MONTREAL PROTOCOL ON SUBSTANCES THAT DEPLETE THE OZONE LAYER

UNEP

MethylBromideintheForestIndustry–Useandalternatives

MartaPizanoandJonathanBanksQPSTaskforce,TechnologyandEconomicAssessmentPanel,2009

Production of conifer seedlings in substrates in Chile (photo: Marten Barel, The Netherlands) Trials with a MB alternative for ISPM 15, sulfuryl

fluoride + MITC (MAFF, Japan)

Giant African Snail. A quarantine pest for many countries, requiring high dosages of MB for control, Queen Victoria Museum and Art Gallery, Tasmania

Applying MB under sheets to imported logs as a quarantine treatment (MAFF, Japan)

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Abstract.Logs,timberandwoodenmaterialsarenotoriousfortheirabilitytocarryavarietyofpestsofquarantinesignificance.Someofthesepestspotentiallyattackforestsandamenitytrees(standingtimber),whileotherscanattacktimberinfurniture,buildingsandotherstructures.Untilnow,thetreatmentofchoicehasbeenmethylbromide(MB).TargetsofMBfumigationmaybeinsectsthatinfestgreenanddrywood,nematodes(particularlypinewoodnematode,Bursaphelenchusxylophilus)andsomefungalpestsofwood,notablyoakwiltfungus(Ceratocystisfagacearum).Fumigationsmayalsobecarriedouttoeliminatehitchhikerpestsofquarantinesignificance,includingpestinsectsandsnails.However,MBisapotentozone‐depletingsubstance,andisnotpresentlyregulatedundertheMontrealProtocolwhenusedforquarantineandpre‐shipmentpurposes(QPS).Thepresent,exemptedannual(QPS)useofMBisaround11,000metrictonnesintotal.Withsuccessfulphaseoutandregulationofother(controlled)uses,thisQPSusehasbecomethelargestunregulatedemissiveuseofanyhalogenatedgasaffectingtheozonelayer.Alternativesandoptionsforreducingemissionsfromthisgasintotheatmospherearefeasible.Anestimated21%ofallMBusedforQPSpurposesisusedforcontrollingquarantinepestsinwholelogs;anadditional15%isusedfortreatingwoodandwoodpackagingmaterial.Keywords:Methylbromide(MB),quarantineandpre‐shipment(QPS),MontrealProtocol,ISPM,forestnurseries,alternatives.Correspondingauthor:MartaPizanompizano@hortitecnia.com

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1.Introduction

Methylbromide(MB)isanozonedepletingsubstance.Whenthisfumigantgasisemittedtotheatmosphere,itistransferredbynaturalforcestothestratospherewhereitisinvolvedinbreakingdownozonemoleculesinthestratosphere,causingseveredamagetotheozonelayer.Ithasahighozone‐depletingpotentialrecognizedofficiallyatavalueof0.6.MBbecameacontrolledozone‐depletingsubstance(ODS),undertheCopenhagenAmendmenttotheMontrealProtocolin1992,aninternationaltreatyundertheUnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme(UNEP).Presently,theMontrealProtocolistheonlyenvironmentaltreatyintheworldenjoyinguniversalrecognition.Reductionandphase‐outscheduleswereagreeddifferentlyforindustrializedanddevelopingcountries,andaspecialfundwasestablishedtohelpdevelopingcountriesfindthebestalternativestoMBaccordingtotheparticularsectorsinvolvedandtheirspecificcircumstances.MBuseforquarantineandpre‐shipment(QPS)werespecificallyexemptedfromProtocolcontrols.

Thephase‐outdateforindustrializedcountrieswassetfor2005andfordevelopingnationsfor2015.Aprovisionfor“CriticalUses”wasincluded(i.e.forusesforwhichtechnicalandeconomicallyfeasiblealternativesarenotavailable)andistheonlysituationunderwhichMBuseisallowedindevelopedcountriesatpresent.

Foroversixtyyears,MBhasbeenusedasanefficientfumigantcontrollingawiderangeofpestsanddiseasesprincipallyinthefollowingapplications(MBTOC,2007):

• Pre‐plantfumigationofsoiltocontrolsoil‐bornepestsanddiseasesintheproductionofhigh-valuecropssuchasstrawberries,tomatoes,flowers,peppersandmelons;

• Fumigationoffoodstuffsandassociatedstoragestructurestocontroldamagingpests;

• Fumigationofcertaincommodities(suchasgrain)intradetopreventthespreadofpestsanddiseases.

Thephase‐outofmethylbromideinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountriesiswelladvanced,withthe2007globalconsumptionofmethylbromide,exceptingthatforquarantineandpre‐shipmentuses,standingat15%percentofthebaselinefordevelopedPartiestotheProtocol(thebaselineconsumptionwassetatthelevelreportedfor1991)and40%ofthebaselinefordevelopingParties(forwhichthebaselineistakentobetheaveragereportedconsumptionfortheperiod1995‐1998).

Thepresent,exemptedannual(QPS)useofMBisaround11,000metrictonnesintotal.Withsuccessfulphaseoutandregulationofotheruses,thisQPSusehasbecomethelargestunregulatedemissiveuseofanyhalogenatedgasaffectingtheozonelayer.

2. QPSUsesintheforestryindustry(exempteduses)

InternationalStandardPhytosanitaryMeasures(ISPMs)preparedbytheIPPC(InternationalPlantProtectionConvention)influencethetreatmentofchoicewhenitcomestocontrollingaquarantinepest.ThemainISPMthatdeals

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specificallywithamajorvolumeuseofmethylbromideisISPM15,asrevised(IPPC2009).Thestandarddealswiththedisinfestationofwoodpackagingmaterialininternationaltradeasaquarantinemeasureagainstvariouspestsofwoodandforests.ThestandardISPM15specificallystatesthatheattreatmentshouldbeusedinplaceofmethylbromidewherepossible,butmanycountriesusemethylbromidetreatmenttomeetthestandard.Thereisnoequivalentstandardforwholelogsorsawntimber,thoughoneiscurrentlyunderconsideration.ItisIPPCpolicyforitsmemberstousealternativestomethylbromidewherefeasibleforquarantinetreatments(CPM‐3).

Anestimated21%ofallMBusedforQPS purposes is used for controlling quarantinepests in whole logs; an additional 15% is used fortreatingwood andwoodpackagingmaterial.Otherimportant categories include fresh fruit andvegetables (8% of identified uses); grain, includingrice (12%); and soil for preplant fumigation in situ(14%).

2.1 Woodandlogs

Logs,timberandwoodenmaterials(e.g.sawntimber,woodenpackagingmaterials)arenotoriousfortheirabilitytocarryavarietyofpestsofquarantinesignificance.Someofthesepestspotentiallyattackforestsandamenitytrees(standingtimber),whileotherscanattacktimberinfurniture,buildingsandotherstructures.TargetsofMBfumigationmaybeinsectsthatinfestgreenanddrywood,nematodes(particularlypinewoodnematode,Bursaphelenchusxylophilus)andsomefungalpestsofwood,notablyoakwiltfungus(Ceratocystisfagacearum).Fumigationsmayalsobecarriedouttoeliminatehitchhikerpestsofquarantinesignificance,includingpestinsectsandsnails.

MBisthemostwidelyusedfumigantforlogsbutitdoeshavesomelimitationsi.e.limitedpenetration,particularlyacrossthegrainandintowettimber.MostarthropodsassociatedwithtimberarequitesusceptibletoMBbutmuchhigherdosagesarerequiredtohavemortalityeffectonfungi(e.g.seeRhatiganetal.1998).Greenlogsare

problematictotreatduetothehighmoisturecontent(80%),presenceofbark(veryadsorbent),sizeandlargevolumes.Treatmentsoflogsmayneedtoberapid,suchasatpointofexportorimport,toavoidchargesandcongestionatportsassociatedwithoccupyingrestrictedportareaforthetreatment.Wherequarantinetreatmentscanbeappliedoutsideportareas,suchaspriortoexportorin‐transit,slowersystemscanbeused.

Thereisactiveresearchinprogresstodevelopalternativesforlogsbutgainingtherequiredefficacydataisdifficultaslaboratoryrearinghasnotyetbeenachievedtothenumbersrequired,mostinsectsareseasonal,thecommodityislargeandvariable.

2.1.1 Chemicalalternatives

Phosphineintransitonthosepartsoftheshipmentcarriedunderdeckistheonlycommerciallyusedalternativecurrentlyforunderbarkpests.NewZealandhaspioneeredtheuseofphosphineforthein‐transitfumigationofforestproducedestinedforChinambutcurrentlycanonlybeusedforthelogsshippedbelowdeckintheholds,approximately2/3rdsofashipment.ItisnowinroutineuseasaQPSmeasure,replacingMBuse.Oneofthemajordisadvantagesofphosphinewhencomparedtomethylbromideisthelongexposuretime(upto10days)required,butthisisovercomebyapplyingthephosphineintransit.

Sulfurylfluoride.Whilesulfurylfluoridehassimilarpropertiesandexposurerequirementsatsometemperaturestomethylbromide,withsignificantlybetterinpenetrationofwood(ScheffrahnandThoms1993),itisnotsoeffectiveatlowertemperaturesandrequiressignificantlyhigherdosagestocompensate.ChinahasapprovedaspecifictreatmentscheduleforsulfurylfluorideonlogsforfumigationinGermanyandothercountriespriortoexport.

Methylisothocyanate/sulfurylfluoridemixture.ThemixedgasofMITCandSFwasregisteredinJapanin2004forlogsinfestedwithforestinsectpests.MITCusedinmixturewithCO2iseffectiveagainstwoodborers,barkbeetles,andambrosiabeetles(Naitoetal.,1998).Ithasbeenfoundtobeparticularlyeffectiveagainstpinewoodnematode(Somaetal.,2001).

Oakwilt

Asianlonghornbeetle

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Methyliodide(MI)/CO2andthemethylisothocyanate(MITC)/sulfurylfluoridemixtureshavebeenregisteredinJapanbutarenotyetusedcommercially.Completemortalityofthepinewoodnematodeandthelonghornbeetles,MonochamusalternatusandArhopalusrusticus,wereattainedusingmethyliodide50%andcarbondioxide50%(Kawakamiet.al2004).Methyliodidehassuccessfullykilledoakwiltfungusatratessimilartomethylbromide(Tubajika,2006).

Cyanogen.Cyanogen,orethanedinitrile,hasbeeninvestigatedasareplacementforMB.RegistrationiscurrentlybeingsoughtinAustralia.Full‐scaletrialsusingcyanogenonstacksofsawntimberhavebeencarriedoutinMalaysiaunderMLF‐fundeddemonstrationtrialsformethylbromidealternatives(UNDP‐MAL/99/G68/A/2G/99).Cyanogenpenetrateswoodquiterapidlybothacrossandalongthegrain,incontrasttoMBthattravelsalongthegrainbutpoorlyacrossthegrain(Renetal.1997).UnlikeMB,itappearstopenetratehighmoisturecontenttimberwell.

AnewISPMisbeingdraftedfortheinternationalmovementofwood.Thiswillincludetwocategoriesoftreatments,firstlythosealreadyinuseinbilateraltradesandwithefficaciesagainstspecificpests.Thesecondcategorywillbeforclassesofwood(roundwood,sawnwoodandmechanicallyprocessedwood)andwillbebasedonthedraftcriteriaforfutureISPMNo.15treatmentsubmissionsandusedthesamedecision‐treeapproach.

2.1.2 Non‐chemicalalternatives

Heattreatment–HeathasbeenacceptedasaquarantinetreatmentforlogsandtimbertobeshippedtotheUSAandmanyothercountriesformanyyears(e.g.USDA1996).Kilndryingoftimbertoamoisturecontentoflessthan20%usingtemperaturesover70°Cisoftenacommercialrequirementbutalsohaslongbeenacceptedasaquarantinetreatmentbymostimportingcountries.HotwaterandsteamtreatmenthaslongbeenusedforriskmitigationforhardwoodveneerlogsimportedintoNewZealand.Suchlogsareinvariablyattackedbypinholeborers(ScolytidaeandPlatypodidae)beforeshipment.Moistheattreatmentisanintegralpartoflogconditioningpriortopeelingbuthastheadditionalbenefitofeliminatingquarantinerisk.

Irradiation.Gammairradiationhasbeensuggestedasatreatmentforwoodandwoodproducts(Reichmuth,2002),andiscurrently

approvedforlogsintoAustralia.However,itspracticalapplicationmustovercomeanumberofhurdles,suchastheconstructionoflargeirradiatorstohandlelogsandbulkwoodproducts.Thetechnologyisalsolimitedbypoorpenetrationintofreshlycutlogs,potentialdamageanddegradationofwoodproductssuchasfibreboardandpaper,variationineffectondifferentinsectgroups,andveryhighdosagesrequiredtoeliminatefungi(Morrell1995).

Watersoakingorimmersionprovidesaprocessforcontrolofpestsonimportedlogs.Immersionofsomelogsdestinedforplywoodmanufactureisausefulprocessasitimprovesthequalityoftheproducts.Thepotentialforuseofwatersoakingforquarantinetreatmentofimportedlogsislimitedbythelargeareaofwaterrequiredandtheundesirablesideeffectsofpondinglargevolumesoflogs.

Debarking.Barkremovalhaslongbeenakeystrategyinreducingcontaminationoflogsandreducingtheriskthatlogsandsawntimbercarryinsectsandfungiofquarantineconcern.Whiledebarkingremovessurfacecontaminationandalsobarkandcambium,areasparticularlypronetopestattack;itdoesnotaffectinsectsandfungialreadyinthewood(USDA,1992).Manycountriesrequiredebarkingofallimportedlogs.Becauseofthehighcost,andtherequirementbycustomersinmajorAsianmarketsthatbarkremainonlogs,itsapplicationasaquarantinetreatmentislimitedandfrequentlyonlycarriedoutonhighvaluelogs.

Microwavetreatment.Thisisessentiallyaheattreatmentusingelectromagneticenergyinthe10–30,000MHzrange.Therelationshipbetweenfieldintensity,exposuretimeandmortalityofindividualinsectspeciesisnotwellunderstood,buthasbeenshowntobehighlyvariable(Riaetal.1972,Ikedialaetal.1999).

2.2. Woodpackagingmaterials(WPM)

2.2.1. Chemicalalternatives

IncaseswhereWPMhastobetreatedtogetherwithheatvulnerablecargoesorgoodstomeetISPM15,thereisnochemicaloptionatpresentotherthanMBtreatment,butalternativechemicalsarebeingevaluated.The2009revisionofISPM15(IPPC2009)didnotrecogniseanyalternativetomethylbromideexceptheat,butseveralpotentialalternativestoheatandmethylbromideareundercontinuedtesting.Potentialalternativeshavebeen

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submittedtotheIPPCandareunderevaluation.TheseincludeSF,SF+MITCmixture,Hydrogencyanide,microwaveirradiation,phosphineandMI,andweresubmittedtoIPPCandhavebeenevaluatedinaccordancewiththeIPPCprocess.Theevaluationpanelshaverequestedadditionalefficacydataforallthesepotentialalternatives.ItseemsthatspeciesofAgrilusplanipennis(EmeraldAshBorer),Anoplophoraglabripennis(Asianlonghornedbeetle,ALB)andBursaphelenchusxylophilus(Pinewoodnematode,PWN)arekeypeststhatatleastneedtobecontrolledtoaveryhighlevelofquarantinesecuritybyanyalternative.

AnewISPMisbeingdraftedfortheinternationalmovementofwoodthatwillincludetwocategoriesoftreatments,firstlythosealreadyinuseinbilateraltradesandwithefficaciesagainstspecificpests.Thesecondcategorywillbeforclassesofwood(roundwood,sawnwoodandmechanicallyprocessedwood)andwillbebasedonthedraftcriteriaforfutureISPMNo.15treatmentsubmissionsandusedthesamedecision‐treeapproach.

2.2.2 Non‐chemicalalternatives

Heattreatment‐TheonlyalternativetreatmenttomethylbromidetreatmentacceptedinternationallyunderISPM15fortreatmentofwoodpackagingmaterials(WPM)isheattreatment,includingkilndrying.Atemperatureofatleast56°C,coretemperature,mustbemaintainedforatleast30minutes(IPPC,2006).The2009versionoftheISPM15standard(IPPC2009)specificallyencouragesuseofheatwherefeasibleinpreferencetomethylbromide.

2.2.3 Notin‐kindalternativesforWPM

Not‐in‐kindalternativesexistforwoodpalletsandotherwoodenpackagingmaterials.TheseavoidtheneedforMBfumigationorheattreatment.Plasticpallets(oftenmadefromrecycledplastic,whichmakesthemreusable)arecommerciallyavailableandareusedbymanycompaniesintheEC,theUSandmanyotherregionsoftheworld.Cardboardpalletscanbesuitableforloadsofabout3,000kg,forexample,andareavailablecommerciallyinAustralia,theEC,Kenya,NewZealand,theUSandothers.Plastic,cardboard,plywoodandparticleboardcanalsobeused,insteadofwoodpackingmaterials,forboxes,containersandstaveswhichpreventgoodsmovingwithinpackedshippingcontainers.Thesematerialsareexempt

fromtherequirementsforMBorheattreatmentsundertheISPM15standard,whichrefersonlytosolidwoodpackagingmaterials.TheISPM15standardexcludesnon‐woodpackaging(plastic,cardboard)andspecificallyexcludesplywood,particleboard,orientedstrandboardandsimilarprocessedwoodthathasbeensubjectedtoglueorpressureduringprocessing(IPPC2009).Asasidebenefit,areductioninthevolumeofnewtimberusedforwoodpalletswouldbringbenefitstocountrieswhereforestresourcesareunderpressure.Kenya,forexample,isestimatedtouseabout250,000to300,000woodpalletsperannumforteaexportsalone.Thisvolumeofpalletscomprisesabout5,500‐6,600tonnesofcuttimber,whichrequiresthefellingorimportationofabout8,330‐10,000tonnesofrawtimberperannum(Rodwell,2007).ThisdemandfortimbercausesproblemsinKenyawherethetreecoverisrapidlydwindlingduetootherpressuressuchastheneedforfirewood(Rodwell,2007).

2.4Emissionreductionandrecovery

Anestimated88%oftheMBappliedduringstandardcommercialpracticeisemittedtotheatmospherefromlogfumigations(TEAP,2009).Thereareseveralcommerciallyavailableprocessesforrecaptureofresidualmethylbromide.Presentinstallationshaveindividualcapacitiesoflessthan50kgoffumigant,buthighercapacityunitsarebeingcurrentlybeinginstalled.Allcommerciallyavailablerecaptureunitsarebasedonabsorptionontoactivecarbon,butsubsequenttreatmentoftheloadedcarbondiffers.Efficienciesofrecapturearestronglydependentongoodfumigationpracticethatminimisesleakageduringtheexposuretothefumigant.Takingintoaccountlossesinpracticeduringfumigations,includingsorptionlossesandleakage,itisestimatedthat30‐70%ofinitialdosageisavailableforrecapture,withgoodpractice,dependingtheloadtreatedandotherconditions.Forforestproductsthismayexceed80%undergastightchamberconditions.Commerciallyavailablerecapturesystemalsoofferstheabilitytoreleaserecapturedmethylbromideforreuse,withasavinginpracticeofabout30%ofmethylbromideuse.Costsofrecapturearehighlysituation‐dependent,butmaytypicallyadd50‐100%tothecostofafumigation(TEAP,2009).Insomespecificsituations,suchasforlogexportsfromtheportofNelson,NZ,recaptureisrequiredtomeetlocalairqualityregulations.

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3.Controlledusesintheforestryindustry

ExceptforcertaincircumstancesclassifiedbytheUStobeQPS,fumigationoflandwhereforestseedlingsaregrown,isconsideredacontrolled,non‐exempteduse.

3.1 AlternativestoMBforforestnurseries

Invariouscountriesaroundtheworld,MBwastraditionallyusedasthefumigantofchoicetosterilizesoilusedfortheproductionofforestseedlings.Practicallyallcountrieshowever,havefoundalternativestothisuse,whichperformasefficientlyasMB.Examplesofsuchalternativesare:

3.1.1 Chemicalalternatives

AgoodamountofresearchhasbeendevotedtotheidentificationofchemicalalternativestoMBforforestnurseries,particularlyintheUnitedStates.Someexamplesare:• Chloropicrinalone(South2007,2008)orin

combinationwithherbicides‐whenweedsposeproblems.ThisoptionhasalsobeenadoptedsuccessfullyinChile(Barel,2003)

• 1,3‐Dichloropropene+Chloropicrin(1,3‐D/Pic)isagoodoptionwhentherearenematodespresentinthesoil(South2008).

• MethyliodidehasbeenfoundtoprovidecontrolofpathogensandweedsthatisnotsignificantlydifferenttothatachievedwithMB(Enebak,2006).ThisisanewfumigantwhichisnowregisteredinmostoftheUnitedStates(notCalifornia)andforwhichregistrationispresentlysoughtinothercountries(forexampleTurkey,Australia,Mexico,Japan)

• MethamsodiumcombinedwithPic(Crametal.,2007)orcombinedwith1,3‐DplusPic(South,2008)

• Dazomet(Muckennfussetal.2005;Enebaketal.,2006).

• Dimethyldisulfide(DMDS)pluschloropicrinisshowingpromisingresults,especiallysinceitdoesnotaffectpopulationsofTrichoderma,abeneficialfungusthatisimportantforproperdevelopmentofforestseedlings(Quicke,2008)

Tarpingthesoilwithbarrierfilms(LPBF)thatgreatlyreducetheamountoffumigantsthatisreleasedintotheatmosphereisawayofreducingdosageratesofMBusedinforestnurseriesEnebak(2007),whichcanalsobeappliedtootherfumigants,forexamplePicandmethamsodium.

3.1.2 Non‐chemicalalternatives

Substrates.Analternateapproachtochemicalsoiltreatmentsistheproductionofnurserystockinbagsorcontainersofdifferenttypes,usingsoillesssubstrates(MBTOC,2007).Substratesarebecomingincreasinglyadoptedastheyavoidtheneedformethylbromideinmanycountries(Waltersetal.,2008).Maintaininggoodhygienelevelsforplugplantsisessentialinthiscase,sincecontaminationcanproduceoutbreaksofdiseases,includingairbornediseaseswhichcanproliferateunderthecontrolledconditionsofplugproduction.

Productionsystemswherethisapproachiseconomicallyfeasibleandallowsfortheproductionofhighqualityproductshavebeenidentified.GoodexamplesarefoundforexampleinChilewherelargenurseriesproducemillionsofconiferseedlingseachyearinsubstratesandBrazil,whereInternationalPaperproducesover40millionseedlingsofeucalyptusandconiferseveryyear,alsoinsubstrates(Ghini,pers.comm.,2009).AfterbeingamongstthelargestusersofMBinthedevelopingworld,Brazilhascompletelyphased‐outthischemicalandpresentlyrestrictsitsuseexclusivelytoQPS.Variousmaterialscanbeusedassubstrates(e.g.rockwool,peatmoss,ricehulls,coconuthusks,gravelandbark)andcanbereusedaftersterilizingwithsteamorhotwater.

SteamisinwideusefortreatingusedsubstratesrecycledforusefortheproductionofforestrypropagationmaterialsinEurope(ECManagementStrategy,2008)aswellasinothercountriesaroundtheworld,includingdevelopingcountries.

Thesealternativeshaveproveneffectiveeveninsituationswherepropagationmaterialsaresubjectedtocertificationrequirements.

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