The University of Sheffield

School of Architecture

United Kingdom

Metaphor

A thesis submitted for the degree of

Master of Architectural Design

By:

Maryam Roghani Golpayegani

Supervisor: Dr Carolyn Butterworth

September 2010

Acknowledgement:

I would like to express the deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr Carolyn Butterworth,

who helps and supports from the initial to the final level of this project and enabled me to

develop an understanding of the subject. Especial thanks to Dr Renata Tyszczuk for her

advice and supportive attitude.

Also I am heartily thankful to my husband for his patient and support during this course and

finally, I offer my regards and blessings to my parents who this thesis would not have been

possible without their encouragement, and support.

Abstract:

Humans produce art in order to work through meanings and feelings, and to fill the gaps

between imagination and reality. Some artists use a metaphorical language to present their

work. This study aims to explore the means an interlocutor has of understanding a piece of

metaphorical art, as well as the connection between the artist’s intention and the

interlocutor’s mind and imagination. This project will produce a metaphorical installation

based on a chapter of a book called Invisible Cities by Italo Calvino.

Table of content:

Acknowledgement

Abstract

Metaphor

Semiotic

Precedents

Daniel Libeskind

Lucy Orta

Borre Saethre

A personal design exploration

Cities and Desires

Interviews

Installation

Conclusion

Bibliography

Metaphor:

In the Oxford Advanced Dictionary, a metaphor is described as: “A word or phrase used in

an imaginative way to describe somebody or something else, in order to show that the two

things have the same qualities and to make the description more powerful”1.

Wikipedia explains a metaphor as an analogy between two objects or ideas, conveyed by the

use of one word instead of another. The English metaphor derives from the 16th-century Old

French métaphore, from the Latin metaphora “carrying over”, Greek (μεταφορά) metaphorá

“transfer”, from (μεταφέρω) metaphero “to carry over”, “to transfer” and from (μετά) meta

“between” + (φέρω) phero, “to bear”, “to carry”. Moreover, metaphor also denotes rhetorical

figures of speech that achieve their effects via association, comparison, and resemblance, e.g.

antithesis, hyperbole, metonymy, and simile; all are species of metaphor. 2

To investigate even further, as George Lakoff and Mark Johnson discuss in their book

Metaphors We Live By, a metaphor is more than literature and speech; it exists in everyday

life, in thoughts and actions.

A common definition of a metaphor describes a comparison that shows how two things that

are not alike in most ways are similar in another important way. They explain how a

metaphor is simply understanding and experiencing one kind of thing in terms of another.

A metaphor could be also be understood as an ambiguity or duality in an expression which

may recall another object or concept with different issues and effects.

Metaphors have been represented by artists in several ways, from the ancient era to now,

from cave paintings to modern and even digital artificial works, from initial human shelters

and templates to contemporary high tech and modern architecture.

Metaphorical statements exist in every moment of life, but the means of using and

understanding them depends on people having different levels of knowledge and appreciation.

1 - Oxford Advanced Dictionary, 2003.

2 - http://www.wikipedia.org/ 2010.

A metaphor is often a different kind of speech employed when people would like to

communicate in a sensitive and graceful way, and many linguists and psychologists have

studied and researched this issue and analysed it from different points of view.

A metaphor is an indirect intimation on a subject and concept or purpose and is usually

transferred by descriptive or sensory aspects related to the intended subject; as a result of this

process a specific mental structure is formed which makes a connection between known and

unknown subjects and objects in the real world.

Some linguistics analyse this process through semiotics. Semiotics is a social science which

studies signs and the ways they are used in daily life.

Semiotic:

“One can conceive therefore a science which studies the life of signs at the heart of social life;

we shall call it Semiology (from the Greek semeion, „sign‟). It would teach us what signs

consist of and what laws govern them. Since it does not yet exist, one cannot say what form it

will take; but it has a right to existence, its place is marked out in advance.

Linguistics is only a part of this general Study. The laws that semiology will discover will be

applicable to linguistics, which will thus find itself assigned to a well-defined area within the

totality of human phenomena. "3

People wish and try to make meaning through communication and presenting themselves.

“We are surely Homo significans - meaning-makers. Distinctively, we make meanings

through our creation and interpretation of 'signs'.”4 Signs take the form of words, images,

sounds, odours, flavours, acts or objects, but such things have no essential meaning and

become signs only when we imbue them with meaning.

Semiotics explains how people use signs meaningfully, especially when they interpret ideas

with signs, largely unconsciously, by relating them to familiar systems of conventions.

The two models below were suggested by Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Sanders Peirce.

3 - Saussure, 1916

4 - Semiotics for Beginners Signs.mht

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913) was a Swiss linguist and one of the founding fathers of

semiotics. He defined a sign as being composed of:

o A 'signifier' (significat) - the form which the sign takes

o The 'signified' (signifié) - the concept it represents

The sign is the whole that results from the association of the signifier with the signified.

Saussure illustrated the relationship between the signifier and the signified in a diagram:

Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914) was an American philosopher who was one of the first

theorists in semiotics. He said we think only in signs and nothing is a sign unless it is

interpreted as a sign. Peirce believed that the structure of each sign is formed by three

relations and links. He divided signs into three parts: the object, the representment or sign,

and the interpretation. He was clearly fascinated by tripartite structures, and made a

phenomenological distinction between the sign itself as an instance of 'Firstness', its object as

an instance of 'Secondness', and the interpretant as an instance of 'Thirdness'.

Discussing metaphorics and semiotics in general through visuals is complicated, but seeing

comes first, before words and language. Children know the world through looking at it before

they talk or understand other people talking.5

5 - Berger, 1978

Some kinds of art, such as painting, photography and architecture, where almost always the

visual connection comes first, can be categorized as pictorial art and in this study the most

important section, on metaphorical statement, is about this group.

A landscape or a picture could be assumed to be a general view and system which is formed

by a significant relationship. In other words, a prospect or landscape composition is a

collection of physical objects and shapes which is known as the visual point and subject for a

viewer.

Physical collage model.

The process of observing and realizing happens in the mind, and although this imagination is

formed by a physical system, the creative mind and memory of the viewer creates its own

personal picture and imagination of the same subject, in a new text.6

After this general look at semiotics, it can be seen that people use signs every single second

of their individual and social lives. We use them consciously or unconsciously for

communicating with each other. So, from a wider view, we use metaphors for mediating and

transferring feeling and meaning. Artists are also the same; they use this rule in a more

professional way in order to create their art forms. Artists have always used metaphors and

signs to create art, thus they represent the personal and social creeds, culture, thoughts and

feelings of a given era.

6 - Sartre, 1984

Physical collage model.

Precedents:

Even though, as mentioned before, a metaphor is related to every part of speech or thought,

there is a question as to whether metaphorical and conceptual design can be categorized as a

separate and specific branch of art or not, and whether the artists who claim that they have

created a piece of metaphorical art have actually been successful in transferring the intended

concept or not. The following examples will discuss the key features of a number of

precedents of metaphorical design.

Daniel Libeskind, 1946.

Daniel Libeskind is a well known Polish architect, one of the most famous metaphorical

architects in the world. He always struggles with conceptual issues in his design process and

tries to make a scenario for each of them.

He has stated that there are some key terms that he believes in and tries to reflect in his

design work. “Unexpected, Risky, Memorable, Communicative, Optimism, Raw, Hand,

Inexplicable, Pointed, Real, Democratic, Political, Emotional, Complex, Radical, Space,

Expressive”7 are the words that he deals with at the time of design.

One of his most famous works is The Jewish Museum in Berlin. Libeskind said he had three

main concepts when designing the Jewish Museum. First of all he wanted to show the

connection between Berlin and Jews in terms of economy and culture; the second concept

was that he was trying to demonstrate the Holocaust, to make people aware of it, and to keep

the memory of it in their minds; and finally he wished to reflect Jewish life in Berlin in the

future of Berlin and Europe.

7 - Libeskind speech 2009.

The Exile Garden is one of the most interesting and metaphorical parts of the museum. It

consists of forty nine columns which have plants on them, but this vegetation is out of reach.

The foundations of its columns are not regular and often cause visitors to feel confused and

even seasick. The Exile Garden was designed to commemorate the Jews who had been

compelled to escape from Berlin. Libeskind wanted to remind visitors of the shipwreck of

German Jewish history, and also to give them a feeling of what it is like to arrive, with no

bearings, in a strange, new land. Although visitors might not be aware of the story of the

Exile Garden, as soon as they enter it their feelings change; it is an opportunity for them to

explore the feeling of struggling in a trap.

Picture below left: Jewish Museum, Design Sketch. Picture from Wordpress website.

Picture below right: Jewish Museum, Concept Picture from Jewish Museum Berlin Book.

Picture above: The Exile Garden, Jewish Museum,

General view, Picture from blogspot.com

Picture left: The Exile Garden, Jewish Museum,

Picture from: www.rainydaytraveler.com

Lucy Orta, The refuge wears and body architecture

Art is in itself not a social action and does not, per se, possess any compassion, immediacy or

direct sight. Refuge wear was the first of Orta`s works to become known in international

artistic circles. It was a response to the problems and suffering experienced during the first

Persian Gulf War. The work was designed in order to encounter situations of discomfort

and/or the lack of protection provided by social structures.

Refuge Wear is clothing that transforms textiles, fibres and fabric membranes into portable

architectures. It is therefore at the intersection of dress and architecture - two different levels

of contact that the body has with the outside. The first covers and stays in contact with

Refuge Wears,

Lucy Orta,

Picture from:

Lucy Orta book,

Page 41.

people’s bodies and the second, more solid in structure, defines the place in which people live

and spend most of their time.8

Each cloth connects to another cloth and makes a net between people.

Showing the molecular group, with its randomness and incompleteness, causes an eruption of

the conflicts which are found under the skin of disregard. In this way art becomes a form of

forethought and criticism. Louise Bourgeois calls her design, “cell”; metaphor is powerful

and direct, so the world "cell" may recall a prison, but equally so it is the biological body.

Cells are a part of the human body. They are at the origin of its being, its feeling, its

emotions and its sufferings. Thus, they speak the language of the body; the people who are

wearing these clothes speak with the language of the body. 9 There are also cells of dwelling,

and the relationship between people and their homes is formed in this metaphorical cell.

Living and being become a single and unique life experience.

8 - Lucy Orta, p.40.

9 - Process of Transformation, p.15.

Refuge Wears,

Lucy Orta,

Picture from:

Lucy Orta

book,

Page 53.

Borre Saethre, My private sky, unit 1 / trauma white, 2001.

Borre Saethre is a Norwegian artist who designed the installation above. The installation is a

spatial creation of the focus on the eternal and essential human desire for comfort, relaxation

and luxury.

His artificial, aesthetically perfect environments echo retro or futuristic film sets, as might be

found in style magazines. Though appealing seductively to voyeuristic and narcissistic needs,

the interiors of the art leave the viewer powerless and isolated. Saethre`s work simulates the

experience of a fake totality., trapping the viewer in the construction of a virtual reality

environment.10

Sæthre's installations employ compound spaces to reflect upon the artist's own

fantasies and exposures presented in pure internal space.

10 - Installation Art in the New Millennium, p.60.

Picture from Installation Art in the New Millennium, page 61.

A personal design exploration:

Above explained a few recent presented conceptual art which each of them is a story that is

been a narrative by the artist. But does the listener hear the same scenario as the artist trying

to say or whether the reader, read the same story as the author trying to write?

If a piece of art considers as a piece of written text by creator of that work, is it necessary

that interlocutor read the exact intended purpose of the artist or even fundamentally possible?

Rolan Barthes wrote: If I read this sentences, this story, or this word with pleasure, it is because

they were written in pleasure (such pleasure does not contradict the writer‟s complains). But the

opposite? Does writing in pleasure guarantee- guarantee me, the writer – my reader‟s pleasure? Not

at all. I must seek out this reader (must “cruise” him) without knowing where he is. A site of bliss is

then created. It is not the reader‟s “person” that is necessary to me, it is this site: the possibility of a

dialectics of desire, of an unpredictability of bliss: the bets are not placed, there can still be a game11

.

For further understanding of this topic and deeper deliberation of this subject, present study is

proposal of a research of a personal conceptual design and the way of people react and

different approach when they meet with the work.

For the first step a book called invisible cities, by Italo Calvino was chosen as an intention for

the project. This book is a collection of short descriptive chapters of different aspects of cities.

In this book Marco Polo describes different cities of Kublai Khan’s Empire for him. Marco

uses sign language for telling his stories about different cities which he has been visiting

through the book. At the beginning, he use different gesticulation and sound or different

things such as sea shells, stones or nuts then he started using of simple words and finally then

explore a mutual language.

After they started communicating by words, khan said he found the stories more interesting

when Marco used things and sounds, because he felt free to imagine his own story. Indeed

Khan listened to Marco`s story but his mind creates a personal picture relies on his

imagination and perhaps completely different with what Marco trying to describe. In one part

the book emphasise that: I speak and speak, Marco says, but the listener retains only the

words that they expect. It is not the voice that commands the story, it is the ear. 12

This is an assertion of reader’s power and recreates the story (text) in the reader’s mind.

11

- The pleasure of the text, P4. 12 - Invisible Cities, P 135.

Among the descriptive and metaphoric text of this book, the following chapter has formed the

intention of the design part of this study.

Cities and Desires, Zobeude:

From there, after six days and seven nights, you arrive at Zobeude, the white city, well

exposed to the moon, with streets wound about themselves as in a skein. They tell this tale of

its foundation: men of various nations had an identical dream. They saw a woman running at

night through an unknown city; she was naked. They dreamed of pursuing her. As they

twisted and turned, each of them lost her. After the dream they set out in search of that city;

they never found it, but they found one another; they decided to build a city like the one in the

dream. In laying out the street, each followed the course of his pursuit; at the spot where they

had lost the fugitive‟s trail, they arranged spaces and walls differently from the dream, so she

would be unable to escape again.

This was the city of Zobeude, where they settled, waiting for that scene to be repeated one

night. None of them, asleep or awake, ever saw the woman again. The city‟s streets were

streets where they went to work every day, with no link any more to the dreamed chase.

Which, for that matter, had long been forgotten.

New men arrived from other lands, having had a dream like theirs, and in the city of Zobeude,

they recognized something of the streets of the dream, and they changed the positions of

arcades and stairways to resemble more closely the path of the pursued woman and so, at the

spot where she had vanished, there would remain no avenue of escape.

The first to arrive could not understand what drew these people to Zobeude, this ugly city,

this trap.13

Reading this vignette created a picture in my imagination, something which I sought to

recreate in my imagination; it was indeed an effort to create the city that was mentioned in

the story based on my own reading and imagination.

13 - Invisible Cities, p.45.

The city was so complicated and irregular in my imagination. It was curved, mysterious and

seductive. To create this image I tried to explore the flexibility of different materials such as

paper, clay, cardboard, wire, foam, sponge and paraffin. I chose paraffin and foam for further

exploration.

Fire is a spiritual and metaphysical substance from an ancient era. Sacred fires explore fire in

relation to the human psyche and the senses through the mythology and rituals around fire.

Fire makes foam and paraffin flexible enough to be able to form exclusive spaces in them.

This experience became an exploration of a vague combination of fire and foam or paraffin,

and drew mysterious images and modelled curves and complex spaces such as in my

imagining of the dream.

Water has always been accorded a metaphysical and spiritual dimension: a dual nature as a

life-giving substance, a religious and spiritual force and a well spring of the creative

imagination.14

Melted paraffin is flexible enough to be playful with water and to let every drop of water

form an exclusive space in it. Experimenting like this allowed for a wonderful combination of

water and melted paraffin and created curves and complex worlds, again like those from the

story, like the men’s dream. Water as a resource of life could be a metaphorical object which

can form imagination in people’s minds. It could create a space for different people with

different feelings and capacities. This world is full of mystery and myth and grants

opportunities for those who want to go beyond materiality.

People prefer to believe whatever can be seen or touched. They have started to limit their

minds through the ages. They have started to adapt to their bodies and materiality, and to

forget the ability of the imagination. People observe the world through their very personal

view and believe in only the very small window of the world which is open to them.

As Roland Barthes says, Observing is the most magical issue in the world and nothing more

than touching can reveal the meanings.

Observing the world in the common way can open only the smallest window to the world and

never allow people to be in the optimum position. Looking at the world just through the eyes

never permits people to touch nature and the reality of this world because it is limited by

consciousness and it stops people from imagining the world as it in fact is.

14 - Dezeen.com

To create Zobeude as the story described, I tried to form a blurry, vague and enigmatic space.

Various models were formed by different methods which presented the atmosphere of the

city for me.

I could imagine different parts of city, as in the story and as in their dreams, in the models.

The models created a new story and idea. I could imagine beyond the story by exploring

more in each model.

I took some pictures of different parts of each model, particularly those parts which formed

specific features of the city. Then I asked around 40 people to answer the following questions:

o What do feel when you are looking at these pictures?

o What they could be in reality?

o How big could they be?

o What do they mean to you?

During the interviews I chose to show photographs of the models instead of the models

themselves. As metaphor in art is usually present in surreal art, therefore in metaphoric

design ambiguity and duality are key features.

Roland Barthes said photography is an uncertain art.

In a photograph, there is no difference between silhouette and reality, shadows and humans.

In a photograph, the subject existed sometime, and the camera links the time and space of the

subjects and creates a new meaning of the subject of the photograph in the present.

The camera pushes the subject to a timeless world and pushes the viewer out of the present

time. It develops an ambiguity itself and when people are looking at a photo they are not

aware of the wider space of the camera frame; they know that whatever they guess can never

be proved. 15

In this project, when people were looking at the photos, they could guess, but their

imagination depended on the absence of a whole view of the models.

In the selected shots, ambiguity was presented and the photos took (wrote) the moments

which existed sometime in the story and represented them in another way.

Different photos were taken from different positions and distances and, at another stage,

some of the photos were redefined with a collage technique in order to create a new feeling

and atmosphere. They suggested different scales and definitions.

15 - From Pictorial Signs to Text, p.84.

Barthes said that image and imagination are kinds of simulation. An image is something that

is made by humans; it is a system of signs and it always emphasises the absence of the topic

itself. Looking at a piece of art lets the viewer know the artist in terms of the way of looking

at the subject. The absence of the subject itself makes the gaze of the artist and viewer more

valuable.

The material was ready for the interviews. People answered the questions with different

attitudes. Their answers were wide and varied, and the range of responses was sometimes

scattered.

Interviews:

The following sentences are selected from the results of the interviews:

It makes me think about an extravagant space where I wish to gaze to its body.

I am thinking about the world creation.

It could be cookie or pastry.

It reminds me something like sweet.

I think about God.

I feel good; it would be a mountain or a cave.

I imagine a surreal picture of a dream.

I t reminds me the under of a sea or ocean.

It could make by glue and reminds me a statue.

I cannot guess the scale, it could be very small or very big that I can walk trough.

I can say it is a microscopic cell or animal.

I do not want to touch it at all, that‟s too scary.

I think it is in real scale.

I imagine a wizard texture and want to touch it and explore the feeling.

It reminds me a hilly road.

It is a very surreal picture.

Immediately makes me start asking what the point of this picture?

Different scales I can imagine, it could be something consuming or consuming me.

I feel scary, it could be an insect in the garden, but it could be something really nice when

growing up!

I like it; I think it could be lake in the jungle.

It seems a dream picture of a dream.

Ha! Top of the cappuccino coffee!!

Mesmerising!

I like the contrast and colour.

I like it; it reminds me a beautiful cave that I want to climb into that and exploring

inside that.

It looks like a cave that I want to see what is inside or find something lives inside there.

It is so wizard, I don‟t know!

I am thinking how it formed; it has very beautiful shape.

Oh God! What does it make? Guess plastic bag which was washed in the river!

I feel wonderful; it looks like cloud and want to touch it.

It seems hanging crystals or maybe wax but sounds nice.

The first thing that I can imagine is the wave on the ocean! Lovely!

It is the thing that I want to see every morning just after wake up through the window!

It looks wizard! It could be a trap or something!

I want to feel the smell.

Big insect, worse smell, angry colour!

I think it is the moment just before something completely takes you over.

A mass way is coming over!

I feel an emergency moment!

It looks like a place that I want to be in there when I want to think.

I think it looks like a dirty city!

It could be a mysterious space.

It looks like a surprising space, it can surprise me every second when I walking through.

It makes a feeling of movement and makes me curious!

It reminds me a cave which is very exciting!

“I speak and speak,” Polo says, but the listener retains only the words he is expecting...

It is not the voice that commands the story: it is the ear.16

Among the various responses, there were a number of similarities and there were some

implications concerning the intentions and concepts of the models.

Here are some examples of these responses:

I imagine a surreal picture of a dream.

It could be a mysterious space.

I think it is the moment just before something completely takes you over.

It makes a feeling of movement and makes me curious!

The above process was an exploration of interlocutors’ attitudes of mind when meeting a

personal conceptual design. It was a true journey through the mind and the imagination.

Although the intention of the design - work - is set and defined by the creator of the work of

art, the nature of the human mind reads it with various and individual attitudes.

Barthes wrote: You address yourself to me so that I may read you, but I am nothing to you

except this address, And, If I agree to judge a text according to pleasure, I cannot go on to

say: this one is good, that bad. The text can wring from me only this judgment, in no way

adjectival: that‟s it! And future still: that‟s it for me! This “for me” is neither subjective nor

existential, but Nietzschean (“...basically, it is always the same question: what is it for

me?...”)17

So each individual person reads any subject in an individual way and metaphor opens a wider

world in front of people’s eyes and lets their imagination fly. People’s imagination and

creativity provide the opportunity to read and analyze the fundamental ambiguity of any

piece of art. Imagination plays an important role in surreal art and creativity is based on

imagination; it creates the future of the world, based on people`s imagination today.

Therefore, a development in the power of imagination results in developing creativity.

16

- Invisible Cities, p.135. 17 - The Pleasure of the Text, p.13.

Childhood is the most interesting period of life. Children are free from the adult world’s rules

and logic. They can accept any extraordinary or abnormal thing without trying to find a

reason for it. They are free to imagine beyond reality and materiality. They are ready to set

their own rules and, as Barthes said, We are gorged with language, like children who are

never refused anything or scolded for anything or, even worse, “permitted” anything.18

This golden period of life could be extended and not limited to childhood if people

sometimes allowed their imagination to soar beyond reality and materiality and took the

opportunity for their minds to develop their creativity throughout their lifetimes.

This subject occurs in surreal art, and metaphoric design, as a wider issue, provides the

opportunity for both artists and designers, on the one hand, to create their personal conceptual

pieces of art with more creative attitudes and, on the other, for the interlocutors of metaphoric

art to be creative according to their imagination and move beyond the world’s rules of

materiality or even reality.

18 - The Pleasure of the Text, p.8.

Installation:

The final idea of this project was to make a metaphorical installation. I was looking for a

suitable area to bring out the intention of the story, which would be somewhere around the

School of Architecture. In line with the theme of the story, I wanted to locate the installation

in a fire escape corridor but there was no access to electricity, so it had to happen instead in

the studio. I took some keywords from the chapter: desire, dream, white, night, woman,

escape, lost, trap, skein, and mirage, for the designing of the installation. The following

pictures are the initial ideas for the installation and the first step on site.

Conclusion:

To sum up, metaphor exists and lives in every moment of life. People communicate with

signs, they use them to refer to complementary subjects, and significant art in general is a

kind of metaphor. Art is a magnifying glass which becomes a metaphorical way of

communicating how reality can be read differently. Art is a microscope that penetrates into

the cellular structure of reality.19

A photographic shot is a metaphorical picture of a moment which does not exist anymore; a

piece of architecture is an object which projects a conversional materiality from an intention,

a journey in the designer’s mind, among concept and subject, materiality and non-materiality.

The reader reads his/her own reading of any text, and the only task for the author is to write

an enjoyable piece of text. Feeling and meaning are formed by the existence of things, and

they will be formed as soon as a piece of art is created. The art interlocutor experiences a

feeling at the time of meeting the work of art, and the existence of this feeling is dependent

on that piece of art. This feeling might be different from the artist’s feeling and intention at

the time of producing that piece of art; nevertheless the point is to make a feeling in the

interlocutor. There are so few real interlocutors for each piece of art that the artist should look

for them. As Barthes said, I must seek out this reader! 20

Like Bacon‟s simulator, it can say: never apologize, never explain. It never denies anything:

“I shall look away, that will henceforth be my sole negation.”21

19

- Process of Transformation, p.15. 20

-The Pleasure of the Text, p.4. 21- The Pleasure of the Text, p.3.

Bibliography:

Books and Articles:

Ahmadi, Babak, From Pictorial Signs to Text, Markaz, Iran, 2009.

Barthes, Roland, Myths, Translated in Persian by Daqiqian, 2009.

Barthes, Roland, The Pleasure of the Text, Jonathan Cape, London, 1975.

Berger, J., Ways of Seeing, London, 1978, p.7, Translated in Persian by Ahmadi.

Bourriaud, N., Damianovic, M. and Pinto,R., Lucy Orta, Phaidon, Hong Kong, 2003.

Calvino, Italo. Invisible Cities, Harcourt Brace Jovanvoich, London, 1974.

Cobley,Paul, Introducing Semiotics, Translated in Persian by Nabavi, Iran, 2001.

Deely, John, Introducing Semiotics, Indiana University Press, USA, 1982.

Glusbrg, Jorge, Process of Transformation, Lucy Orta, Light Messenger-Jorge Orta, Paris,

1995.

Kipnis, Jeffrey, and Vidler, Anthony, Daniel Libeskind: The Space of Encounter, Thames &

Hudson, London, 2001.

Libeskind, Daniel, Breaking Ground: Adventures in Life and Architecture / Daniel Libeskind

with Sarah Crichton , John Murray, London , 2004 .

Lund, Nils-Ole, Collage Architecture, Ernst & Sohn, Hong Kong, 1990.

de Oliviera, Nicolas, Oxley, N and Petry, M. Installation Art in the New Millennium, Thames

& Hudson, China, 2006.

Sartre, J.P., L`imaginary, Paris, 1948, p 227, 246, Translated in Persian by Ahmadi.

Exhibitions:

Surreal House Exhibition

Bartlet School Exhibition

AA Exhibition

Film:

Daniel Libeskind’s 17 Words of Architectural Inspiration.

Websites:

WWW.dezeen.com, 24/07/10

http://www.oca.no/nl/may_2008.shtml, 29/08/10

U:\ManXP\My Documents\Semiotics for Beginners Signs.mht, 30/08/10

http://findarticles.com , 15/03/10

http://www.tedafrica.org, 02/09/10