such as i nt el l i gence- gat her i ng and par am l i t ar yoper at i ons. I nt el l i gence agenci es whi ch have r ecei ved assi s t anceof t hi s sor t ar e gener al l y better abl e t o penet rat e and di sr uptopposi t i on or gani z at i ons. M l i t ar y f or ces whi ch have r ecei vedsophi st i cat ed t r ai ni ng and equi pment can mor e ef f ect i vel y combatar med opposi t i on gr oups. Si nce t he t hr eat or act ual use of or gan-i zed vi ol ence i s of t en t he onl y means of pol i t i cal power f or popu-l ar gr oups, t ransf er s whi ch st rengt hen t he r eci pi ent ' s secur i t yappar at us can sever el y weaken t hese gr oups.

Over t and cover t i nt er vent i ons and s ecur i t y agr eement s cal l i ngf or i nt er vent i on or ot her assi s t ance under cer t ai n ci r cumst ancesef f ect i vel y i ncr ease t he si ze and qual i t y of t he secur i t y f or cesavai l abl e t o t he r eci pi ent gover nment . I nt er vent i ons and secur i t yagr eement s can t hus have consequences si m l ar t o, and even mor edr ast i c t han. t hose of mat er i al t ransf er s and t r ai ni ng. Di r ecti nt el l i gence assi st ance and suppor t f or l oyal gr oups by t he pat roncan enabl e t he cl i ent gover nment t o i nf i l t r at e opposi t i on or gan-i zat i ons and ant i ci pat e or under m ne t hei r pr ogr ams. Cover tact i ons by t he pat r on such as sabot age or assassi nat i on candi sr upt a group' s or gani zat i onal st r uct ur e and under m ne i t s l ead-er shi p. Concer t ed act i ons such as t hese can f or ce an or gani zat i ont o r est ruct ur e i t sel f t o achi eve gr eat er secr ecy, r educi ng i t sef f i c i ency. Over t i nt er vent i ons can. of cour se, have an evengr eat er i mpact . They may l ead t o t he out r i ght def eat of ar med

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

23/33

PAGE 48

opposi t i on gr oups or f or ce t hem i nt o pr ot r act ed conf l i ct s w t hhi gh at t r i t i on r at es.

I n addi t i on t o t he di r ect i mpact of t hese cl i ency i nst rument s,a cl ose and endur i ng r el at i onshi p bet ween a pat r on and a cl i entcan gener at e a cl i mat e of f ear and pessi m sm whi ch may f ur t heri nhi bi t popul ar mobi l i zat i on. I ndi vi dual s may come t o vi ew pol i -t i cal act i vi t y as hopel ess i n t he f ace of a st r ong cl i ent st at ebacked by a power f ul pat r on. I nt er vent i on by t he pat r on i n t hedomest i c af f ai r s of t he cl i ent count r y, or even evi dence of t hepat ron' s w l l i ngness t o i nt er vene i n t he f or m of secur i t y agr ee-ment s or i nt er vent i ons i n near by count r i es, can have a par t i cul ar -l y depressi ng ef f ect on pol i t i cal act i vi t y. Gr oups whose member shave l i t t l e conf i dence i n t hei r abi l i t y t o i nf l uence t he st at e canhave l i t t l e hope of doi ng so col l ect i vel y, no mat ter how st rongt hei r pol i t i cal or gani Zat i ons and l eader shi p may be.

I t shoul d be emphasi zed t hat t he r el at i ons hi p bet ween cl i encyand aut hor i t ar i ani sm el aborat ed her e i s not mer el y coi nci dent al .Si nce cl i ency i s concei ved pr i mar i l y f or t he pur pose of enhanci ngt he cl i ent gover nment ' s st abi l i t y, t he i nst r ument s whi ch t r anspi reunder a cl i ency r el at i onshi p ar e sel ect ed speci f i cal l y t o achi evet hi s goal . For t he most par t t hese i nst r ument s consi st ofr esour ces whi ch can be used t o r epr ess popul ar pol i t i calmovement s. The maJ or except i on i s econom c ai d, whi ch can al sohave i mport ant pol i t i cal consequences and i s of t en used w t h t hi sgoal i n m nd. Mor eover , i f t he c l i ent ' s st abi l i t y i s suf f i ci ent l yi mpor t ant t o t he patron i t w l l pr ovi de what ever r esour ces ar enecessar y t o achi eve t hi s goal , vi r t ual l y guar ant eei ng cer t ai ndomest i c pol i t i cal out comes. Thus whi l e many wr i t er s and pol i cy-maker s use t he t er m "st abi l i t y" i n a pol i t i cal l y- neut r al sense,i t s pur sui t can onl y be r egar ded as an i nherent l y pol i t i cal act .

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

24/33

PAGE 49CL I ENCY AND RELATI VE AUTONOMY

A r el at i vel y aut onomous st at e was def i ned above as one i n whi cheven powerful soci al gr oups have l i t t l e i nf l uence over st at e pol i -cy. The most power f ul gr oups i n a soci et y, even i n a democr at i csoci et y, ar e i nvar i abl y el i t e gr oups of one ki nd or anot her whosepower l i es i n t hei r weal t h, soci al posi t i ons, and pol i t i calconnect i ons. These gr oups r ar el y engage i n ar med conf r ont at i onw t h t he st at e, and hence secur i ty -or i ent ed t r ansf er s have l i t t l ebear i ng on t he st at e' s aut onomy f r om t hem Fur t her mor e, t hei rdegr ee of mobi l i zat i on and t he st rengt h of t hei r pol i t i cal or gan-i zat i ons and l eader shi p ar e l ess i mpor t ant as det er m nant s ofpower f or el i t e gr oups t han f or popul ar gr oups. Consequent l y,ser vi ces and r esour ces whi ch enabl e t he st at e t o under m ne agr oup' s cohesi on and pol i t i cal or gani zat i ons al so have l i t t l ebear i ng on t he st at e' s aut onomy.

Never t hel ess, cl i ency can have i mpor tant i mpl i cat i ons f or t her el at i ve aut onomy of t he st at e f r om power f ul soci al gr oups.Econom c ai d and ot her capi t al t r ansf er s can enabl e t he st at e t opl ay a l ar ge r ol e i n or gani zi ng and f i nanci ng devel opmentpr oj ect s, r educi ng i t s dependence on l ocal banks and ot her sect or sand i ncr easi ng i t s cont r ol over t he economy. Capi t al t r ansf er s andspeci al ar r angement s w t h t he pat r on, of t en act i ng i n col l ab-or at i on w t h mul t i nat i onal cor porat i ons, can be used t o establ i shst at e- cont r ol l ed i ndust r i es. Thi s can ser ve t o deny i mpor t antsect or s of t he economy t o pr i vat e capi t al and f ur t her i ncr ease t hest at e' s cont r ol over i t . 28 For ei gn ai d can al so be used t odi spl ace t axes and ot her t r ansf er s t o t he st at e f r om weal t hygr oups, pl acat i ng t hese gr oups and r educi ng t he st at e' s dependenceon t hem as sour ces of r evenue. I n gener al , f i nanci al t r ansf er sand ot her pol i ci es of t he pat r on can i ncrease t he cl i ent gover n-ment ' s cont r ol over t he economy and enabl e i t t o act w t h gr eat er

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

25/33

PAGE 50aut onomy f r om power f ul econom c act or s.

I n addi t i on t o i ncr easi ng t he econom c power of t he st at evi s - a- vi s powerf ul domest i c gr oups, f or ei gn ai d can be mani pul atedi n ot her ways by t he pat r on and t he cl i ent gover nment f or domest i cpol i t i cal ends. Cont r act s f i nanced under f or ei gn ai d can beawar ded pr ej udi ci al l y t o gai n t he l oyal t y and suppor t of t her eci pi ent s. For ei gn ai d whi ch i s not t i ed t o speci f i c pr oj ect scan be secretl y channel ed t o key i ndi vi dual s or pol i t i cal or gan-i zat i ons . Cor r upt i on can be used i n t hi s way t o est abl i sh el abo-r at e syst ems of patronage i n whi ch member s of t he el i t e becomei ndebt ed t o t he st at e. Pol i t i cal cont r ol of t hi s sor t ean f r ag-ment and weaken el i t e gr oups, al l ow ng t he st at e t o act w t hgr eat er aut onomy f r om t hem

THE CLI ENT STATE

As t he quant i t at i ve dat a pr esent ed i n sect i on 3 of chapt er 1i ndi cat ed, t he Uni t ed St at es has empl oyed t he forei gn pol i cy t ool sre fer r ed t o her e as cl i ency i nst r ument s i n var yi ng degr eest hr oughout t he worl d. Whi l e t he concept of cl i ency can be used t or ef er t o onl y t hose r el at i onshi ps wher e t hese t ool s have been usedi n subst ant i al vol ume, a br oad var i et y of cl i ency r el at i onshi psnever t hel ess r emai n. These wer e character i zed above as r angi ngf r om st r ong t o weak. Gi ven t hi s l ar ge var i at i on, t he i mpact ofcl i ency on t he cl i ent ' s domest i c pol i t i cs shoul d al so var y aswel l , cet er i s par i bus. I n or der t o f ocus on t he most ext r emecases, t he t er m cl i ent st at e i s used her e t o r ef er t o si t uat i onsi n whi ch cl i ency i n suf f i ci ent vol umenst r ument s hi ve been used

st at e t o act i ndependent l y of domest i c gr oups,o enabl e t hewhet her st r ong or weak. Such a st at e i s char act er i zed as bot h

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

26/33

PAGE S1aut onomous and aut hor i t ar i an.

I t i s ~vi d~nt t hat t h~ countr i ~s r ~f ~r r ~d t o i n chapt ~r 1 asst r ong and moderate cl i ent s do not al l have st at es whi ch ar eaut onomous and aut hor i t ar i an, and t hat consequent l y t he r el at i on-shi p bet w~~n cl i ency and t hes~ dom~st i c pol i t i cal out comes i s nota si mpl e, cause- and-e f fect pr o1ess. At l east t wo i mpor t ant f act or scan be ment i oned whi ch medi at e bet ween cl i ency and t hese out comes.Fi r st , t he pat r on' s comm t ment t o t he st r engt h and st abi l i t y oft he cl i ent gover nment must be suf f i ci ent l y st r ong and dur abl e f or

I n count r i es such as Paki st an andhese consequences t o occur .Cambodi a i n t he l at e 1950s and 1960s t he comm t ment of t he Uni t edSt at es was, at t i mes, ver y st r ong, but f l uct uated dr amat i cal l y.The cl i ent gover nment s i n t hese count r i ~s wer ~ consequ~nt l y notabl e t o consol i dat e power suf f i ci ent l y t o establ i sh cl i ent st at es.Second, domest i c pol i t i cal i nst i t ut i ons must be r el at i vel y weakf or t he cl i ent gover nment t o be abl e t o under t ake t he measur esn~c~s5ar y t o ~5t abl i s h a cl i ~nt sta te. I n I sr ael and t o a l esserext ent i n Tur key, st r ong pol i t i cal par t i es and a hi ghl y mobi l i zedand sophi st i cat ed popul ace have prevent ~d cl i ent gov~r nment s f r omt aki ng t hese measur es, despi t e hi gh l evel s of U. S. secur i tyassi s t ance.

Unf or t unat el y, t he i nt er nat i onal and domest i c condi t i ons bear -i ng on t he est abl i shment of a cl i ~nt st at e can onl y b~ i nvest i -gat ed t hor oughl y w t h det ai l ed, compar at i ve case st udi es. Suchcompar at i ve st udi es ar e beyond t he scope of t hi s anal ysi s. Thi si ssue w l l b~ di scussed f ur t her i n t he concl usi on of t hi s st udy i nt he cont ext of a di scussi on of possi bl e st r at egi es f or avoi di ngt he undesi r abl e consequences of cl i ency.

Si nce a var i et y of domest i c and i nt er nat i onal f act or s ot hert han cl i ency can al so cont r i but e t o aut onomy and aut hor i t ar i ani smi t may be di f f i cul t t o posi t i vel y i dent i f y ~ c l i ent sta te i n pr ac-

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

27/33

PAGE 52t i ce. One way of doi ng so i s t o ascer t ai n t he degr ee of dependenceof t he cl i ent st at e on t r ansf er s f r om t he pat r on by exam ni ng t heconsequences of a maj or cutback i n t hese t r ansf er s. I f t he cl i entst at e, as a part i cul ar f or m of st at e, i s dependent on suppor t f romt he pat r on, t hen w t hdr awal t hi s suppor t shoul d r esul t i n achange i n t he f or m of st at e. ever , t hi s appr oach i s onl y usef uli n r et r ospect i ve st udi es wher e he cl i ency r el at i onshi p has endedand t he cl i ent st at e psed. Anot her way t o i dent i f y acl i ent st at e i s t o est abl i sh a di r ect causal r el at i onshi p bet weencl i ency and t he out comes of aut onomy and aut hori t ar i ani sm I f t heest abl i shment of a cl i ency r el at i onshi p coi nci des cl osel y w t h asubst ant i al shi f t t owar d autonomy or aut hor i t ar i ani sm a causalre l at i onshi p may exi st . A causal r el at i onshi p can be mor e cl ear l yver i f i ed i f cl i ency i nst r ument s can be speci f i cal l y i mpl i cat ed i nt he pr ocess of t r ansi t i on t o aut onomy or aut hor i t ar i ani sm Each oft hese appr oaches w l l be used i n t hi s st udy.

CONSEQUENCES FOR THE CL I ENT SOCI ETY

The mai n ar gument of t hi s st udy, t hen, i s t hat a count ry' sdomest i c pol i t i cs can be strongl y af f ect ed by i nt er nat i onal secu-r i t y st r uct ur es i n much t he same way t hat i t may be af f ect ed byi nt er nat i onal econom c st r uct ur es, as was di scussed i n sect i on 2.Thi s may not seem par t i cul ar l y sur pr i si ng, nor at f i r st gl ancedoes i t seem mor e pr obl emat i c t han t he i mpact of i nt er nat i onaleconom c f act or s on a count r y' s pol i t i cs . However , pot ent i al l yser i ous pr obl ems may ar i se when a st at e i s no l onger subj ect t osoci et al pr essur es.

Sever al studi es wer e di scussed i n sect i on 2 whi ch ar gued t hat ast at e whi ch i s aut onomous or aut hor i t ar i an may be suf f i ci ent l y

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

28/33

i ndependent of pr essur es f r om par t i cul ar gr oups i n soci et y t oPAGE 53

f undament al l y t r ansf or m t he t he cases exam ned i nt hese st udi es a sever e econom cr i si s weakened cert ai n gr oups,per m t t i ng t he st at e t o act r egar d f or t hei r i nt er est s.W t h t hQ dQcl i nQ of t hQSQ gr ou s t hQ st at e was abl e t o under t akepol i c i es whi ch l ed t o econom c r ecover y at t hei r expense. I tpur sued t hese pol i ci es because i t f el t an i mper at i ve t o t r ansf or mt he economy, r ei nf or ced by di r ect or i ndi r ect pr essur es f r om ot herpower f ul gr oups seeki ng a par t i bul ar t ype of r ecover y.

Shoul d some ot her f act or ( such as cl i ency) weaken domes t i cgr oups and make t he st at e mor e aut onomous or aut hor i t ar i an, t hestate w l l have t he same l at i t ude t o t r ansf or m t he economy at t heexpense of t hese gr oups. However , i n t he absence of an econom ccr i si s t her e i s no cl ear i mper at i ve t o t r ansf or m t he economy i n acert ai n way. Fur t her mor e, i f t he sta te i s i ndependent of pr essur esf r om al l domest i c gr oups, power f ul gr oups w l l not be abl e t opr essur e t he st at e t o move t he economy i n a par t i cul ar di r ect i on.Consequent l y t he st at e may be abl e t o pur sue econom c pol i c i eswhi ch ar e cont r ar y t o t he i nt er est s of al l domest i c gr oups, and ofsoci et y i n gener al . The sel f - r egul at i ng mechani sms embodi ed i nbot h t he pl ur al i st vi ew and t he pol i t i cal economy appr oach used i nt he st udi es di scussed above may be ser i ousl y di sr upt ed i n t hi sway. The st at e and soci et y may become t hor oughl y di sar t i cul at ed i nt he sense t hat t he st at e i s no l onger const r ai ned by soci et alpr essur es t o pur sue pol i c i es whi ch ar e i n t he i nt er est s of ei t herpar t i cul ar gr oups or of soci et y as a whol e.

Thi s l i ne of r easoni ng can be ext ended t o ot her ar eas i n whi cht he st at e may t ake a l eadi ng r ol e i n t r ansf or m ng soci et y. Ar easof par t i cul ar i nt er est i n t he case of I r an ar e West er ni zat i on andsecul ar i z at i on. A st at e whi ch 15 f r ee f r om soci et al pr essur es canunder t ake pol i ci es t o t r ansf or m soci et y i n any manner i t sees f i t .Havi ng under m ned t he pol i t i cal power of bot h t he nat i onal i s t

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

29/33

PAGE 54movement and t he cl er gy i n t he 19505 and 19605, t he cl i ent st at ei n I r an was abl e t o undert ake West er n-o r i ent ed devel opmentpr oj ects, est abl i sh cl ose t i es w t h gover nment s and busi nesses i nt he West , and i nt r oduce a ser i es of r ef or ms whi ch conf l i cted w t ht r adi t i onal I sl am c val ues. These pol i ci es wer e st r ongl y opposedby many sect or s of soci et y and cont r i but ed t o popul ar di ssat i sf ac-t i on w t h t he st at e.

Anot her ar ea i n whi ch cl i ency can gr eat l y st r engt hen t he cl i entst at e and r esul t i n a si m l ar di sar t i cul at i on bet ween t he st at eand gr oups seeki ng t o pressur e i t i s i n regi onal r el at i ons bet weena cl i ent countr y and i t s nei ghbor s. A cl i ent whose m l i t ar y f or c-es ar e enhanced t o t he poi nt wher e i t achi eves r egi onal hegemonyobvi ousl y cannot be pressur ed by m l i t ar y t hr eat s f r om ot her coun-t r i es i n t he ar ea. Such a count r y may become so power f ul t hat i ti s i n a posi t i on t o i mpose i t s w l l on al l ot her count r i es i n t her egi on. The sel f - r egul at i ng mechani sm whi ch operat es i n t hi s casei s t he r egi onal bal ance of power , a concept w t h l i ber al or i gi nss i m l ar t o t hose of pl ur al i s m ~9 I sr ael has been t he pr ot ot ypi cexampl e of t hi s pat t er n i n r ecent year s. Whi l e t hi s i s an ar ea ofobvi ous theor et i cal i mpor t ance and of di r ect r el evance f or U. S.i nt er est s i n t he M ddl e East . i t l i es beyond t he scope of t hepr esent st udy.

The di sar t i cul at i on of st at e- soci et y r el at i ons or of r egi onalre l at i ons can have ser i ous l ong- t er m consequences f or bot h t hepat r on and t he cl i ent . I n t he absence of pr essur es f r om domest i cgr oups, t he cl i ent st at e i s f r ee t o pur sue pol i ci es of i t s ownchoos i ng. These may be qui t e unpopul ar , or may be cont r ar y t o t hei nt erest s of par t i cul ar gr oups. The cl i ent st at e' s econom c pol i -ci es may be unsui t abl e f or pr evai l i ng domest i c and i nt er nat i onalcondi t i ons and may l ead t o sever e econom c pr obl ems i n t he f ut ure.I t s pol i ci es i n ot her ar eas such as l and r ef or m i ncome r edi st r i b-ut i on. pol i t i cal par t i ci pat i on. and cul tural or r el i gi ous i ssues

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

30/33

PAGE 55may cause gr eat popul ar di s sat i sf act i on. Over a per i od of t i me t hecumul at i ve ef f ect s of bad econom c pol i cy or popul ar di scont entmay l ead t o i ncr easi ng i nst abi l i t y. Aggr essi ve act i ons agai nstnei ghbor i ng count r i es may pr ovoke m l i t ar y bui l dups, t he ent r anceof ot her super power s i nt o t he r egi on, and ot her r epr i sal s , and maydanger ousl y dr ai n t he cl i ent ' s economy.

These var I ous consequences pr esent a ser I ous par adox f or t hepat r on. Whi l e i t s i ni t i al mot i ve i n est abl i shi ng a cl i encyr el at i onshi p may have been a desi r e t o obt ai n a st rong and st abl er egi onal al l y, t he l ong- t er m consequences of i t s i nvol vement mayi n f act pr oduce qui t e t he opposi te r esul t . Thi s i ssue w l l bedi scussed f ur t her i n t he concl usi on of t hi s st udy w t h par t i cul arr ef er ence t o t he case of I r an.

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

31/33

PAGE 56FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER 2

1) Thi s vi ew of t he st at e dr aws heavi l y on Max Weber , Economy andSoci ~ 3 Vol s. , ed. Guent her Rot h and Cl aus W t t i c h (N8L

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

32/33

PAGE 57Power and t he st ruct ur e of For ei gn Tr ade, " Wor l d Pol i t i cs, Vol .28, No. 3, Apr i l 1976, pp. 317- 347.13) Ral ph M l i band, The st at e i n Capi t al i st Soci et y ( New Yor k:Basi c Books, 1969) .14) Poul ant zas, Pol i t i cal PowQr and Soci al Cl assQs. S~Q al so t hear t i cl es by Poul ant zas and M l i band i n Robi n Bl ackbur n ( ed. ) ,I deol Q. 9v i n Soci Cl I Sci ence ( New Yor k: Vi nt age Books, 1973) . For Clusef ul di scussi on of i nst r ument al and st r uct ur al Mar xi st vi ews ont he st at e see Davi d A. Gol d, Cl ar ence Y. H. Lo, and Er i k Ol i nW i ght , "Recent Devel opment s i n ~ ar xi 5t Theor i es of t he Capi t al i s tSt at e, " Mont hl v Revi e~ Vol . 27, No. 5, Oct ober 1975, pp , 29- 43,and Vol . 27, No. 6, November 1975, pp. 36- 51. A si m l Cl r concept ofstat e aut onomy i s di scussed f r om a di f f erent per spect i ve by J . P.Net t l , "The St ate as a Concept ~al Var i abl e, " Wor l d Pol i t i cs, Vol .20, No. 4, J ul y 1968, PD. 564-5, 5.15) The concept s of t he strongl and weak st at e ar e f r om Kr asner ,Def endi ng t he Nat i onal I nt er est , pp. 55- 61.16) Kr asner , i bi d . p . 32.17) M l i band, The St at e i n Capi t al i st Soci et y, ch. 3. M l i bandal so ar gues t hat gr oups i nf l uence t he st at e by exer t i ng di r ectpressure on i t . See f oot not e 19, bel ow. Anot her i nst r ument alMar xi st t aki ng t hi s appr oach i s Gabr i el Kol ka, The Root s of Amer i -can For ei gn Pol i cy ( Bost on: Beacon Pr ess, 1969) .18) Truman, The Government al Pr ocess, pp. 506- 507.19) M l i band, The St at e i n Capi t al i st Soci et y, chs. 6- 8.20) Laski , The St ate i n Theor y and Pr act i ce, p. 101.21) I bi d. , pp , 93- 102.22) Bar r i ngt on Moor e, Soci al Or i gi ns of Di ct at or shi p and Democr acy( Bost on: Beacon Pr ess, 1966) , ch. 8. Moor e ar gues t hat aut hor i tar -i ani sm char act er i z ed bot h t he f asci st and pr e- f asci st per i ods i nthese countr i es .23) Gui l l er mo A. O' Donnel l , Moder ni zat i on and Bur eaucr at i c- Aut hor i t ar i ani sm St udi es i n Sout h Amer i can Pol i t i cs ( Ber kel ey:I nst i t ut e of I nt er nat i onal St udi es, 1973) . O' Donnel l has si ncemodi f i ed hi s ar gument somewhat ; see hi s "Ref l ect i ons on t hePat t er ns of Change i n t he Bur eaucr at i c- Aut hori t ar i an St at e, " Lat i nAmer i can Resear ch Revi ew, Vol . 12, No. 1, W nt er 197&, pp. 3- 38.For a number of excel l ent cr i t i ques and ext ensi ons of O' Donnel l ' swor k, see Col l i er , The New Aut hor i tar i ani sm i n Lat i n Amer i ca.24) see, f or exampl e, Rober t R. Kauf man, " I ndust r i al Change andAut hor i tar i an Rul e i n Lat i n Amer i ca: A Concr et e Revi ew of t heBureaucr at i c-Aut hor i t ar i an Model , " i n i bi d. , pp. 165- 253; andThomas E. Ski dmore, "The Pol i t i cs of Econom c St abi l i zat i on i nPost war Lat i n Amer i ca, " i n J ames M Mal l oy ( ed. ) , Aut hor i t ar i ani smand Cor por at i sm i n Lat i n Amer i ca ( Pi t t sbur gh: Uni ver si t y of Pi t t s -bur gh Pr ess, 1977) , pp. 149- 190.25 ) Ni cos Poul antzas,Books, 1974) . Fasci sm and Di ct at or shi p ( l ondon: New l ef t26) El l en Kay Tr i mber ger , Revol ut i on Fr om Above ( New Br unsw ck:Tr ansact i on Books, 1977) . Tr i mber ger empl oys a somewhat di f f er ent ,essent i al l y non- Mar xi st , concept of aut onomy. See pp. 4- 8.27) Skocpol , St at es and Soci al R9vol ut i ons, pp. 47- 51.

I

7/30/2019 MG diss ch2

33/33

PAGE 5828) For a pr ovocat i ve st udy of t he r ol e of t he st at e and st at eent er pr i ses i n t he devel opment of Brazi l , see Pet er Evans, Depend-ent Devel opment : The Al l i ance of Mul t i nat i onal , St at e, and LocalCapi t al i n Br azi l ( Pr i ncet on: Pr i ncet on Uni ver si t y Pr ess, 1979) .29) See, f or exampl e, Hans Mor gent hau, Pol i t i cs Amono Nat i ons,Thi r d Edi t i on ( New Yor k: Knopf , 1961) , pp. 168- 172.