Metallurgy Assignment_ Rev_3 (1)

8/12/2019 Metallurgy Assignment_ Rev_3 (1)

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[Type text]

UNIVERSITY OF MALTA

Faculty of EngineeringDepartment of Materials Engineering

FIRST YEAR PROJECT

Uses of Steel

Lecturer: Ing. Ann ammit10th May, 2013

By Group 12:

Jennifer Attard 088194 (M)

Jean-Paul Formosa 006695 (M)

Graham Gilson 171293 (M)

Roberto Migneco 323394 (M)

Jocelyn Aquilina 052594 (M)

Maria Cutajar 102294 (M)


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1 | U s e s o f S t e e l

Table of ContentsPart 1: General Information ................................................................................................................ 2

Steel and its Properties.................................................................................................................... 2

Production of Steel ......................................................................................................................... 3

Heat Treatment of Steel .................................................................................................................. 5

Annealing .................................................................................................................................... 5

Normalizing ................................................................................................................................ 5

Quenching ................................................................................................................................... 6

Recyclability of Steel ...................................................................................................................... 6

Typical Uses of Steel ...................................................................................................................... 8

Part 2: The Drill Bit ............................................................................................................................ 9

The Drill Bit and its Function ......................................................................................................... 9

Required Properties of the Drill Bit .............................................................................................. 10

Why is the Drill Bit made of Steel? Advantages and Disadvantages ........................................... 10

Typical Chemical Composition .................................................................................................... 11

Heat Treatment Carried Out ......................................................................................................... 13

Resultant Microstructure .............................................................................................................. 14

Group Effort ..................................................................................................................................... 17

Group Report .................................................................................................................................... 17

Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................... 18


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Part 1: General Information

Steel and its Properties

Unalloyed steels are simply called plain carbon steels. However

these are not always pure Iron-Carbon alloys. Elements such as

Silicon, Manganese, Sulphur and Phosphorus are unintentionally

included in the alloy during its production. There are certain content

limits which must be exceeded for these elements to be considered as

alloying elements, usually being; 0.35-0.5% Silicon, 0.5-0.8 %

Manganese, 0.01-0.035 % Sulphur and 0.01-0.035 % Phosphorus. Steels may contain other elements in

very small quantities. Unalloyed steels can be regarded as two component Fe-C alloys with a carbon

content of 0-2.6%. [2]

Steel is considered to be alloyed when, in addition to the basic components of Iron and Carbon, other

alloying elements are added intentionally to assure certain properties. The main aim of alloying steels is to

improve mechanical properties such as strength, ductility and toughness; to increase corrosion resistance; to

improve certain physical properties such as magnetic and electrical properties; and to improve complex

properties of technological workability such as formability, weldabilty and machinabilty. [2]

The solidification of steels occurs according to the Iron-Carbon phase diagram as shown in the

following diagram,Figure 2: The iron iron carbide phase diagram.[2]

Carbon in steels can exist in

two forms; as an interstitial solid

solution or as a metallic compound

(Fe3C, iron carbide). Carbon in steels

always exists in bound form since the

presence of carbon in steel as free

carbon, or graphite, always leads to

heavy defects, reducing strength and

resulting in so-called black brittleness.

[2]

Steel mechanical properties are

primarily controlled by the

corresponding Microstructure; the

proportions, properties, shape and distribution of the phases present. [2]

The phases present at room temperature of plain carbon steels, are essentially mixtures of ferrite and

Figure 1: Plain Carbon Steel Rods [1]

Figure 2: The iron iron carbide phase diagram [3]


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cementite. Ferrite is almost pure iron, and has properties of a pure metal, being soft, ductile and tough, and

having low hardness and strength. Cementite is an intermediate compound being hard and brittle. It has low

ductility and toughness. [2]

Pearlite is composed mainly of ferrite but contains platelets of cementite in a sandwich fashion. It is

harder and stronger than ferrite but considerably less brittle than cementite. [2]

Production of Steel

The story of hot metal and cold steel is fascinating from start to finish. The story begins with a blast

as rock explodes and the raw materials of steel are tossed from the earth. The rock is Taconite and the prize

inside is crude iron ore. Taconite is a variety of iron formation, an iron-bearing (> 15% iron) sedimentary

rock, in which the iron minerals are interlayered with quartz, chert, or carbonates. [4] On a world scale the

most important and commonly used ore is hematite (Fe2O3), but in some countries the starting materials are

magnetite (Fe3O4) and titan magnetite (Fe2TiO4). [5]

The first step towards steel making is to prepare molten iron. This process begins by grinding this

huge rock into powder and separating the ore with powerful magnets. Then they form and heat the ore into

marble sized pellets that will later be converted into iron. Coal is converted to coke which is used to fuel the

iron making process. This solid carbon fuel is mixed with the pellets in the blast furnace where enough

limestone is added to remove most of the impurities. The oxides are reduced with carbon from coal, through

the intermediate production of carbon monoxide. The carbon first burns in air to give carbon dioxide and

heat, which is necessary for this process. The carbon dioxide then undergoes an endothermic reaction with

more carbon to yield carbon monoxide [6]:

An exothermic process

An endothermic process

The oxide ores are then principally reduced by the carbon monoxide produced in this reaction, the

reactions involving very small enthalpy changes [6]:

In conventional iron making this reduction occurs in a blast furnace, whereas in some countries a

rotary kiln is employed for direct reduction, followed by indirect reduction in an electric melter. This

technology is used because the titanium dioxide present in the ore produces a slag which blocks

conventional blast furnaces as it has a high melting point. The molten iron produced in this way always

contains high levels of impurities making it very brittle. [7]


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The molten iron is then transported to another part of the

plant where it is now converted into steel. The steel making

process begins by dumping recycled steel scraps into the basic

oxygen furnace and adding the hot molten iron. Sparks steal the

show when high purity oxygen is blown into the mix at

supersonic speeds. Here molten iron becomes molten steel.

Afterwards the custom blends of steel are produced thus making

it the most widely used metal on the planet. Most factories can

produce over 1000 different chemistries to meet customer

demands for cutting edge value added steels. The molten steel is tapped into a ladle and moved on to the

vacuum degasser were they are made highly formable. Vacuum degassers work by creating a lower

pressure inside a vessel so air or other gaseous impurities can be removed from a substance. [9] [10]

The focus then shifts to forming and finishing which de termines more of the steels characteristics.

The first step in this sequence is to position the ladle above a massive funnel which feeds a continuous

caster containing moulds that shape the steel. The molten steel which is now at 1,648 C is transferred from

the ladle to the funnel to the caster where it cools to a bright red hot solid. The shape of the mould is what

determines the shape of the semi-finished product which emerges from the caster. Usually large slabs of

steel are produced which are cut into sections as they leave the caster. [11]

From there it is on to the hot strip mill. The job here is to transform steel slabs into steel sheets

which are very important in todays world. A flow diagram showing these steps is shown below inFigure 4:

(1) Slabs are reheated to 1250 C and descaled just before running through a series of roughing stands. (2)

The roughing stands change the dimensions of the stabs making them thinner and longer. (3) The plate is

cleaned to remove mill scale in several stages during the hot rolling process. (4) Extreme forces are applied

to the rollers thus making the steel plate even thinner and longer. (5) The steel plate is then cooled and

rolled into a coil, a very different finish from the starting materials.

Figure 3: Showing the transfer of molten

iron into the oxygen furnace [8]

Figure 4: (1) Slabs are reheated to 1250 C and descaled just before running through a series of roughing stands. (2) The

roughing stands change the dimensions of the stabs making them thinner and longer. (3) The plate is cleaned to remove

mill scale in several stages during the hot rolling process. (4) Extreme forces are applied to the rollers thus making the

steel plate even thinner and longer. (5) The steel plate is then cooled and rolled into a coil, a very different finish from the

starting materials. [12]


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Most of these processes are totally untouched by human hands. These processes are controlled by

operators from a safe distance overlooking the entire process from start to finish. The coils of steel are

moved through an acid bath which cleans the surface. Some of this steel is then shipped to customers whilst

other steel coils may be intended for specific uses and thus require special finishings. Some of these special

finishings are mentioned.[13]

Coatings may be applied to make the steel resistant to corrosion. Tinning to add that tin coat we commonly see on canned goods. Annealing may be done to make the steel even easier to bend and form. Tempering, to add hardness and create surface textures.

These special finishings is what makes steel so useful and so commonly used. The steel can be

shaped and adjusted to fit the clients needs by simple finishings. The entire process of steel making can be

relatively short some plants even managing steel production in under an hour.

Heat Treatment of Steel

Heat treatment is a process used to enhance the properties of a workpart. During this process, the

metal is heated to a certain temperature, held at that temperature for a required period and then the cooling

rate is controlled to effect microstructural changes in the material depending on the mechanical properties

of the specific material needed. For example, overheating steels can cause large grain growth in the

structure which leads to a poor diffusion of ferrite at the centre of the grain.

Heat treatment involves three types of processes: softening processes, hardening processes and

thermo-chemical processes, each having their own sub-processes. [14]

Annealing

Annealing involves heating the metal above its critical temperature, sustaining that temperature, then,

slowly cooling it. As a result of this process, hardness and brittleness are reduced in the microstructure,

leading to better machinability and formability, recrystallization of cold-worked metals can occur and

residual stresses from prior process are relieved. [2] [15] [14]

Normalizing

Full annealing is associated with ferrous metals. The alloy is heated into the austenite region,

followed by a slow cooling process in the furnace to produce coarse pearlite.

Normalizing, used to relieve stress in hardenable steels, is a process involving heating and soaking

cycles with faster cooling rates than full annealing. Steel is allowed to cool in air to room temperature and

this results in a stronger fine pearlite structure with a higher strength and hardness but lower ductility when

compared to full annealing. [2] [15] [14]


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Quenching

Hardening produces a Martensitic structure, where steel is heated to a temperature within the

austenite range and then quenched at an appropriate rate so as to decompose to the martensite

transformation range Ms, resulting in a martensitic structure. [2] [15] [14]

Recyclability of Steel

Metals can be recycled indefinitely without losing

their properties hence most scrap metal is recycled. Scrap

metal which typically comes from used cars is split into two

categories, ferrous metal and non-ferrous metal. Apart from

cars scrap metal also comes from cast iron, pressing steel

(domestic steel up to 6mm thick), heavy metal steel

(industrial/commercial steel which is thicker than 6 mm)

and manganese steel (very hard steel used in the mining

industry). [16] [17] [18]

As it name suggests ferrous metal is mainly derived from iron and this category is mainly composed

of steels and cast iron. Steel is the most recycled material in the world due to the fact that it is always on

demand and hence has a high market value. Also as a large number of objects are made of steel and due to

the fact that steel can be recycled quite easily it makes more sense to reuse items which are no longer useful

than to process steel by mining it from its ore (Iron). [19]

The process of recycling steel is actually 56% more cost effective that mining iron and processing it

into steel. It is estimated that about 88% of the steel produced is derived from recycled ferrous metal which

is quite high considering the ever increasing demand for steel. Furthermore by recycling 1 metric ton of

steel, one saves 1.1 metric tons of iron ore, 630 kg of coal and 55 kilograms of limestone. [20] [21] [22]

Ferrous metal can be easily separated from

other material as it is magnetic and hence can be

sorted from other metals and materials using an

electromagnet as seen in Figure 5: Electromagnet

separating ferrous material from non-ferrous material

in a scrapyard.Once the steel is separated from any

other materials such as rubber, plastics and other non-

ferrous metals it can be processed to form the new

steel. There are two main processes which use recycled steel as a raw material which are Basic Oxygen

Steelmaking (BOS) and Electric Arc Furnace (ERF) steelmaking.

Figure 5: Electromagnet separating ferrous

material from non-ferrous material in a

scrapyard

Figure 6: Electric Arc Furnace


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Basic Oxygen Steelmaking produces steel which usually contains lower amounts of residual elements

such as copper, nickel and molybdenum. Hence the steel produced is more ductile and is used in processes

where the steel has to undergo a large degree of cold work such as in the production of tin cans. The process

of basic oxygen steelmaking was already explained in detail in the production of steel from its ore and

hence shall not be discussed in this section. [23]

On the other hand in Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking the steel is first shredded into small pieces and

transferred to a furnace for smelting. As seen in Figure 6: Electric Arc Furnace the furnace consists of

circular steel vessel lined with firebrick a material which can withstand the high temperature in the

furnace. A series of graphite rods are found on the lid of the furnace and extend down into the furnace

where the scrap metal is found. Once the furnace is switched on electricity will arc between the electrodes

and the shredded steel, raising the temperature inside the oven. The smelting of steel produces harmful

fumes and particles which are removed from the furnace using a fume extraction system. Once the

temperature is high enough and steel melts completely the vessel can be tilted to pour the molten metal into

a fire proof container. This molten steel can then be transported to a steel rolling facility where the metal is

passed in between a pair of rolls to be shaped into sheets of steel. [16] [17] [22]


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Typical Uses of Steel

Steel Type Image Uses

Stainless steels

[24]

Sinks, automobile parts, valves for airplane

engines, dental tools, pots and pans, cuttingtools, marine applications, kitchen utensils,

piping, food processing equipment, surgical

equipment. [25] [26] [27]

Alloy steels

[28]

Used for drill bits, shaping and cuttingother metals, saw blades, transformers,

power generated, electric motors, autoparts. [25] [26]

Carbon steels

[29]

Low (0.2% C) Automobile bodies,

buildings, pipes, chains, screws, nails,gears, bolts. [26] [30]Medium (0.3% - 0.7%)Connecting rods,crank pins, axles, screwdrivers, rails, axles,hammers. [26] [30]High (0.7% - 1.5%) - table knives,

wrenches, saws, taps, chisels, axes, razors,surgical cutlery [26] [30]

Galvanised steels

[31]

Coated with zinc for protection againstcorrosion. [32]

Electroplated steels

[33]

Used for making cans and containers andwhere an electric current is needed. [32]

Damascus and Wootz

steel[34]

Used for sword blades, as it is hard,

flexible and patterned. [32]

Tool steels

[35]

Resistant to wear, used for cutting tools anddrilling equipment [25] [26]


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Required Properties of the Drill Bit

A drill bit operates at high speeds and they are essentially used to drill circular holes. Naturally, in

order for it to be able to drill holes, the drill body must be of a cylindrical form The drill body must also be

able to withstand high levels of temperature due to the rapid turning and due to friction, which causesheating, against that material which the drill bit is drilling. It must contain a high level of wear resistance

and a high level of strength and hardness, to be able to withstand friction and fracture the material upon

which it is working. Moreover it must be able to retain this hardness even when the drill bit becomes red

hot. Otherwise it would break after long periods of continuous use. The shank must be a little more ductile

in order not to fracture when it is being held firmly in place by the drilling press or driller. [43]

Why is the Drill Bit made of Steel? Advantages and Disadvantages

High speed steel is an alloy with many applications apart from drilling. Its chemical composition

provides it with properties which make it suitable for its use. The main chemicals in HSS include carbon,

tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, chromium and cobalt, among others. [43]

The primary advantages include its:

ability to withstand heat when used at high performance (hence the name high speed steel) high wear resistance high retention at hardness along with red hardness when used overall high level of toughness

When steel is treated with carbon it forms carbides which provide a platform of hardness which

increases its wear resistance. Tungsten and molybdenum build on the platform, improving overall hardness

and add retention on the hardness. Vanadium increases the retention of hardness apart from increasing high

temperature wear resistance, making the drill bit able to continue working for a longer time. Chromium

adds hardening on the inside at the material inducing strength from the inside and lastly cobalt improves

red hardness and retention of the platform. [43]

Although very useful, high speed steel has a few disadvantages. Even though HSS has a red hardness

of 650C, when heated the material becomes very brittle. Due to its high hardness level HSS is hard to

manufacture into tools and other applications. [43]


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Above 0.4 %, Manganese promotes grain growth at high temperatures. Manganese is also added to steel

to improve hot working properties and increase strength, toughness and hardenability.

Tungsten and Molybdenum:Molybdenum and Tungsten hve similar properties They promote

red hardness and wear resistance. The steels cutting performance increases notablyas either of these

elements is increased.. Molybdenum may be used to replace tungsten at the rate of around 1wt. % for

every 1.6-2.0 wt. % of tungsten.

Chromium:Addition of 4% chromium is made to all high speed steels with the aim of promoting

depth hardening. The chromium in annealed steel is present in the form of carbide which dissolves into

the austenite during the hardening cycle and hence becomes one of the primary sources of martensite in

the quenched and tempered tool. Chromium is the absence of large quantities of retained austenite

sharply retards the rate of softening in these steels, but in itself does not produce a true secondary

hardening peak. Chromium is also added to the steel to increase resistance to oxidation.

Vanadium: Vanadium forms extremely stable carbides such as vanadium monoxide, which are

insoluble at normal hardening temperature and thus creates a very effective means of limiting grain

growth.

Table 2: Additional information on the T-4241 HSS alloy:

Density in Annealing Condition g/m 7.89

Annealing Temperature 840-860

Stress Relieving Temperature 680-700C

Quenching Temperature 1140-1170C

Quenching Cooling Medium Salt Bath under 600C, also oil or air cooling

Tempering Temperature 540C

Quenching &Tempering Rock Well Hardness 63-65.5


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Heat Treatment Carried Out

The main steps involved in this heat treatment are listed below and following them, is a detailed

explanation of the treatment:

Sub-critical annealing/stress relief (680-700C) Ferrite to austenite transformation (840-900C) Austenitising (1250-1290C) Quenching (1140-1170C) Stabilising and tempering (540C)

Tool steels are difficult to machine and therefore, after machining, high stresses would be present

in the tool. These stresses would need to be relieved to increase dimensional stability. This is done by a

sub-critical anneal in a salt bath at 680C to 700C. The steel is then cooled slowly and ground to size or

finish-machined. [14]

Care must be taken so as not to heat the steel into austenite since the steel has a low thermal

conductivity. For this reason, a heat treatment cycle is carried out as follows. The steel is preheated and

stabilized at a temperature of 500C in a salt bath. The ferrite is transformed to austenite at 840-900C. A

phase change occurs between 820C and 840C therefore a change in volume is accommodated for by

heating very slowly. Next, austenitising occurs between 1250C and 1290C so the steel is heated to this

temperature. On reaching 1100C, all the carbides would have dissolved, ensuring a maximum amount of

carbon in solution. This makes a high carbon martensite with maximum cold hardness. [14]

The steel isnt kept at this high temperature very long so as to avoid grain growth so quenching is

carried out soon after. The rate at which this is done is enough to make sure that all austenite has

transformed to martensite. A temperature of 1140-1170C is usually used. This quenching can be done in

oil but it should first be allowed to stand in air for the flash heat to disappear. [14]

At this point, some austenite is still retained and needs to be transformed therefore a sub-zero

treatment is performed. This can either be done in a refrigerator at -75C or in liquid nitrogen at -196C.

This refrigeration converts a good amount of the retained austenite to martensite and tempers the

untempered martensite. Tempering is carried out repeatedly at 540C and even then, some austenite still

remains. This austenite reduces the hardness of the high speed steel and also the stability of the tool. [14]


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Resultant Microstructure

Figure 8: Etched Sample

The microstructure of the chosen object was

revealed using optical microscopy and etching technique. 2

sections of the drill bit were chosen for microstructure

analysis, a cross section of the flute (cutting part) and a

cross section of the shank (part which attaches to driller) as

it was suspected that these areas are of a different hardness

owing to their different purpose. The pieces were cut

using a very hard saw due to the known hardness of high

speed steel. The cut samples were than mounted in a

Bakelite mould and the sample surfaces were ground with a number progressively finer abrasive paper.

The sample was then polished using a cloth and diamond abrasive to achieve a smooth surface for etching

as can be seen inFigure 8: Etched Sample.The sample was then etched with Nital for about 10 seconds

and the steel surfaces were analysed using optical microscopy. [49]

The resulting microstructures can be observed in Figure 9: Shank edge and Shank centre at 50

magnification and Figure 10: Flute centre and cutting tip at 50 magnification and 20 magnification

respectively.

Figure 9: Shank edge and Shank centre at 50 magnification


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Figure 10: Flute centre and cutting tip at 50 magnification and 20 magnification respectively

Table 3: Hardness of various regions of the drill bit

Cutting tip centre

(HRC)

Cutting tip edge

(HRC)

Shank centre

(HRC)

Shank edge

(HRC)

M icro hardness test 62.6 65.2 54.4 55.5

Macro hardness test 61.0 n/a 46.5 n/a

Figure 9: Shank edge and Shank centre at 50 magnification and Figure 10: Flute centre and

cutting tip at 50 magnification and 20 magnification respectively indicate that both the cutting part and

the shank of the drill possess a very fine microstructure. Both regions have a fine microstructure with nograins however white regions with a completely different structure can be seen in both areas. These white

etching constituents are most probably carbides which have precipitated out during tempering of the

metal. The cutting part centre also has a larger amount of dark areas and a more needle like appearance.

The presence of the needle like structure, the precipitated carbides and the fact that the cross section at the

flute of the drill has a hardness of 61-65 HRC suggests that the cutting section of the drill bit is made up

of tempered martensite. This is desirable as this makes the cutting part hard and thus it will resist

deformation and the drill will not become dull quickly. Yet the cutting part will be tough enough so that

the bit resists from shattering or cracking when the bit gets stuck during drilling. The cutting part gets its

properties due to the fact that during tempering the martensite will decompose into ferrite and carbides

which eventually form cementite. The harder carbides are surrounded by a softer ferrite matrix which

makes the material tougher as it will become more resistant to crack propagation. [50] [51]

Upon closer inspection of the cutting tip one can observe that there probably are no coatings on the

drill bits surface. However the edge of the bit appears to be paler than the material on the inside which


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suggests that the microstructure of the material is gradually changing. This might be due to a surface

treatment of the cutting part performed on the surface of the blade to harden it. In fact the edge of the

cutting tip is marginally harder that the centre. Otherwise the cutting tip might have undergone work

hardening during sharpening or use of the drill bit. The change in microstructure is not observed in the

shank which suggests that the blade is probably hardened. The marginal difference in hardness might be

accounted to the fact that the hardness tests were not taken at the very edge of the cutting part and hence

the results obtained do not represent the actual hardness of the cutting edge. [52]

The shank also has a similar yet paler microstructure than the flute of the drill bit; furthermore the

shank is also significantly softer than the cutting part as shown inTable 3: Hardness of various regions of

the drill bit.This suggests that the microstructure of the shank is different from that of the cutting part.

However the microstructure still has white regions of cementite which suggests that the shank was also

tempered with the rest of the drill bit nonetheless there might be a different heat treatment involved. The

exact microstructure of cannot be determined easily but the lower hardness suggests that the shank could

be made of bainite which can have very similar appearance to tempered martensite. The fact that the

shank is softer is quite important as otherwise the shank would be more susceptible to shattering when the

bit is inserted into a hole while the drill is spinning. This is especially true for thinner drill bits which are

more fragile and break more easily. [53] [16]


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Group Effort

Jennifer Attard 0088194 (M) 20%Jean-Paul Formosa 0006695 (M) 20%

Graham Gilson 0171293 (M) 20%

Roberto Migneco 0323394 (M) 20%Jocelyn Aquilina 0052594 (M) 20%Maria Cutajar 0102294 (M) 20%

Group Report

The aim of this assignment was to investigate the use of steel and its alloys in engineering tools.

Our group, group 12 got together and discussed different possible steel tools; pistons, hacksaws,

crankshafts, and drillbits, to name a few. Having contacted the lecturer about our decision, we were

assigned a first lab session in order to observe various tests performed on tools to investigate the material

properties of the tool. A demonstration of the hardness tests was performed.

We then decided to book a second session where we brought along our own drill bit and performed

hardness tests and etching on our sample. We decided to split up the work between us and worked as pairs

on the various parts of the assignment.

After carrying out our research we compiled everything together in one whole document and proof-

read our teammates work. The work was split in such a way that everyone was given the opportunity to

research without anyone being left out.

As for the presentation, each of us where assigned a part of the project in order to prepare a few

short points about the project. Once again we met up and compiled everything together using Microsoft

PowerPoint 2010.


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Metallurgy Assignment_ Rev_3 (1)