Metropolis & Mental Life

8/21/2019 Metropolis & Mental Life

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The Metropolis and Mental Life

by Georg Simmel

adapted by D. Weinstein from Kurt Wol (Trans.) The Sociologyof Georg Simmel. New York: Free ress! "#$%! pp.&%#'&&

1.

Te deepest problems of modern life deri*e fromte +laim of te indi*idual to preser*e teautonomy and indi*iduality of is e,isten+e in tefa+e of o*erwelmin- so+ial for+es! of istori+alerita-e! of e,ternal +ulture! and of te te+niue

of life. Te /-t wit nature wi+ primiti*e manas to wa-e for is bodily e,isten+e attains in tismodern form its latest transformation. Teei-teent +entury +alled upon man to free imself of all te istori+al bonds in te state and inreli-ion! in morals and in e+onomi+s. 0an1s nature!ori-inally -ood and +ommon to all! sould de*elopunampered. 2n addition to more liberty! te

nineteent +entury demanded te fun+tionalspe+iali3ation {1} of man and is work4 tisspe+iali3ation makes one indi*idual in+omparableto anoter! and ea+ of tem indispensable to tei-est possible e,tent. 5owe*er! tisspe+iali3ation makes ea+ man te more dire+tlydependent upon te supplementary a+ti*ities of alloters. Niet3s+e sees te full de*elopment of te

indi*idual +onditioned by te most rutless

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stru--le of indi*iduals4 so+ialism belie*es in tesuppression of all +ompetition for te same reason.6e tat as it may! in all tese positions te samebasi+ moti*e is at work: te person resists to bein-le*eled down and worn out by a so+ial'te+nolo-i+al me+anism. 7n inuiry into te innermeanin- of spe+i/+ally modern life and itsprodu+ts! into te soul {2} of te +ultural body! soto speak! must seek to sol*e te euation wi+structures like the metropolis set up betweenthe individual and the super-individualcontents of life {3}. 8u+ an inuiry mustanswer te uestion of ow te personalitya++ommodates itself in te ad9ustments to e,ternalfor+es. Tis will be my task today.

2. Te psy+olo-i+al basis of te metropolitan type of indi*iduality +onsists in te intensication ofnervous stimulation wi+ results from te swift

and uninterrupted +an-e of outer and innerstimuli. Man is a dierentiating creature. 5ismind is stimulated by te dieren+e between amomentary impression and te one wi+pre+eded it. astin- impressions! {4} impressionswi+ dier only sli-tly from one anoter!impressions wi+ take a re-ular and abitual+ourse and sow re-ular and abitual +ontrasts'all

tese use up! so to speak! less +ons+iousness tandoes te rapid +rowdin- of +an-in- ima-es! tesarp dis+ontinuity in te -rasp of a sin-le -lan+e!and te une,pe+tedness of onrusin- impressions.

Tese are te psy+olo-i+al +onditions wi+ temetropolis +reates. Wit ea+ +rossin- of testreet! wit te tempo and multipli+ity ofe+onomi+! o++upational and so+ial life! te +ity sets

up a deep +ontrast wit small town and rural life









wit referen+e to te sensory foundations ofpsy+i+ life. Te metropolis e,a+ts from man as adis+riminatin- +reature a dierent amount of+ons+iousness tan does rural life. 5ere te rytmof life and sensory mental ima-ery ;ows moreslowly! more abitually! and more e*enly. re+iselyin tis +onne+tion te sopisti+ated +ara+ter ofmetropolitan psy+i+ life be+omes understandable' as o*er a-ainst small town life wi+ rests moreupon deeply felt and emotional relationsips.

Tese latter are rooted in te more un+ons+iouslayers of te psy+e {5} and -row most readily inte steady rytm of uninterrupted abituations.The intellect {6}, however, has its locus inthe transparent, conscious, higher layers ofthe psyche4 it is te most adaptable of our innerfor+es. 2n order to a++ommodate to +an-e and tote +ontrast of penomena! te intelle+t does notreuire any so+ks and inner upea*als4 it is onlytrou- su+ upea*als tat te more+onser*ati*e mind +ould a++ommodate to temetropolitan rytm of e*ents. Tus temetropolitan type of man'wi+! of +ourse! e,istsin a tousand indi*idual *ariants ' develops anorgan protecting him a-ainst te treatenin-+urrents and dis+repan+ies of is e,ternalen*ironment wi+ would uproot im. e reactswith his head instead of his heart. 2n tis anin+reased awareness assumes te psy+i+prero-ati*e. 0etropolitan life! tus! underlies aei-tened awareness and a predominan+e ofintelli-en+e in metropolitan man. Te rea+tion tometropolitan penomena is sifted to tat or-anwi+ is least sensiti*e and uite remote from tedept of te personality. !ntellectuality is thus

seen to preserve sub"ective life against theoverwhelming power of metropolitan life, and







intelle+tuality bran+es out in many dire+tions andis inte-rated wit numerous dis+rete penomena.

#. Te metropolis as always been te seat of temoney e+onomy. 5ere te multipli+ity and+on+entration of e+onomi+ e,+an-e -i*es animportan+e to te means of e,+an-e {7} wi+te s+antiness of rural +ommer+e would not a*eallowed. Money economy and the dominanceof the intellect are intrinsically connected.

Tey sare a matter'of'fa+t attitude in dealin- wit

men and wit tin-s4 and! in tis attitude! a formal 9usti+e {8} is often +oupled wit an in+onsiderateardness. Te intelle+tually sopisti+ated person isindierent to all -enuine indi*iduality! be+auserelationsips and rea+tions result from it wi++annot be e,austed wit lo-i+al operations. 2n tesame manner! te indi*iduality of penomena isnot +ommensurate wit te pe+uniary {9}

prin+iple. 0oney is +on+erned only wit wat is+ommon to all: it asks for te e,+an-e *alue! itreduces all $uality and individuality to the$uestion% ow much& 'll intimate emotionalrelations between persons are founded intheir individuality, whereas in rationalrelations man is reckoned with like a number,like an element wi+ is in itself indierent. <nly

te ob9e+ti*e measurable a+ie*ement is ofinterest. Tus metropolitan man re+kons wit ismer+ants and +ustomers! is domesti+ ser*antsand often e*en wit persons wit wom e isobli-ed to a*e so+ial inter+ourse. Tese featuresof intelle+tuality +ontrast wit te nature of tesmall circle in wi+ te ine*itable knowled-e ofindi*iduality as ine*itably produ+es a warmer tone

of bea*ior! a bea*ior wi+ is beyond a mere









ob9e+ti*e balan+in- of ser*i+e and return. 2n tespere of te e+onomi+ psy+olo-y of te small-roup it is of importan+e tat under primiti*e+onditions produ+tion ser*es te +ustomer woorders te -ood! so tat te produ+er and te+onsumer are a+uainted. Te modern metropolis!owe*er! is supplied almost entirely by produ+tionfor te market! tat is! for entirely unknownpur+asers wo ne*er personally enter teprodu+er1s a+tual /eld of *ision. Trou- tisanonymity te interests of ea+ party a+uire anunmer+iful matter'of'fa+tness4 and teintelle+tually +al+ulatin- e+onomi+ e-oisms of botparties need not fear any de;e+tion be+ause of teimponderables of personal relationsips. Temoney e+onomy {1} dominates te metropolis4 itas displa+ed te last sur*i*als of domesti+produ+tion and te dire+t barter of -oods4 itminimi3es! from day to day! te amount of workordered by +ustomers. Te matter'of'fa+t attitudeis ob*iously so intimately interrelated wit temoney e+onomy! wi+ is dominant in temetropolis! tat nobody +an say weter teintelle+tualisti+ mentality /rst promoted te moneye+onomy or weter te latter determined teformer. Te metropolitan way of life is +ertainly temost fertile soil for tis re+ipro+ity! a point wi+ 2sall do+ument merely by +itin- te di+tum of temost eminent =n-lis +onstitutional istorian:trou-out te wole +ourse of =n-lis istory!ondon as ne*er a+ted as =n-land1s eart butoften as =n-land1s intelle+t and always as ermoneyba->

(.2n +ertain seemin-ly insi-ni/+ant traits! wi+ lie

upon te surfa+e of life! te same psy+i+ +urrents





+ara+teristi+ally unite. Modern mind hasbecome more and more calculating. Te+al+ulati*e e,a+tness of pra+ti+al life wi+ temoney e+onomy as brou-t about +orresponds tote ideal of natural s+ien+e: to transform te worldinto an aritmeti+ problem! to /, e*ery part of teworld by matemati+al formulas. <nly moneye+onomy as /lled te days of so many peoplewit wei-in-! +al+ulatin-! wit numeri+aldeterminations! wit a redu+tion of ualitati*e{11} *alues to uantitati*e {12} ones. Trou-te +al+ulati*e nature of money a new pre+ision! a+ertainty in te de/nition of identities anddieren+es! an unambi-uousness in a-reementsand arran-ements as been brou-t about in terelations of life'elements ' 9ust as e,ternally tispre+ision as been ee+ted by te uni*ersaldiusion of po+ket wat+es. 5owe*er! te+onditions of metropolitan life are at on+e +auseand ee+t of tis trait. Te relationsips and aairsof te typi+al metropolitan usually are so *ariedand +omple, tat witout te stri+test pun+tualityin promises and ser*i+es te wole stru+ture wouldbreak down into an ine,tri+able +aos. 7bo*e all!tis ne+essity is brou-t about by te a--re-ationof so many people wit su+ dierentiatedinterests! wo must inte-rate teir relations anda+ti*ities into a i-ly +omple, or-anism. 2f all+lo+ks and wat+es in 6erlin would suddenly -owron- in dierent ways! e*en if only by one our!all e+onomi+ life and +ommuni+ation of te +itywould be disrupted for a lon- time. 2n addition anapparently mere e,ternal fa+tor: lon- distan+es!would make all waitin- and broken appointmentsresult in an ill'aorded waste of time. Tus! te

te+niue of metropolitan life is unima-inablewitout te most pun+tual inte-ration of all







a+ti*ities and mutual relations into a stable andimpersonal time s+edule. 5ere a-ain te -eneral+on+lusions of tis entire task of re;e+tion be+omeob*ious namely! tat from ea+ point on tesurfa+e of e,isten+e ' owe*er +losely atta+ed tote surfa+e alone ' one may drop a soundin- intote dept of te psy+e so tat all te most banale,ternalities of life /nally are +onne+ted wit teultimate de+isions +on+ernin- te meanin- andstyle of life. )unctuality, calculability,e*actness are forced upon life by thecomple*ity and e*tension of metropolitane*istence and are not only most intimatelyconnected with its money economy andintellectualist character. These traits mustalso color the contents of life and favor thee*clusion of those irrational, instinctive,sovereign traits and impulses which aim atdetermining the mode of life from within,instead of receiving the general andprecisely schemati+ed form of life fromwithout. =*en tou- so*erei-n types ofpersonality {1!}! +ara+teri3ed by irrationalimpulses! are by no means impossible in te +ity!tey are ne*erteless! opposed to typi+al +ity life.

Te passionate atred of men like ?uskin andNiet3s+e for te metropolis is understandable intese terms. Teir natures dis+o*ered te *alue oflife alone in te uns+emati3ed e,isten+e wi++annot be de/ned wit pre+ision for all alike. Fromte same sour+e of tis atred of te metropolissur-ed teir atred of money e+onomy and of teintelle+tualism of modern e,isten+e.

. Te same fa+tors wi+ a*e tus +oales+ed into

te e,a+tness and minute pre+ision of te form of





life a*e +oales+ed into a stru+ture of te i-estimpersonality4 on the other hand, they havepromoted a highly personal sub"ectivity.

Tere is peraps no psy+i+ penomenon wi+as been so un+onditionally reser*ed to temetropolis as as te blas@ {14} attitude. Teblas@ attitude results /rst from te rapidly+an-in- and +losely +ompressed +ontrastin-stimulations of te ner*es. From tis! teenan+ement of metropolitan intelle+tuality! also!seems ori-inally to stem. Terefore! stupid peoplewo are not intelle+tually ali*e in te /rst pla+eusually are not e,a+tly blas@. 7 life in boundlesspursuit of pleasure makes one blas@ be+ause ita-itates te ner*es to teir stron-est rea+ti*ity forsu+ a lon- time tat tey /nally +ease to rea+t atall. 2n te same way! trou- te rapidity and+ontradi+toriness of teir +an-es! more armlessimpressions for+e su+ *iolent responses! tearin-te ner*es so brutally iter and titer tat teirlast reser*es of stren-t are spent4 and if oneremains in te same milieu tey a*e no time to-ater new stren-t. 'n incapacity thusemerges to react to new sensations with theappropriate energy. This constitutes thatblas attitude wi+! in fa+t! e*ery metropolitan+ild sows wen +ompared wit +ildren ofuieter and less +an-eable milieus.

. Tis pysiolo-i+al sour+e of te metropolitan blas@attitude is 9oined by anoter sour+e wi+ ;owsfrom te money e+onomy. Te essen+e of te blas@attitude +onsists in te bluntin- of dis+rimination.

Tis does not mean tat te ob9e+ts are notper+ei*ed! as is te +ase wit te alf'wit! but

rater tat te meanin- and dierin- *alues of





tin-s! and tereby te tin-s temsel*es! aree,perien+ed as insubstantial. Tey appear to teblas@ person in an e*enly ;at and -ray tone4 noone ob9e+t deser*es preferen+e o*er any oter.

Tis mood is te faitful sub9e+ti*e re;e+tion of te+ompletely internali3ed money e+onomy. 6y bein-te eui*alent to all te manifold tin-s in one andte same way! money be+omes te most fri-tfulle*eler. /or money e*presses all $ualitativedierences of things in terms of 0how much&0Money, with all its colorlessness andindierence, becomes the commondenominator of all values irreparably ithollows out the core of things, theirindividuality, their specic value, and theirincomparability. 7ll tin-s ;oat wit eualspe+i/+ -ra*ity in te +onstantly mo*in- stream ofmoney. 7ll tin-s lie on te same le*el and dierfrom one anoter only in te si3e of te area wi+tey +o*er. 2n te indi*idual +ase tis +oloration! orrater dis+oloration! of tin-s trou- teir moneyeui*alen+e may be unnoti+eably minute.5owe*er! trou- te relations of te ri+ to teob9e+ts to be ad for money! peraps e*en trou-te total +ara+ter wi+ te mentality of te+ontemporary publi+ e*erywere imparts to teseob9e+ts! te e,+lusi*ely pe+uniary e*aluation ofob9e+ts as be+ome uite +onsiderable. Te lar-e+ities! te main seats of te money e,+an-e!brin- te pur+asability of tin-s to te fore mu+more impressi*ely tan do smaller lo+alities. Tatis wy +ities are also te -enuine lo+ale of teblas@ attitude. 2n te blas@ attitude te+on+entration of men and tin-s stimulate tener*ous system of te indi*idual to its i-est

a+ie*ement so tat it attains its peak. Trou-te mere uantitati*e intensi/+ation of te same



+onditionin- fa+tors tis a+ie*ement istransformed into its opposite and appears in tepe+uliar ad9ustment of te blas@ attitude. 2n tispenomenon te ner*es /nd in te refusal to rea+tto teir stimulation te last possibility ofa++ommodatin- to te +ontents and forms ofmetropolitan life. Te self'preser*ation of +ertainpersonalities is brou-t at te pri+e of de*aluatin-te wole ob9e+ti*e world! a de*aluation wi+ inte end una*oidably dra-s one1s own personalitydown into a feelin- of te same wortlessness.

3.Wereas te sub9e+t of tis form of e,isten+e asto +ome to terms wit it entirely for imself! isself'preser*ation in te fa+e of te lar-e +itydemands from im a no less ne-ati*e bea*ior of aso+ial nature. This mental attitude ofmetropolitans toward one another we maydesignate, from a formal point of view, as

reserve {15}. 2f so many inner rea+tions wereresponses to te +ontinuous e,ternal +onta+ts witinnumerable people as are tose in te small town!were one knows almost e*erybody one meets andwere one as a positi*e relation to almoste*eryone! one would be +ompletely atomi3edinternally and +ome to an unima-inable psy+i+state. artly tis psy+olo-i+al fa+t! partly te ri-t

to distrust wi+ men a*e in te fa+e of tetou+'and'-o elements of metropolitan life!ne+essitates our reser*e. 7s a result of tis reser*ewe freuently do not e*en know by si-t tose woa*e been our nei-bors for years. 7nd it is tisreser*e wi+ in te eyes of te small'town peoplemakes us appear to be +old and eartless. 2ndeed!if 2 do not de+ei*e myself! te inner aspe+t of tis

outer reser*e is not only indieren+e but! more





often tan we are aware! it is a sli-t a*ersion! amutual stran-eness and repulsion! wi+ will breakinto atred and /-t at te moment of a +loser+onta+t! owe*er +aused. Te wole inneror-ani3ation of su+ an e,tensi*e +ommuni+ati*elife rests upon an e,tremely *aried ierar+y ofsympaties! indieren+es! and a*ersions of tebriefest as well as of te most permanent nature.

Te spere of indieren+e in tis ierar+y is notas lar-e as mi-t appear on te surfa+e. <urpsy+i+ a+ti*ity still responds to almost e*eryimpression of somebody else wit a somewatdistin+t feelin-. Te un+ons+ious! ;uid and+an-in- +ara+ter of tis impression seems toresult in a state of indieren+e. 7+tually tisindieren+e would be 9ust as unnatural as tediusion of indis+riminate mutual su--estion wouldbe unbearable. /rom both these typicaldangers of the metropolis, indierence andindiscriminate suggestibility, antipathyprotects us. 7 latent antipaty and tepreparatory sta-e of pra+ti+al anta-onism ee+tte distan+es and a*ersions witout wi+ tismode of life +ould not at all be led. Te e,tent andte mi,ture of tis style of life! te rytm of itsemer-en+e and disappearan+e! te forms in wi+it is satis/ed' all tese! wit te unifyin- moti*es inte narrower sense! form te inseparable wole ofte metropolitan style of life. Wat appears in temetropolitan style of life dire+tly as disso+iation isin reality only one of its elemental forms ofso+iali3ation.

4. Tis reser*e wit its o*ertone of idden a*ersionappears in turn as te form or te +loak of a more

-eneral mental penomenon of te metropolis: it



-rants to te indi*idual a kind and an amount ofpersonal freedom wi+ as no analo-ywatsoe*er under oter +onditions. Te metropolis-oes ba+k to one of te lar-e de*elopmentaltenden+ies of so+ial life as su+! to one of te fewtenden+ies for wi+ an appro,imately uni*ersalformula +an be dis+o*ered. Te earliest pase ofso+ial formations found in istori+al as well as in+ontemporary so+ial stru+tures is tis: a relati*elysmall +ir+le /rmly +losed a-ainst nei-borin-!stran-e! or in some way anta-onisti+ +ir+les.5owe*er! tis +ir+le is +losely +oerent and allowsits indi*idual members only a narrow /eld for tede*elopment of uniue ualities and free! self'responsible mo*ements. oliti+al and kinsip-roups! parties and reli-ious asso+iations be-in intis way. Te self'preser*ation of *ery youn-asso+iations reuires te establisment of stri+tboundaries and a +entripetal unity. Terefore tey+annot allow te indi*idual freedom and uniueinner and outer de*elopment. From tis sta-eso+ial de*elopment pro+eeds at on+e in twodierent! yet +orrespondin-! dire+tions. To tee,tent to wi+ te -roup -rows ' numeri+ally!spatially! in si-ni/+an+e and in +ontent of life ' tote same de-ree te -roup1s dire+t! inner unityloosens! and te ri-idity of te ori-inaldemar+ation a-ainst oters is softened trou-mutual relations and +onne+tions. 7t te sametime! te indi*idual -ains freedom of mo*ement!far beyond te /rst 9ealous delimitation. Teindi*idual also -ains a spe+i/+ indi*iduality towi+ te di*ision of labor in te enlar-ed -roup-i*es bot o++asion and ne+essity. Te state andAristianity! -uilds and politi+al parties! and

innumerable oter -roups a*e de*elopeda++ordin- to tis formula! owe*er mu+! of



+ourse! te spe+ial +onditions and for+es of terespe+ti*e -roups a*e modi/ed te -enerals+eme. Tis s+eme seems to me distin+tlyre+o-ni3able also in te e*olution of indi*idualitywitin urban life. Te small'town life in 7ntiuityand in te 0iddle 7-es set barriers a-ainstmo*ement and relations of te indi*idual towardte outside! and it set up barriers a-ainst indi*idualindependen+e and dierentiation witin teindi*idual self. Tese barriers were su+ tat undertem modern man +ould not a*e breated. =*entoday a metropolitan man wo is pla+ed in a smalltown feels a restri+tion similar! at least! in kind.

Te smaller te +ir+le wi+ forms our milieu is!and te more restri+ted tose relations to otersare wi+ dissol*e te boundaries of te indi*idual!te more an,iously te +ir+le -uards tea+ie*ements! te +ondu+t of life! and te outlookof te indi*idual! and te more readily auantitati*e and ualitati*e spe+iali3ation wouldbreak up te framework of te wole little +ir+le.

5. Te an+ient "olis {1#} in tis respe+t seems toa*e ad te *ery +ara+ter of a small town. Te+onstant treat to its e,isten+e at te ands ofenemies from near and afar ee+ted stri+t+oeren+e in politi+al and military respe+ts! a

super*ision of te +iti3en by te +iti3en! a 9ealousyof te wole a-ainst te indi*idual woseparti+ular life was suppressed to su+ a de-reetat e +ould +ompensate only by a+tin- as adespot in is own ouseold. Te tremendousa-itation and e,+itement! te uniue +olorfulnessof 7tenian life! +an peraps be understood interms of te fa+t tat a people of in+omparably

indi*iduali3ed personalities stru--led a-ainst te





+onstant inner and outer pressure of adeindi*iduali3in- small town. Tis produ+ed a tenseatmospere in wi+ te weaker indi*iduals weresuppressed and tose of stron-er natures werein+ited to pro*e temsel*es in te most passionatemanner. Tis is pre+isely wy it was tat tereblossomed in 7tens wat must be +alled! witoutde/nin- it e,a+tly! Bte -eneral uman +ara+terBin te intelle+tual de*elopment of our spe+ies. Forwe maintain fa+tual as well as istori+al *alidity forte followin- +onne+tion: te most e,tensi*e andte most -eneral +ontents and forms of life aremost intimately +onne+ted wit te most indi*idualones. Tey a*e a preparatory sta-e in +ommon!tat is! tey /nd teir enemy in narrow formationsand -roupin-s te maintenan+e of wi+ pla+esbot of tem into a state of defense a-ainste,panse and -enerality lyin- witout and te freelymo*in- indi*iduality witin. Cust as in te feudala-e! te BfreeB man was te one wo stood underte law of te land! tat is! under te law of telar-est so+ial orbit! and te unfree man was teone wo deri*ed is ri-t merely from te narrow+ir+le of a feudal asso+iation and was e,+ludedfrom te lar-er so+ial orbit ' so today metropolitanman is BfreeB in a spirituali3ed and re/ned sense! in+ontrast to te pettiness and pre9udi+es wi+ emin te small'town man. For te re+ipro+al reser*eand indieren+e and te intelle+tual life +onditionsof lar-e +ir+les are ne*er felt more stron-ly by teindi*idual in teir impa+t upon is independen+etan in te ti+kest +rowd of te bi- +ity. Tis isbe+ause te bodily pro,imity and narrowness ofspa+e makes te mental distan+e only te more*isible. 2t is ob*iously only te ob*erse {17}of tis

freedom if! under +ertain +ir+umstan+es! onenowere feels as lonely and lost as in te





metropolitan +rowd. /or here as elsewhere it isby no means necessary that the freedom ofman be re6ected in his emotional life ascomfort.

17.2t is not only te immediate si3e of te area andte number of persons wi+! be+ause of teuni*ersal istori+al +orrelation between teenlar-ement of te +ir+le and te personal innerand outer freedom! as made the metropolis thelocale of freedom. 2t is rater in trans+endin-

tis *isible e,panse tat any -i*en +ity be+omeste seat of cosmopolitanism.{18} Te ori3onof te +ity e,pands in a manner +omparable to teway in wi+ wealt de*elops4 a +ertain amount ofproperty in+reases in a uasi'automati+al way ine*er more rapid pro-ression. 7s soon as a +ertainlimit as been passed! te e+onomi+! personal! andintelle+tual relations of te +iti3enry! te spere of

intelle+tual predominan+e of te +ity o*er itsinterland! -row as in -eometri+al pro-ression.=*ery -ain in dynami+ e,tension be+omes a step!not for an eual! but for a new and lar-ere,tension. From e*ery tread spinnin- out of te+ity! e*er new treads -row as if by temsel*es!

9ust as witin te +ity te unearned in+rement of-round rent! trou- te mere in+rease in

+ommuni+ation! brin-s te owner automati+allyin+reasin- pro/ts. 7t tis point! te uantitati*easpe+t of life is transformed dire+tly into ualitati*etraits of +ara+ter. Te spere of life of te smalltown is! in te main! self'+ontained and autar+i+.{19} For it is te de+isi*e nature of te metropolistat its inner life o*er;ows by wa*es into a far';un- national or international area. Weimar is not

an e,ample to te +ontrary! sin+e its si-ni/+an+e







was in-ed upon indi*idual personalities and diedwit tem4 wereas te metropolis is indeed+ara+teri3ed by its essential independen+e e*enfrom te most eminent indi*idual personalities.

Tis is te +ounterpart to te independen+e! and itis te pri+e te indi*idual pays for teindependen+e! wi+ e en9oys in te metropolis.

Te most si-ni/+ant +ara+teristi+ of temetropolis is tis fun+tional e,tension beyond itspysi+al boundaries. 7nd tis e+a+y rea+ts in turnand -i*es wei-t! importan+e! and responsibility tometropolitan life. 0an does not end wit te limitsof is body or te area +omprisin- is immediatea+ti*ity. ?ater is te ran-e of te person+onstituted by te sum of ee+ts emanatin- fromim temporally and spatially. 2n te same way! a+ity +onsists of its total ee+ts wi+ e,tendbeyond its immediate +on/nes. <nly tis ran-e iste +ity1s a+tual e,tent in wi+ its e,isten+e ise,pressed. Tis fa+t makes it ob*ious tatindi*idual freedom! te lo-i+al and istori+al+omplement of su+ e,tension! is not to beunderstood only in te ne-ati*e sense of merefreedom of mobility and elimination of pre9udi+esand petty pilistinism. Te essential point is tatte parti+ularity and in+omparability! wi+ultimately e*ery uman bein- possesses! besomeow e,pressed in te workin-'out of a way oflife. Tat we follow te laws of our own nature'andtis after all is freedom'be+omes ob*ious and+on*in+in- to oursel*es and to oters only if tee,pressions of tis nature dier from tee,pressions of oters. <nly our unmistakabilitypro*es tat our way of life as not beensuperimposed by oters.

11.



Aities are! /rst of all! seats of te i-est e+onomi+di*ision of labor. Tey produ+e tereby su+e,treme penomena as in aris te remunerati*eo++upation of te $uator%i&me. Tey are personswo identify temsel*es by si-ns on teirresiden+es and wo are ready at te dinner our in+orre+t attire! so tat tey +an be ui+kly +alledupon if a dinner party sould +onsist of tirteenpersons. 2n te measure of its e,pansion! te +ityoers more and more te de+isi*e +onditions of tedi*ision of labor. 2t oers a +ir+le wi+ trou- itssi3e +an absorb a i-ly di*erse *ariety of ser*i+es.7t te same time! te +on+entration of indi*idualsand teir stru--le for +ustomers +ompel teindi*idual to spe+iali3e in a fun+tion from wi+ e+annot be readily displa+ed by anoter. 2t isde+isi*e tat +ity life as transformed te stru--lewit nature for li*eliood into an inter'umanstru--le for -ain! wi+ ere is not -ranted bynature but by oter men. For spe+iali3ation doesnot ;ow only from te +ompetition for -ain but alsofrom te underlyin- fa+t tat te seller mustalways seek to +all fort new and dierentiatedneeds of te lured +ustomer. 2n order to /nd asour+e of in+ome wi+ is not yet e,austed! andto /nd a fun+tion wi+ +annot readily bedispla+ed! it is ne+essary to spe+iali3e in one1sser*i+es. Tis pro+ess promotes dierentiation!re/nement! and te enri+ment of te publi+1sneeds! wi+ ob*iously must lead to -rowin-personal dieren+es witin tis publi+.

12.7ll tis forms te transition to te indi*iduali3ationof mental and psy+i+ traits wi+ te +ityo++asions in proportion to its si3e. Tere is a wole

series of ob*ious +auses underlyin- tis pro+ess.



First! one must meet te di+ulty of assertin- isown personality witin te dimensions ofmetropolitan life. Were te uantitati*e in+reasein importan+e and te e,pense of ener-y rea+teir limits! one sei3es upon ualitati*edierentiation in order someow to attra+t teattention of te so+ial +ir+le by playin- upon itssensiti*ity for dieren+es. Finally! man is temptedto adopt te most tendentious {2} pe+uliarities!tat is! te spe+i/+ally metropolitan e,tra*a-an+esof mannerism! +apri+e! and pre+iousness. Now! temeanin- of tese e,tra*a-an+es does not at all liein te +ontents of su+ bea*ior! but rater in itsform of Bbein- dierent!B of standin- out in astrikin- manner and tereby attra+tin- attention.For many +ara+ter types! ultimately te onlymeans of sa*in- for temsel*es some modi+um ofself'esteem and te sense of /llin- a position isindire+t! trou- te awareness of oters. 2n tesame sense a seemin-ly insi-ni/+ant fa+tor isoperatin-! te +umulati*e ee+ts of wi+ are!owe*er! still noti+eable. 2 refer to te bre*ity ands+ar+ity of te inter'uman +onta+ts -ranted to temetropolitan man! as +ompared wit so+ialinter+ourse in te small town. Te temptation toappear Bto te point!B to appear +on+entrated andstrikin-ly +ara+teristi+! lies mu+ +loser to teindi*idual in brief metropolitan +onta+ts tan in anatmospere in wi+ freuent and prolon-edasso+iation assures te personality of anunambi-uous ima-e of imself in te eyes of teoter.

1#. Te most profound reason! owe*er! wy temetropolis +ondu+es to te ur-e for te most

indi*idual personal e,isten+e ' no matter weter





9usti/ed and su++essful ' appears to me to be tefollowin-: te de*elopment of modern +ulture is+ara+teri3ed by te preponderance of whatone may call the 0ob"ective spirit0 {21} overthe 0sub"ective spirit.0 {22} Tis is to say! inlan-ua-e as well as in law! in te te+niue ofprodu+tion as well as in art! in s+ien+e as well as inte ob9e+ts of te domesti+ en*ironment! tere isembodied a sum of spirit {2!}. Te indi*idual inis intelle+tual de*elopment follows te -rowt oftis spirit *ery imperfe+tly and at an e*erin+reasin- distan+e. 2f! for instan+e! we *iew teimmense +ulture wi+ for te last undred yearsas been embodied in tin-s and in knowled-e! ininstitutions and in +omforts! and if we +ompare alltis wit te +ultural pro-ress of te indi*idualdurin- te same period'at least in i- status-roups ' a fri-tful disproportion in -rowt betweente two be+omes e*ident. 2ndeed! at some pointswe noti+e a retro-ression in te +ulture of teindi*idual wit referen+e to spirituality! deli+a+y!and idealism. Tis dis+repan+y results essentiallyfrom te -rowin- di*ision of labor. For te di*isionof labor demands from te indi*idual an e*er moreone'sided a++omplisment! and te -reatestad*an+e in a one'sided pursuit only too freuentlymeans deart to te personality of te indi*idual.2n any +ase! e +an +ope less and less wit teo*er-rowt of ob9e+ti*e +ulture. Te indi*idual isredu+ed to a ne-li-ible uantity! peraps less in is+ons+iousness tan in is pra+ti+e and in tetotality of is obs+ure emotional states tat arederi*ed from tis pra+ti+e. Te indi*idual asbe+ome a mere +o- in an enormous or-ani3ation of tin-s and powers wi+ tear from is ands all

pro-ress! spirituality! and *alue in order totransform tem from teir sub9e+ti*e form into te









form of a purely ob9e+ti*e life. 2t needs merely tobe pointed out tat te metropolis is te -enuinearena of tis +ulture wi+ out-rows all personallife. 5ere in buildin-s and edu+ational institutions!in te wonders and +omforts of spa+e'+onuerin-te+nolo-y! in te formations of +ommunity life!and in te *isible institutions of te state! is oeredsu+ an o*erwelmin- fullness of +rystalli3ed andimpersonali3ed spirit tat te personality! so tospeak! +annot maintain itself under its impa+t. <nte one and! life is made in/nitely easy for tepersonality in tat stimulations! interests! uses oftime and +ons+iousness are oered to it from allsides. Tey +arry te person as if in a stream! andone needs ardly to swim for oneself. <n te oterand! owe*er! life is +omposed more and more oftese impersonal +ontents and oerin-s wi+tend to displa+e te -enuine personal +olorationsand in+omparabilities. Tis results in teindi*idual1s summonin- te utmost in uniuenessand parti+ulari3ation! in order to preser*e is mostpersonal +ore. 5e as to e,a--erate tis personalelement in order to remain audible e*en to imself.

Te atropy {24} of indi*idual +ulture trou- teypertropy {25} of ob9e+ti*e +ulture is onereason for te bitter atred wi+ te prea+ers ofte most e,treme indi*idualism! abo*e allNiet3s+e! arbor a-ainst te metropolis. 6ut it is!indeed! also a reason wy tese prea+ers are sopassionately lo*ed in te metropolis and wy teyappear to te metropolitan man as te propetsand sa*iors of is most unsatis/ed yearnin-s.

1(.2f one asks for te istori+al position of te twoforms of indi*idualism wi+ are nourised by te

uantitati*e relation of te metropolis! namely!







indi*idual independen+e and te elaboration ofindi*iduality itself! ten te metropolis assumes anentirely new rank order in te world istory of tespirit. Te ei-teent +entury found te indi*idualin oppressi*e bonds wi+ ad be+omemeanin-less'bonds of a politi+al! a-rarian! -uild!and reli-ious +ara+ter. Tey were restraints wi+!so to speak! for+ed upon man an unnatural formand outmoded! un9ust ineualities. 2n tis situationte +ry for liberty and euality arose! te belief inte indi*idual1s full freedom of mo*ement in allso+ial and intelle+tual relationsips. Freedom wouldat on+e permit te noble substan+e +ommon to allto +ome to te fore! a substan+e wi+ nature addeposited in e*ery man and wi+ so+iety andistory ad only deformed. 6esides tisei-teent'+entury ideal of liberalism! in tenineteent +entury! trou- Eoete and?omanti+ism! on te one and! and trou- tee+onomi+ di*ision of labor! on te oter and!anoter ideal arose: indi*iduals liberated fromistori+al bonds now wised to distin-uistemsel*es from one anoter. Te +arrier of man1s*alues is no lon-er te B-eneral uman bein-B ine*ery indi*idual! but rater man1s ualitati*euniueness and irrepla+eability. Te e,ternal andinternal istory of our time takes its +ourse witinte stru--le and in te +an-in- entan-lements oftese two ways of de/nin- te indi*idual1s role inte wole of so+iety. 2t is te fun+tion of temetropolis to pro*ide te arena for tis stru--leand its re+on+iliation. For te metropolis presentste pe+uliar +onditions wi+ are re*ealed to us aste opportunities and te stimuli for tede*elopment of bot tese ways of allo+atin- roles

to men. Terewit tese +onditions -ain a uniuepla+e! pre-nant wit inestimable meanin-s for te



de*elopment of psy+i+ e,isten+e. Te metropolisre*eals itself as one of tose -reat istori+alformations in wi+ opposin- streams wi+en+lose life unfold! as well as 9oin one anoter witeual ri-t. 5owe*er! in tis pro+ess te +urrentsof life! weter teir indi*idual penomena tou+us sympateti+ally or antipateti+ally! entirelytrans+end te spere for wi+ te 9ud-e1s attitudeis appropriate. 8in+e su+ for+es of life a*e -rowninto te roots and into te +rown of te wole ofte istori+al life in wi+ we! in our ;eetin-e,isten+e! as a +ell! belon- only as a part! it is notour task either to accuse or to pardon, butonly to understand.

89:9;T8<

" fun+tional spe+iali3ation is te di*ision of labor!or work! into separate tasks! ea+ of wi+

+ontributes to te total result (like ananaestesiolo-ist! sur-eon! sur-i+al nurse! et+.parti+ipatin- in an operation)4 te +ontribution ofea+ spe+iali3ed task to te total result is itsfun+tion wat -i*es sometin- meanin-

super'indi*idual +ontents of life are wat te

indi*iduals in a so+iety sare4 te term in+ludes+ulture (for e,ample! money! wi+ is te sametin- for all of tose wo e,+an-e it ande,+an-e for it)

& sense data: wat is seen! eard! smelled!tou+ed! tasted and felt

$ te entire +ons+ious life of an indi*idual4 itsBi-est le*elB is te intelle+t4 its Blowest le*elB is

http://www.altruists.org/static/files/The%20Metropolis%20and%20Mental%20Life%20(Georg%20Simmel).htm#1












mute feelin-

G te part of te psy+e (mind) tat tinks tin-sout and +al+ulates te +auses and +onseuen+es of

a+tion

H means of e,+an-e are te ways tin-s (-oodsand ser*i+es) are transferred from one indi*idual toanoter4 e-.! by money! by barter! or by +ustom(e-. birtday -ifts)

I formal 9usti+e means tat wo -ets wat is

stri+tly determined by rules tat pay no attentionto indi*idual dieren+es

# a*in- to do wit money

"% in te money e+onomy! tin-s and ser*i+es areprodu+ed for money and a+uired by payin-money for tem (as opposed to barter and

+ommon sarin-)

"" e,pressed in non'numeri+al +ara+teristi+s 'e-.! +olor! emotion

" e,pressed in numbers

" so*erei-n types of personality are personalitiestat will not +an-e or +ompromise teir distin+ti*eattitudes! bea*iors and desires

"& unresponsi*eness to stimulation4 refusal orinability to be emotionally mo*ed by or in*ol*ed inpeople and tin-s

"$ oldin- ba+k from respondin- fully to oterpeople























"G te unit of an+ient Ereek so+iety4 te +ity state(Ai+a-o! witout te J.8. or 2llinois! rulin- itself+ompletely)

"H te oter side of te story

"I te attitude tat notin- uman is forei-n tome4 tat te wole realm of +ulture! were*er itori-inates! is open to me ' 2 draw no boundariesaround parts of +ulture tat make tose partsbelon- only to separate -roups (e-.! B2talian +ultureis only for 2taliansB)

"# self'su+ient

% imposin- an a-enda! imposin- one1s will

" ob9e+ti*e +ulture ' te +olle+tion of rules! tools!symbols and produ+ts +reated by uman bein-s

sub9e+ti*e +ulture ' wat indi*iduals a*e beenable to absorb and inte-rate into temsel*es fromob9e+ti*e +ulture

spirit is mind or +ons+iousness! and te resultsof +ons+ious a+ti*ity (+ulture) (for e,ample!+omposin- musi+ and te musi+ tat as been+omposed are types or modes of spirit)

& wastin- away

$ o*er'de*elopment





















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