Meta-EthicsMeta-Ethics

Socratic Ideas Limited © All Rights Reserved

Author: John Waters

MMEETTAA

EETTHHIICCSS

A.J.Ayer W.D.Ross

G.E..Moore

R.M. Hare

DavidHume

Wittgenstein Russell

G.J.Warnock

• First-order moral

discourse

• Application of

ethical theories

• e.g. Natural law,

Utilitarianism,

Kant.

• What one ought

to do…

• Second-order moral

discourse

• Beyond or after ethics

• Analyses ethical

language, structure,

meaning.

• In what sense are

statements true?

• Is there a foundation

for ethical language?

PrescriptivismPrescriptivismNormative EthicsNormative Ethics MetaethicsMetaethics

Aquinas

Bentham

J.S. Mill

Kant

G.E Moore

R.M. Hare

A.J. Ayer

Wittgenstein

Analysis of Meta-EthicsAnalysis of Meta-Ethics

Cognitive(moral judgements can

be known)

Non-cognitive(moral judgements cannot

be known)

Non-naturalism(Intuitionism)

Non-definableproperty

Emotivism Prescriptivism

CommendsUniversal action

Naturalism

Empirical Yah / Boo

Ethical NaturalismEthical Naturalism

Empirical Assessment

Aquinas Kant Bentham Mill

Ethics can be understood like other empirical statements

George waselected

Presidentof the USA.

War againstterrorismis good.

Both statements can be proven to be either true or false through observation or evidence

Ethical naturalism may argue that, on utilitarian grounds, it can be proven that war against terrorism produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

Or, on Kantian grounds, war against terrorism is in accordance with upholding international law and order, (cf. United Nations) and so can be universalised.

J. S. Mill

Kant

Problem of Ethical Naturalism:Problem of Ethical Naturalism:Commits the Naturalistic FallacyCommits the Naturalistic Fallacy

• Cannot deduce an OUGHT from an IS.

• Cannot move from FACTS to VALUES

• Cannot move from EPISTEMOLOGY (knowledge) to ETHICS

(G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica)

“Confusing `Good’ with a

natural or

metaphysical property

or holding it

to be identical

with such a

property.”

(Source: C. Lewy, G.E. Moore on the Naturalistic Fallacy, p.297)

Committing

the naturalistic

fallacy means

one is either:

According to GE Moore a definition According to GE Moore a definition of the Naturalistic Fallacy is: of the Naturalistic Fallacy is:

Ethical Theories which Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy:Ethical Theories which Commit the Naturalistic Fallacy:

Divine Command Theory – God is the source of morality, so whatever God wills is good. ` ` God is good’ is analytically true - by definition.

Natural Law: As nature has been created by God it has within it laws which ought to be followed. This will lead to human happiness.

Utilitarianism considered by analysing human nature it is possible to prove, scientifically, that people psychologically desire pleasure.

Kant claimed that our categorical duties are a priori, and being grounded in reason follow from logical considerations.

Naturalist FallacyNaturalist FallacyVulnerable To The OPEN QuestionVulnerable To The OPEN Question

Statements are sound

IF they are

not vulnerableto an

OPENquestion

George isa brother

Original statementis sound

Original statementis unsound

Is Georgemale?

MeaninglessQuestion

War against terrorismupholds international

law

Is war against terrorism good?

MeaningfulQuestion

• IF Ethical Naturalism were true it would not make any sense to ask an `Open Question’. The conclusion would already have been proven. For example the question, `George is a brother, but is George male?’ is meaningless.

• However, ethical naturalism is not proven as an open question may be put, and such a question is meaningful. For example, a utilitarian may think war against terror provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number. However, the question may still be asked, “Even if war against terror provides the greatest happiness for the greatest number, is it still good?” And, crucially, such a question is meaningful.

THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK! THINK!

Rejecte

d

Divine Command

Rejecte

d

Natural Law

Rejecte

d

Utilitarianism

Rejecte

d

Duty

Sartre’s Existentialism rejected Ethical Naturalism’s viewSartre’s Existentialism rejected Ethical Naturalism’s view that there is any one given view of human nature.that there is any one given view of human nature.

With the removal of an objective foundation for human nature there is no basis on which Ethical

Naturalism can assert an ethic to be right or wrong.

It is up to the individualto use their freedom

to choose theirown values.

Ethical Naturalism is therefore false, as there isno objective, natural view of what it is to be human.

For Sartre Ethical Naturalism is a self-deception of our responsibility to choose.

Non-NaturalismNon-Naturalism(Intuitionism)(Intuitionism)

G.E. Moore W.D. Ross

G.E. Moore, Principia Ethica 1903“Good is a non-definable property”

Like the colourYellow

“We know what `yellow’ is, and can recognise it

whenever it is seen, but we cannot actually

define it.” (GE Moore)

“In the same way we know what`good’ means but cannot

define it.” (GE Moore)

•Goodness is like beauty•A quality found in things•But which cannot be defined.

Non-NaturalismNon-Naturalism(Intuitionism)(Intuitionism) G.E. Moore

“Good means GoodSelf-evident.”

“A Simple idea:cannot be broken down

into simpler Ideas.”

Certain words in the dictionary are non-definablee.g. `not’ – a simple word; cannot be defined further than the simple building block we use

it to define other ideas.

G.E. Moore’s G.E. Moore’s IntuitionismIntuitionism

According to Philippa

Foot, G.E. Moore’s

central thesis was that

“goodness is a non-

definable property

discovered by

intuition.”

Problems of Problems of Moore’s IntuitionismMoore’s Intuitionism

• What if one is ethically colour blind?

(Yellow is Green or Good is evil?)

• Lacks an authoritative foundation for ethics.

• Was G.E. Moore himself an intuitionist or an

Ideal Utilitarian?

• What to do when intuitions conflict? e.g. do

not lie, protect innocent life?

G.E. Moore

Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil, argued that what is good may

be evil and what is evil may be thought to

be good.

Intuitionism lacks an objective assessment for right and wrong

What if one is ethically colour blind? What if one is ethically colour blind? (Yellow is Green or Good is Evil?)(Yellow is Green or Good is Evil?)

Virtue is Vice?

Christian virtues of humility and obedience are

detrimental to the human spirit,

individuality and the intuitive

evolutionary need for self-assertion.

Vice is Virtue

The vice of pride, condemned by St

Paul, is to be regarded as a

virtue - otherwise humanity will

remain subservient.

Intuitionism Lacks an Authoritative Intuitionism Lacks an Authoritative

Foundation for Ethics Foundation for Ethics

Offers the individual too much freedom.

May suffer from anti-nomianproblems, similar to those of

Sartre’s Existentialism?

“Man is the measure of all things.” (Protagoras)

IntuitionismRejects

Divine Command

Magisterium

Duty

Jean Paul Sartre Protagoras

G.E. Moore(1873-1958)

An Intuitionist or an Ideal Utilitarian?An Intuitionist or an Ideal Utilitarian?G.E. Moore is famous for his analysis of ethical language in Principia

Ethica, 1903, where he famously asserted that: Good is a non-definable property. This led to Moore being labelled an intuitionist, as

“We know what`yellow’ is, and can recognise it whenever it is seen, but we cannot actually define it. In the same way we know what `good’

means but cannot define it.” (Ethica, 1903)

However, closer analysis reveals that, “it seems selfevident that our duty is to do what will produce the best effects upon the whole, no matter how bad the effectsupon ourselves may be and no matter how much we ourselves may lose by it.” (Ethica, p.143)

As an Ideal utilitarian Moore suggests that there arethree intrinsic goods: Pleasure, Friendship, Aestheticappreciation – and so right actions are those which increase / promote these in the world for the most people.

W.D Ross: Prima Facie DutiesW.D Ross: Prima Facie Duties

Do not lieProtect innocent

life.W.D. Ross

Prima Facie Duties are conditional, not absolute, and may change

depending on the situation.

Prima Facie duties “at first glance” which the mature person recognises intuitively through reason

What should one do when intuitions conflict? For example: Do you lie to a gunman to protect the intended innocent victim?

• W.D. Ross was an intuitionist who argued that the mature person intuitively knows what is good.

• “Morals, like the principles of mathematics, are self-evident, to the mature mind….. The moral order expressed in propositions is just as much part of the fundamental nature of the universe as is the spatial or numerical structure expressed in the axioms of geometry or arithmetic.” (Ross)

Morality is objective, but morals are conditional – whether they should be followed depends on which is one’s over-riding duty in the particular situation.

• When a conflict between duties arise one should follow the over-riding duty.

W.D. Ross

W.D. Ross W.D. Ross

Six Prima Facie DutiesSix Prima Facie Duties(Duties one ought to follow, intuitively

in the absence of an over-riding duty)

• Fidelity – faithful to promises made.

• Gratitude – appreciation for support offered.

• Justice – impartial, equal treatment of others and distribution of pleasure

• Beneficience – help for others.

• Self-improvement – self-fulfilment

• Non-malificence - avoid harming others.

•Ross does not rankthese duties in order

of importance.•The mature person intuitively knows these prima facie

duties are true and may follow the

appropriate duty given the demands

of the particular situation.

EmotivismEmotivism

Ethical statements merely express a person’s emotions. They have no cognitive, knowledge content.

i.e. ethical statements are neither true or false.

e.g. “Torture is good.”

Boo!Hooray

!

Desmond Tutu Saddam Hussein

EmotivismEmotivism

• Became popular through the work of

Alfred Ayer and Logical Positivists.

• Ethical Statements simply express an

individual’s emotion.

• Yah – Boo theory of ethics

• Importance of David Hume.

A.J. Ayer

“Take any action allowed to be vicious: wilful murder, for instance. Examine it in all lights, and see if you can find that matter of fact, or real existence, which you call vice. In which ever way you take it, you find only certain passions, motives, volitions, thoughts. There is no other matter of fact in the case. The vice entirely escapes you, as long as you consider the object. You will never find it, till you turn your reflection into your own breast, and find a sentiment of disapprobation, which arises in you, towards this action. It lies in yourself, not in the object. So that when you pronounce any action or character to be vicious, you mean nothing, but that from the constitution of your nature you have a feeling or sentiment of blame from the contemplation of it.” (Hume)

Hume - SentimentHume - Sentiment

Morality cannot be proven empirically.

Rather, it is a question of personal sentiment.

“Reason is and ought to be the slave of the passions.”

Justification for such thinking lies in Hume’s analysis of language; known as “Hume’s fork”

Hume’s ForkHume’s ForkHume categorised two kinds of knowledge as being either

Analytic or Synthetic statements

Analytic Statements(Tautologies)

Explain `relation of ideas’

Formal, abstract knowledgee.g. Mathematics 2 + 2 = 4, and Logic

Synthetic statements(Empirical statements)

Explain `matters of fact’

Derived from the five sense - empirical

knowledge based on impressions from sense

experience.

Verification PrincipleVerification Principle(Criterion for meaningful statements)(Criterion for meaningful statements)

A.J. Ayer, “A statements is either analytic or synthetic to be meaningful”

Tautologies

(Analytic)

True by definition

e.g. Maths, Grammar

Empirical

(Synthetic)

Sense experience

Scientific observation

Logical Positivists(20th century)

Verification Principle

Two Types of Statement

Ethical statements:Neither True or False according to

Verification Principle, therefore meaningless

Problems of Emotivism

Verification Principle does Verification Principle does not pass its own test!not pass its own test!

Meaningful statements are either tautological or empirical

Verification Principle is neither tautological orempirical

Verification Principle determines whether statements are meaningful

Therefore the verification principle is itselfMEANINGLESS

Emotions Influence Knowledge ClaimsEmotions Influence Knowledge Claims

With regards to the abortion debate it is interesting to note that the contentious issue, “Is the foetus a life with

potential or a potential life.”The difficulty arises in so far as people’s emotions colour their interpretation of the evidence.

Peter Singer believes the foetus is of little moral value,

lacking personhood.

Whilst the Pope believes it is an innocent human being

from the moment of conception.

Challenges to EmotivismChallenges to Emotivism

Emotions: based on BeliefsEmotions: based on Beliefs Philippa Foot G.J. Warnock

EmotionsBased on

Beliefs or Reasonso emotionscan change

Philippa Foot•Emotions are based

on beliefs.•If one can show

beliefs are inaccurate it is possible to change emotions.

G.J. Warnock•Ethics is not

concerned with emotions but

whether claims are valid; can be supported by

reasoned argument.

Emotions Based on BeliefsEmotions Based on Beliefs(Open to Rational Challenge?)(Open to Rational Challenge?)

•When Osama Bin Laden claims he is

killing innocent people because he

believes it is the will of Allah…

One might rationally ague against this

by appealing to the writing of the

Koran which condemns the killing of

innocent life.

If it can be shown that emotions are

based on incorrect beliefs such

emotions should be abandoned.

PRESCRIPTIVISMPRESCRIPTIVISM

(Non-cognitive)(Non-cognitive) R.M. Hare

Descriptivism

Ethical language

simply describes

choices people make.

Emotivism

Ethical language

expresses the

subjective

individual’s emotions

RejectedINSTEADPRESCRIPTIVISM

•Must have a logical, syllogistic, structure•No objective right or wrong, but

•Ethical language is action guiding•Universalise moral principles

Prescriptivism – A Kantian InfluencePrescriptivism – A Kantian Influence

Hare’s idea of universalising moral maxims can be seen to have its roots in Kant’s categorical imperative.

At the heart of prescriptivism is the importance of logic and consistency within ethics.

For Hare it is inconsistent to advocate a moral approachand yet not be prepared to assert that others in a similarsituation should not act in a similar fashion. Reason and logic would suggest that universal application is centralto ethics.

Problems of Prescriptivism Problems of Prescriptivism Too General…allows for universal evils?Too General…allows for universal evils?

As with Kant’s categorical imperative it is possible forprescriptivism to universalise moral maxims which are

intrinsically evil.

For example, Hitler’s desire to universalise the genocideof the Jews would be logically acceptable for those who

support prescriptivism.

Hare recognises the importance of putting oneself in the other’s position, so being able to universalise one’s

moral maxims. However, if one is fanatical it might be assumed that one would think the particular group

deserved to be punished.

A Possible Way ForwardA Possible Way Forward

GeoffreyWarnock

?

Naturalism

Intuitionism

Emotivism

Prescriptivism

Entropy / Anti-EntropyEntropy / Anti-Entropy

Entropy Principle of Social Relations This theory points to the limitations of

resources, intelligence, knowledge, rationality

and sympathy. As a consequence the social

fabric tends to fall apart, producing a state of

nature in which chaos reigns; classically

outlined by Thomas Hobbes.

Hobbes G.J. Warnock

Geoffrey Warnock considered that it was the role of ethics do offer an anti-entropic response, to

offer order and structure within society.

Entropy / Anti-EntropyEntropy / Anti-Entropy

Ethics is Anti-entropic

G.J. Warnock counteracts limited sympathies by upholding virtues which

help make for an ordered society:

Hobbes G.J. Warnock

Such principles offer a vision for human flourishing.For Warnock whilst morality is not absolute, it is objective.

1. Non-maleficience: non harm

2. Beneficience: social cooperation

3. Impartiality: upholding justice

4. Truthfulness: so avoiding self-deception