Messiah_Implications of Political Philsophy

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Implications of Political Philosophy | K. Paranthaman

Implications of Political Philosophy

Table of Contents

1. Introduction

2. Western Perspective

2.1. Plato

2.2. Niccol Machiavelli

2.3. John Locke

3. Eastern Perspective

3.1. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi

3.2. Jawaharlal Nehru

4. Christian Perspective

5. Conclusion

6. Works Cited


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practical life. But I disagree with this general notion of thinking. The three years of my

study of philosophy in UD enlightened my thinking and helped me discover the meaning

of philosophy. A man or woman acts or does anything according to his or her philosophy.

A village functions according to the philosophy of the village. Religion, education,

government or institutions function according to the philosophy of the founder, leader,

or people. I could say that without philosophy nothing works in the world. So, how can

one say that philosophy is not fit for practical life? Philosophy may not give the chance to

earn handsome money in this global world, but philosophy determines the growth of a

person or a country. Some people may not agree with my point of view but this is the

reality that UD helped me to understand.

The study of Greek philosophy, medieval philosophy, modern philosophy, and

contemporary philosophy stimulated my mind helping me to understand the various

stages of the growth of philosophical thought, its main branches and the contribution of

many philosophers to the growth of the society. For example, Greek philosophy opened

the knowledge of origin of the world; medieval philosophy brought the importance of

theology and began to connect with philosophy. And modern philosophy expanded its

thoughts into science and showed the value of pure reason.

A transformation took place within me in the three years of my UD program. My

professors taught philosophy with immense enthusiasm that stirred my desire to study

more philosophy. Philosophys numerous dimensions directed me to know practical

ideas. Now I am able to compare Western Philosophy with Eastern Thoughts. This

comparison helped me to know peoples quest for new ideas and thoughts.

In my childhood I never had an interest on political thoughts. Eventually my

studies at UD helped to know that I do think about politics, that I was not aware of it.


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Power can destroy any thing in the world if the power is not utilized in the proper

manner. Thus, people in power do not use their power for the welfare of society and that

lead to crisis in the country. Seeing all the political crises in the world mainly in India led

me to think and to ponder about what thinkers of the world said about politics. Many

philosophers talked about political philosophy. I look into the theories of few

philosophers in different times like Plato, Machiavelli, Locke in the West, Gandhi and

Nehru in the East. Finally, I look into few thoughts from Christian perspective and the

teaching of the Church on politics. Though there are numerous thoughts from centuries, I

restrict myself to a few of them in this paper.

2. Western Perspective

2.1. Plato (428/427 B.C.E 337/336 B.C.E)

Plato was one of the most creative and influential thinkers in Western philosophy.

He was born in an aristocratic family in Athens. Plato had a great political ambition. He

became a disciple of Socrates. He liked and accepted Socrates basic philosophy of

dialectic method. He was one of them, who witnessed Socrates death by the Athenian

democracy in 399 B.C.E. Platos Academy dealt with research work of science,

mathematics, and philosophy. In this school there was no formal enrollment and no

tuition fees. Plato lectured at the Academy and wrote a number of books on metaphysics

and politics. His works include Theatatus, Parmenides, and The Republic (Encyclopedia of

Philosophy 581-583).

In his book The Republic, Plato searches for justice within the individual and the

political ideal. The virtues of wisdom, courage and moderation are taken up for


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consideration. This artificial city has the pre-determined virtue of being just he does this

in order to understand what justice is for the individual because Plato thinks that a just

man wont differ at all from a just city in respect to the form of justice; rather hell be like

the city (Republic 435b). In the just city, Plato creates three classes: the producers, the

guardians and the rulers. Each of these three classes has a certain virtue. The rulers are

required to exhibit wisdom so that:

A whole city established according to nature would be wise because of the

smallest class and part in it, namely the governing or ruling one. And to this class,

belongs a share of the knowledge that alone among all the other kind of

knowledge is to be called wisdom (Republic 428e-429a).

The wisdom enjoyed by the rulers would be used to ensure that the city has

good judgment and [be] really wise (Republic 428d).The guardians (soldiers) of The

State would be educated in order to absorb the laws in the finest possible way so that

their belief about what they should fear and all the rest would become so fast that even

such extremely effective detergents such as pleasure, pain, fear and desire wouldnt

wash it out (Republic 430a). Their ability to remain focused is the virtue of courage

which Plato concludes will lead protection of the country. The final class of The State

the producers will unveil the virtue of moderation. Moderation is crucial because:

It makes the weakest, the strongest, and those in between all sing the same song

together. And this unanimity, this agreement between the naturally worse and

the naturally better as to which of the two is to rule both in the city and in each

one is rightly called moderation (Republic 432a-b).

The idea of harmony is crucial to Platos definition of his political philosophy. Each

part of society works together in the best way possible, with each part of society content


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to play out its particular role as best it can. Thus, well-organized society emerges which

upholds all that is just and good. It is the rule of the philosopher king who upholds the

form of justice and peace. As Plato explains: Justice, I think, is exactly what we said

must be established throughout the city when we were founding it that everyone

must practice one of the occupations in the city for which he is naturally best suited

(Republic 433a). The political philosophy has its base on justice as defined by duties of

occupation which were rigid.

From the larger environment of the state, Plato seeks to transfer it back his noble

principles of the good in the human soul, which he identified as having more than one

single driving force. Indecisiveness of the individual can be transformed into internal

conflict between more than one parts of the soul. Plato concludes:

that they are two, and different from one another. Well call the part of the soul

with which it calculates the rational part and the part with which it lusts, hungers,

thirsts and gets excited by other appetites the irrational appetitive part,

companion of certain indulgences and pleasures (Republic 439d).

Plato then identifies a third part of the soul, the spirited part, which is used to create

emotions. A person may get angry and reproach him/herself, in effect having the spirited

part of the soul allied with the rational part of the soul.

At this point Plato uses his conclusions from his analysis of the three classes of the

State as a metaphor to transfer their virtues to the individual, in order to discover how a

political ideal has its bearing on the individual. His statement was that we are pretty

much agreed that the same number and the same kinds of classes as are in the city are

also in the soul of each individual (Republic 441c). He confirms the relationship between

The State and the individual. It is therefore obvious that the political philosophy


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advocates that the rational part of the soul should rule, as the rulers in the city do,

because they both exhibit the virtue of wisdom and can therefore exercise foresight on

behalf of the entire soul (Republic 441e). Just as the guardians assist the rulers in

maintaining justice within the city, the spirited part of the soul will use emotions in order

to maintain order and harmony within the soul. The rulers and guardians exist in order to

control and direct the producers who are the majority of the population, as the rational

and spirited parts of the soul rule the desires. The political philosophy that ensues is

obtained by the three parts of society each fulfilling their role as best they can, and

displaying the same three virtues of wisdom, courage and moderation. This leads to a

harmony between the parts, the best possible combination, which is can be described as

utopian in nature.

Platos political theory proves to be one of authoritarianism. He refers to the

model of philosopher king, who has knowledge of the forms. The stratification of classes

is rulers, warriors, and artisans. Each has their respective function, occupational duties

and as whole contributes to the development of the country. Rulers exhibit have the

rationalist aspect, the warriors the spiritual aspect, and artisans the appetitive aspect.

Philosophical knowledge and intellectual abilities form part of the nature of rulers.

Warriors and artisans are on a lower rung being submissive and granted limited freedom.

Plato was one of the first writers on political doctrines. As is seen in the study of the

Republic in the above study, his reference to a philosopher king, to an ideal type of

government order and watertight compartments of a society is utopian. A link is also

forged between the divisions in human society and divisions in human personality.

Yet his political philosophy is open to criticism. Rule of a few who hold the power

and the authority to make or amend policy decisions has its drawbacks, whether in the


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ancient period or at present-day society. Authority is vested in rulers who are intelligent

and experience teaches that such people may misuse power. Knowledge of the universal

forms is theoretical and does not necessarily lead to its application. This defect is faced

by any political philosophy solely in the hands of a powerful aristocracy or ruler. An

exemplication of such power in a political arena and effects is taken up in the next study

of the political leader, Machiavelli.

2.2. Niccol Machiavelli (1469 1527)

Niccol Machiavelli was born on May 3, 1469 in a middle class family, in Florence,

Italy. His father was a lawyer. In his youth he read Latin and Italian classics. He also

studied business mathematics and worked for years in Rome for a Florentine banker. He

witnessed the removal of the Medici family and the rise of a Dominican friar, Savanorola

after returning to Florence in 1494 from Rome. Italy faced an intense political conflict.

Florence, Milan, Venice and Naples fought for control of Italy, as did the papacy, France,

Spain, and the Holy Roman Empire. These powers attempted to pursue one another. In

this time, Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. Machiavelli witnessed several invasions of

France. All these events influenced Machiavellis interest toward govern ment. Pope

Alexander VI excommunicated Savanorola for criticizing the leadership of the Church in

1497. A month later 29 year young Machiavelli was appointed secretary to the Second

Chancery (John H. Hallowell 233 ).

Machiavelli served as Florentine diplomat to Pope Julius II. Medici family regained

the power of Florence in 1512. This political power of Medici family removed Machiavelli

from his position in the Florentine government. Later he was accused of participating in


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a conspiracy to overthrow the Medici family. The Medici family found him innocent and

released him on the election of Pope Leo X who was Giovanni de Medici (Russell 467).

Machiavellis well know work, The Prince was written in 1513, The Discourses in about 1516

and The Art of War in about 1520. Machiavelli wanted to return to politics. Machiavelli did

not regain the political power. However, he was recalled in 1525 to serve in government.

Once the Medici was overthrown in 1527, Machiavelli was also excluded from the office.

The key portion of The Prince is its parting on policies and ethics. In addition, he

distinguishes the subject of free will. This book is as a practical guide for ruling power in a

country. This is not theoretical or abstract but simple and straightforward. The Prince

has four main parts in it. The first part is from Chapter I XI of how different states and

government are maintained. The second part of The Prince is from Chapter XII XIV. This

part talks about forms of states to the general meth ods to be used for founding and

preserving them, and this require knowledge of military and foreign affairs (John H.

Hallowell 235).

Qualities of Prince himself are the third major part. He believed religion should be

dominated by State. Religion was important not so much for it moral ideals but for its

help to unify the state. He did not believe in moral sermons, neither did he teach love or

compassion (Mayer, 30). Machiavelli was a radical in his political philosophy. He believed

in the struggle for power and employed all means to attain in political areas; his view was

that the strong ruled while the weak sought spiritual escape. Regarding Christian

morality his words were:

These principles seem to have made men feeble; a caused those to become an

easy prey to evil-minded men, who can control them more securely, seeing that


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the great body of men, for the sake of gaining Paradise, are more disposed to

endure injuries than to avenge them (Discourses II 2).

Machiavelli was opposed to the policies of the papacy. The behavior of the group

had led to a disintegration of public morals. Thus he believed in the reform of the Church

practices. He felt religion must be an aid to patriotism and support public institutions.

The last passage of The Prince is an appeal to the Medici to expel the French and Spanish

from Italy. The Medici with Spanish ties was against this move (Mayer 31).

Machiavelli was a good judge of human nature. Men were governed by self-

interest. He regarded man as irrational. Easily influenced by his emotions and felt it was

possible to create public opinion as well. He proves to be skillful in this context. He also

uses force with persuasion. He covers his actions with legality and utilizes religious

institutions to make people support him. He was sure the general public is easily

deceived by appearances (Mayer 32). Machiavelli was a radical thinker and his political

philosophy has the direct implication of viewing religious institutions as a means to be

used for his ends. While Machiavelli was no atheist, his writings are towards the secular.

He is often viewed as a cynic due to his thoughts on political methods. Machiavelli had a

deep understanding of human nature which was also utilized to achieve his goals. To

quote Machiavelli on the role of The Prince:

A prince should seem compassionate, trustworthy, honest and religious, and

actually be so; but yet he should have his mind so trained that, when it is

necessary not to practice these virtues, he can change to the opposite, and do it

skillfully. It I is to be understood that a prince, cannot observe all the virtues

because of which men are considered good, because he is often obliged, if he


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wishes to maintain his government , to act contrary to faith, contrary to charity,

contrary to humanity, contrary to religion (The Prince, Ch.18).

These statements throw a lot of light on the implications of Machiavellis political

doctrine. It appears to be dictatorship at its highest. Looking at his description of his

philosophy toward politics, there appear to be no ethical values in political life as the

ruler can change policies, break promises to his people if it suits his interest it also shows

that he was a shrewd politician intent on power and gain. Finally, one can also find that

his doctrine gives paramount importance to power and he was obsessed with coercive

rule. It can be easily observed Hitler and Mussolini were influenced by his form of politics.

Indirect influence of such a political doctrine can be glimpsed in twentieth century

international politics where state and coercion often go together.

2.3. John Locke (1632 1704)

John Locke was born in Great Britain in 1632. After graduating from Christ Church

College in Oxford, he worked there as a philosophy lecturer. He also studied medicine

and various fields of science. In 1675, John Locke traveled to France, where he met with

French scientists and philosophers. He spent four years in France before returning to

Oxford. He was in danger of arrest on charges of radicalism by British government.

Locke fled to Holland, and stayed there for several years. While in Holland, Locke wrote

his Essay Concerning Human Understanding. The writings of John Locke soon became

famous in England and throughout Europe.

John Locke is widely known as the father of Liberalism and he published Two

Treatises on Civil Government after the year of publishing A Letter Concerning

Toleration. The political power of a nation forces the leaders to make a change or to


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introduce new laws in order to fight against any threat of force in the nation. Political

power cannot be a hereditary and it becomes necessary to choose any men as leaders

who safeguard the State and its citizens.

Locke explains that initially in a state of nature, every single man is independent

and equal. Each man has a free will that cognitively independent and equal. This true

ethical point of view gives independence and equal rights from the aspect of the political

order. As for Locke, everyone in the nation has equal power, sharing all in one

community of Nature, and there is no subordination which would create inequality

among the people. So the fundamental law of Nature is the reason for Locke that all

men in the nation along with the law must lead life with proper reasons (Mayer 195). This

view upholds the concept of personal property and liberty which is a need for every

individual.

The secular and natural defense of rights is provided by time in ones life. The time

is the gap between the childhood and adulthood where the individuals really learn about

the socie tys and individuals obligation. Here the individual men are the all powerful and

wise to make the laws for the nation to carry on its goodness to everyone. As for Locke

all the human made laws are not the result of their pleasure but their experience of

nation leading towards becoming better nation. The consequence of the natural law is

the right to private property. This particular right is very much based on Lockes theory

on God. Locke believes that God has given the world to people and people have the

reason to rule the world with their best convenience life without causing any trouble on

others. In addition, he states that all the living creatures on the earth such as plants,

animals and birds feed by themselves but when it comes to the case of humankind, it is


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only based on necessity. This necessity promotes all humankind to use the sources of the

earth with reason and benefit (Patil 49).

Everyone has a property in Lockes thought, though the earth and all the

creatures are common to all people. In this property, no one has right in it except

himself. The legal possession of this property is freedom. So, God gave this world and to

make use of it by their labor in good way and dont have freedom to spoil or destroy it.

When someone goes against t he law of nature or disobeys, Locke calls the state of

war. Freedom becomes foundation for all things. Locke says when something is

threatens someone he/she must ready to face it. It may lead to destruction or violence of

the law of nature. Therefore, self- defense allows having ones right to preservation.

Human beings establish a civil society from the state of nature by the right of self-

defense. They do this because from the protection of their lives, liberties, and estates.

A government authority transfer laws to individuals as the powers in the state of nature

by the law of nature. These laws should create or should allow ones freedom. This

should not be restraining of freedom (Patel 48-50). Laws protect the not liberty granted

to the individual. People have right to dissolve their government, if the government does

not work for interest of the people. A government exists for the people for people for

the government.

Although John Locke is famous as a philosopher of the Enlightenment, it was his

political theory that had a great effect on the world. John Locke believed that when left

alone, nature is balanced and founded in reason. Locke argued that in that natural state,

all individual people are equal. Yet a specific political body becomes necessary so that

mens basic rights to life. Liberty and property are protected. Each person also

safeguards his rights to the fruits of his labor.


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Lockes political philosophy appears to be forerunner a democrative form of

government. In a state of nature one sees that people own property, own private

possessions and on the whole appear to live in harmony, in co-operation with one

another. Yet the fact remains that, some men may transgress or break the law of nature.

This is one of the reasons why a social contract becomes imminent. Even if all men agree

on the nature of a transgression, in a state of nature, it becomes difficult to enforce

punishment or even to judge the right and wrong correctly. Because in this state, there

are no fixed, universal state laws on these issues. He states:

Wherever therefore, any numbers of men are so united into in a society, as to quit

everyone his executive power of the law of mature, and to resign it to the public,

there and there only is a political or civil society. And this done, where-ever a

number of men, in the state of nature, enter into a society to make one people,

one body politic, under one supreme government; or else when any one joins

himself to, and incorporates with any government already made: for hereby he

authorized the society, or which is all one, the legislative thereof , to make laws

for him, as the public good of the society shall require; to the execution whereof,

his assistance (as to his own decree) is true (Two Treatises, Chapter VII 89).

Further aspects of his theory relate to how the government functions in terms of

crises and the measures adopted to safeguard the interests of the people if government

policies are dictatorial, going against common interests. Lockes theory of Social Contract

protects life, liberty and property of the people. Locke justifies the right of revolution

against the government if the latter substitutes arbitrary will for law and non-assemblage

of the parliament. Thus revolution is justified in the following cases:

When the Government does not fulfill its end of securing the rights of individuals.


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When the government is inefficient

When the government if arbitrary

When the government places the people under foreign rule.

When the Government changes electoral Law.

In these cases, people can revolt and dissolve the government and it does not mean the

dissolution of society. The community is free to set up a new government or a new

Constitution (Patil 50-51). Locke argued that when governments are oppressive and

tyrannical, the common people not only have a right to carry out a revolution, but they

have an obligation to do so.

The merit is men create a political system with voluntary agreement. His theory

contains some of the elements of democratic theory. Firstly, he stresses that law, not

force is the basis of government men choose their leaders. In a democratic government,

laws are made by properly chosen representatives of the people and are promulgated

so that all men may become acquitted with them. The other side to his political view is his

discussion on human rights. There are certain areas of human conduct which are immune

from governmental intervention. This doctrine underlies what is held in the famous Bill of

Rights in the American Constitution. Men retain the freedom to speak, to worship as he

pleases, the freedom to own property and so on (Popkin & Stroll 72).

The implications of Lockes philosophy are that it upholds the theory of

sovereignty of the people and looks for the consent of the people. It means the

government exists for the good of the people and promotes the common interests. It is

not unlike Platos view of segregation of classes nor does it endorse coercion like

Machiavellis government as it refers to choice on the part of the individuals to en ter into


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the Social Contract. This spirit of Locke had its influence in forming of political policies in

the United States of America.

3. Eastern Perspective

3.1. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869 1948)

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on 2 October 1869 in Gujarat, India. His

life was an epic in the history of India. Gandhi is known as Mahatma, great soul. He was

the leader of the Indian nationalist movement against British rule. He went to South

Africa in 1893. Gandhis twenty years of struggle to en d the discrimination against Asians

in South Africa is remarkable. Gandhi discovers racism; non-whites were treated as

second-class citizens. Gandhi returned to India in 1915. He was introduced to other major

leaders like Pandit Nehru, Sardar Patel, and Mohammed Ali Jinnah. Gandhi participated

actively in the many movements undertaken for gaining freedom from British rule,

namely the Amritsar massacre of 1919, the Dandi Salt march, political movement such as

homespun or swadeshi, not buying the clothes which are woven in British mills as a form

of protest. Finally, in August 15, 1947 the British grants Indias Independence with the

partition of Pakistan (Ian Adams & Dyson 196-198).

For Gandhi the ruling principle is satya or truth. All human beings are parts of a

single whole. Race, caste, class, religion and regional differences are irrelevant. Love is

the only appropriate relation between human beings. Love is the law of our being

Gandhi says. By love he means compassion, unconditional practice of the principle of the

welfare He was a supporter of ahimsa or non-violence. Sathyagraha , truth force or non -

violent action is the achievement of political and moral ends. This sathyagraha is the


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crucial part of political theory of Gandhi. Sathyagraha is not merely passive but it is a

theory of action. This needs courage, strength of character and positive commitment to

a righteous cause (Ian Adams 197) .

Gandhis ideal is a practical one, which brings many social and political changes in

the society. Gandhi built on social and political kind of norms which always suggests on

ought. He became an ideal for non -violence and the truth. That means that the correct

path of formation of society was to found the basis of society, and it consist of non-

violence and self-sacrifice. Each and everyone should sacrifice to some extent, for the

good of the society and the state. From this, automatically follows that in a society there

cannot be any individual good and social good, because it is interlinked. Whatever work

people do, the work carries equal dignity. There is no high work and low work, because

everybodys aim is to earn a livelihood with their work.

Gandhi gives a clear point that all the duties or works, does not give any privileges

for any individual. He emphasized on Varnasrama Dharma . It stands for duties that

every varna (color) has special and important duties which attached to varna . There are

four divisions of classes, Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. These fourfold divisions

are added into life of an individual as the four Asramas (Brahamacarya, Grhastha,

Vanaprastha, and Sannyasa). If these Varnasrama Dharma understood in right way, a

society will have strong moral basis. Gandhi wants everybody should be treated as equal.

He wanted to eradicate social inequalities and started a doctrine called Bread Labor .

Gandhi meant that, in order to live, a man he has to work in his life. He thought that, it is

very essential for a man to think about the dignity of a labor. He has to work to earn the

income from the work. When individuals are taking up their work voluntarily, there

would be mutual understating between one another in the society. Another focus was to


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prevent inequality, regarding quality of wages. The division or the distribution of work

should be given to the people according to their potentialities or abilities. (Ganguli 151-

152). This aspect of Gandhis doctrine paved the way to make men realize their righ t to

equality.

Gandhis ideal was to promote self -governing villages. It would be persuasion and

consensus. Villagers elect the representative by a majority vote. In electing the

representative two important aspects need to be observed that of, proper

representation of minority interests and the right of individual civil disobedience if one is

called upon to act against conscience (Ian Adams 198). Gandhis state depicts a

commitment to Sarvodaya, development or improvement of human beings rather than

ruling class or favored few. Gandhi disagrees with having private property which creates

division, inequality and exploitation. Since it is practiced, he suggests that rich should

share their wealth with the needy. He also understands that his suggestion will not be

practiced until the state involves in it. This policy of Civil disobedience is not a violent

means as ahimsa is a peaceful protest. But it proves to be effective because it is a plan of

action which is most likely to change a public policy or rule. Gandhi was in favor of a

democratic form of government, the rule by elected representations.

In discussions the implications of Gandhian political philosophy, if find many

merits chiefly because it is suited to Indian society and social structure. Gandhi lived a

very simple and religious life. His political philosophy can be seen to be a kind of

spiritualization of politics. Ends and means should come under an ethical and spiritual

ground. It follows that the state should consider the welfare of the people; win the co-

operation of the citizens. It is not a policy of coercion. The state itself acts as guardian of

the people. His principle of Satya is the key factor and refers to truth, honesty and


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integrity. Programmes and associations dealing with state welfare should have

transparency. This feature of his doctrine goes hand in hand with ahimsa, the policy of

non-violence. It was by these very means he achieved independence for India. Without

truth and non-violence, Gandhi strongly believed there can be no peace or harmony.

Finally, the concept of Satyagraha mean ing welfare of all is not only an active principle

but provide a measure of progress in a state and society.

3.2. Jawaharlal Nehru (1899 1964)

Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India who was born on 14th

November 1889 in wealthy Nehru family in the historic city of Allahabad, India. He was

the only son of his parents and was brought up with luxury. He learnt English by a private

tutor. He went to England for studies at the age of fifteen in May 1905. After seven years

of studies in Cambridge University he returned in 1912 to India. He was attracted by some

of activities of Indians like Lala Lajpat , Sardar Ajitsingh, Bal-Gangadhar Tilak and

Aurobindo Ghose.

Nehrus interest on politics began to grow gradually and slowly. He joined the

Congress party to fight for freedom of India. Mahatma Gandhis idea of politics attracted

Nehru. He became the President of Indian National Congress in 1929. He took part in the

salt Satyagraha of Gandhiji. Again he was elected as the President of Congress in 1936.

Nehru became the first Prime of freedom India after Independence of India in 1947 (Patel

249). His contribution to the development of democracy of India was great. He was a

nationalist. We will examine his political ideals.

Nehru was a great nationalist. The struggle for freedom was part of a global

struggle which Nehru realized. It could be achieved only if there is agreement in the


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context of international developments. He expressed this idea in his writing that the

national ideal is deep and strong. It is not a thing of the past with any future significance.

But other ideals, more based on the inescapable facts of today, have arisen, the

international ideal and the proletarian ideal and there must be same kind of fusion

between these various ideals if we are to have world equilibrium and a lessening of

conflict (Patel 245).

This thinking process led him to make peace between nations of the world. He

maintained a policy of non-alignment and kept India away from joining any power block.

He declared after t he formation of the Interim Government, the first press conference

in September 1946 that, we propose as far as possible to keep away from the power

politics of groups, aligned one against another, which has led in the past to world wars

and which again led to disasters on an even vaster scale. The world, in spite of its rivalries

and hatreds and inner conflicts, moves inevitably towards closer cooperation and the

building up of a world common wealth. It is for this one world that free India would

work.

Nehru was a socialist as he felt it had many advantages. Yet he was devoted to

democracy and individual liberty. Nehru was attracted by Marx in the 1930s and

considered Marx as a prophet of Russia. He felt that a materialistic interpretation and the

economic factor of Marx had an important message. However he was against violence in

Lenins way and was not a blind believer in the theory of Marxism. His policy that ends

cannot be separated from means (Patel 245). Violence hidden in Marxian philosophy was

it drawback. He followed the policy of non-violence as initiated by Gandhi. Collectivism

meant to Nehru was the public ownership of the basic and major industries, not abolition

of private property.


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The socio-political foundations of democracy lay in the provision of equal right of

citizenship, right to vote for all citizens, freedom of speech and expression, right to form

associations or unions and periodical elections. Nehru played a significant role in securing

the right relating to religion, culture and language and empowering the State to bring

about various schemes of social reforms (Patil and Narayana 292-93). Nehru states:

My patriotism includes the good of mankind in general. Therefore, my services to

India include the services of humanity. Isolated independence is not the goal of

the world states. It is voluntary interdependence. The better mind of the world

desires today, not absolutely independent states, warring one against another,

but a federation of friendly, interdependent states (Discovery of India 464)

Jawaharlal Nehru was an advocate of the democratic form of government.

Equality of opportunity and freedom for all was his idea of democracy. Yet he was aware

of lack of discipline in democracy. This factor has to be watched to maintain the true

spirit of democracy. Power should rest in the hands of responsible leaders. Like Plato, he

believed in rule of wise men that hold the power. He believed in non-violence to the

approaches to the social and political problems, a peaceful means of protest to effect

changes, if necessary in political policies.

The implication of Nehrus political is noteworthy. He sought equal opportunities

to the people of a country. Democracy was favored wherein the citizens had a final say in

the formation of a government. He stressed the significance of civil liberties. Although

he was attracted to Marxist ideals, he was unlike Marx, in favor of private property. He

was a secularist in his approach. People with diverse cultural backgrounds were to feel at

home India. He upheld the ethical side of religion as the core. Religion should make a

man virtuous, tolerant and self- disciplined as a secular nation, India should provide equal


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protection to the believers of all faiths and creeds. One can see that in comparison of

Gandhian ideals and Nehrus political philosophy there are many affinities. Both of them

favor a democracy as a rue of the people, uphold ahimsa, the principle of non-violence

and seek to protect the policy of secularism of the country. Today, these principles have

great relevance to Indias political set up and these principles of tolerance are the means

to avoid conflict between religion and politics.

4. Christian Perspective

One should distinguish between politics in a narrow sense and politics in the wider

sense, when we speak of the Church role in society. The members of the Church should

be involved in the politics in the wider sense. The principal task of individuals is their

involvement in the selection of a political system and participation. What happens when

a party promotes an unjust social order? If the Church questions the unjust act of the

party, the party members say that the Church is involving in party politics. What they say

is correct but what does the Church have to do to promote justice? If the Church says

that political action is left to lay people, then, to educate the people about the causes of

injustice and how to resolve conflicts is a duty of priests and religious. Moreover, the

Church must have the active role in the education regarding justice. So, in this topic, let

us see how Church documents may help us to understand the Churchs responsibility in

todays world.

Reflection on The Political Community in 2004 of Compendium of the Social

Doctrine of the Church by the Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace (PCJP) begins with

a few biblical insights (Compendium #379- 83). The Old Testament insists on Gods


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dominion (Ps. 72). The first book of Samuel teaches (chapters eight and nine) that the

king is experienced both as Gods gift and as a despotic ruler. He is to be the defender

of the weak and the guarantor of justice for the people. The denunciation of the

prophets focus precisely on the kings failure to fulfill these functions (cf. 1Kg 21; Is 10: 1 -

4). A king should govern with wisdom and act in justice. Leaders are called to liberate

people from economic and political slavery like Moses (e.g., Ex 3:7-12).

In the New Testament, Jesus refuses the oppressive and despotic power by the

ruler of the nations (Compendium #379). Jesus himself told his disciples that people

should pay taxes which belonged to God and the ruler of the nations (cf. Mk 12: 13-17).

Moreover, all the people should obey their ruler (Rom 13:1-7), and pray for the ruler too (1

Tim 2:1-2) for legitimate authority responds to the order established by God. Yet,

when human authority goes beyond the limits willed by God, it makes itself a deity and

demands absolute submission; it becomes the Beast of the Apocalypse, an image of the

power of the imperial persecutor (R ev 17:6) (Compendium #382).

The Church recognizes the legitimate autonomy of state, that is, the distinction

between the political and religious spheres. This distinction is a value that has been

attained and recognized by the Catholic Church and belongs to the inheritance of

contemporary civilization ( Compendium #571-2). Vatican II indeed solemnly reaffirmed

that, in their proper spheres, the political community and the church are mutually

independent and self- governing ( Compendium #424). One may comment here that the

right and duty of all people and organizations to express their views and convictions on

political and other issues are generally recognized in todays world. In 1971, Pope Paul VI

emphasizes the supreme importance of politics. In todays world, the need is felt to

pass from economics to politics In the social and economic field, both national and


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international, the ultimate decision rests with political power (Octogesima Adveniens

#46). This political power is that natural and basic link to make sure the social body and

that must have the aim to achieve the common good (OA).

Rerum Novarum is venerated for its opening position because many papal

documents were issued on the anniversaries of this encyclical of Pope Leo XIII in 1891.

The documents were mostly interested in problems, political and social. They began to

reflect on various group interests within the Church (Bokenkotter 342). Many of these

documents are very significant and important in the Church. Pope Leo XIII affirmed the

fundamental rights of workers and his interest was on social justice for the working class.

The dignity of work is defined as follows; To exert oneself for the sake of procuring

what is necessary for the various purposes of life, and first of all for self- preservation.

(Rerum Novarum #130). He is well aware that private property is not an absolute value.

Yet man is totally involved when it is his own land and will work for its betterment.

Another is the natural human right to form private associat ions. This means above all

the right to establish professional associations of employers and workers or of workers

alone (Rerum Novarum #134). The political order therefore must provide for private

property and freedom to enjoy the fruits of his labor on land. Thus, social and economic

issues in such instance form part of the Church concerns.

Quadragesimo Anno (The Reconstruction of the Social Order) is another social

encyclical written by the Pope Pius XI that noted the problems by the industrial

revolution and its impact on workers. On the fortieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum,

Pope Pius XI issued his encyclical Quadragesimo Anno to reaffirm the right and the duty

of the Church on social and political issues of the world (New Catholic Encyclopedia 393).


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Pope Pius XI repeated the sentiments of Leo XIII for reconstruction of the social

order, workers rights, right to private property and so on. Still recognizing private

property as a natural right, he hedged the position with some limitations, condemning

its arbitrary use and all superfluous accumulation.( Boekenkotter 342). He also

developed the concept of a salary not governed simply by economic laws, but what he

called a living wage one that enabled a man to support his family in some comfort and

also to put away savings (Bokenkotter 343). Pius XI thought that to reflect the Gospel,

the social order needed to be reconstructed. the new social order he called for would

be one pervaded by the spirit of justice and charity, one in which each persons rights

would be recognized and safeguarded by institutions and structures built on social

justice a term he introduced into the Catholic vocabulary and made a key term of social

Catholicism, (Bokenkotter 343).

Mater et Magistra (Mother and Teacher - On Christianity and Social Progress) was

written by Pope John XXIII to celebrate the seventieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum,

Mater et Magistra is remembered for its insistence on socialization. The Pope condemns

the inequalities in the world that exists and social dimension of property. Pope John XXIII

understanding on just wage in his encyclical that:

Other factors too enter into the assessment of a just wage: namely, the effective

contribution which each individual makes to the economic effort, the financial

state of the company for which he works, the requirements of the general good

of the particular country having regard especially to the repercussions on the

overall employment of the working force in the country as a whole and finally

the requirements of the common good of the universal family of nations of every

kind, both large and small. But their degree of applicability to concrete cases


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cannot be determined without reference to the quantity and quality of available

resources; and these can and in fact do vary from country to country, and

even, from time to time, within the same country. (Mater et Magistra #71& 72)

Pope John XXIII also talks about the participation of workers in industry. He says

that workers gradually begin to share to the ownership of their company. He desires that

the fruits of production of the company should be shared with the workers from the

hands of wealthy (Mater et Magistra #77). Pope John XXIII continues to emphasis on

social and political rights in his second major encyclical Pacem in Terris too.

The Puebla Document come from III General Conference of the Latin American

Bishops met at Puebla, Mexico in 1979. This document reaffirms the importance of this

activity and the genuine independence of governments, parties, labor unions, and other

groups in the social and political arena (Desrochers 342). And also this PD state that

those who minister to the unity of the Church bishops, priests, deacons, and even lay

leaders of pastoral action should renounce party politics and even divest

themselves of every partisan political ideology that might condition their criteria and

attitudes (Desrochers 342).

All the documents on the social teaching are important contribution to the

Catholic Church and to the world. These documents continue to provide guidance to the

Christians and to whole humanity. The documents help us to evaluate the needs of a

society, the responsibilities of a political order and help one to have a deeper

understanding of the Implications of a political system. It gives us a glimpse of a

relationship of politics and church.


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5. Conclusion

Human being is a multi-dimensional being. We can say human beings are social

beings. To organize this society we need some kind of skill. Political ideas are necessary

for the growth of the society. A man cannot be separated from a social and political life.

In the analysis of the implications of the political philosophy evident in thinkers such as

Plato, Machiavelli, and Locke, I have attempted to point out their merits and demerits

and seek the view which is more suited to present day society. Looking at the political

ideal of Plato we see his division of the society into groups. Political and social

philosophy of Plato is portrayed in The Republic. His thoughts have gone beyond the

boundar ies of his era. Though Platos idea of philosopher king is weak and impractical in

a society, yet its merit is upholding the notion of the good as the universal notion. This

kind of standard is still a reference for many institutions, such as community, family, state

and government. His ideal Republic gives restricted freedom and sets social and political

standards.

Machiavelli in his work The Prince states that the ruler of state, the Prince must

have a mind disposed to adapt itself according to the win d, and as the variations of

fortune dictate, and as I said before, not deviate from good, if possible, but be able to do

evil if constrained (The Prince, Ch. XVIII). Circumstances appear to justify wickedness,

evil and craftiness according to this statement and one is allowed to finally abandon the

good for a political purpose. Machiavellis political ideal makes facts and the expedient,

not the moral imperative, the basis of all political actions. In this sense, the strength of

the Prince and his strateg y to reach his political goals become important. Machiavellis

ideal may achieve results but his political philosophy has the direct implication of


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admitting brute force and coercion. In comparison with Platos ideal state, it falls short;

neither does it have the appeal of Lockes theory of individual freedom and close

interaction of the government and people. Also, looking at the political ideal advocated

herein, Christianitys message of peace, humility, suffering and sacrifice appear to be

impractical as meekness could not bring in such desired results of Machiavellianism. In

analyzing this political standpoint, one sees that the universal validity of the moral law is

lost.

Lockes view on politics favors democracy and he considers the welfare of the

majority. The state of nature was such that men were free and equal and enjoyed the

right to life and property. Yet there was the drawback of not having a proper law-giver.

For this purpose, Locke sets out the Social Contact to make legal provisions to protect

the freedom, life and property of individuals. This theory serves its purpose as even in

modern day society, as in the absence of a common arbiter, there will be violation of

rules and chaos. The implications of his theory are his concern for human right issues.

Locke opposes the rule by one individual or monarchical form of government. While the

political power gives importance to the executive and judicial legislative branches, the

supreme power is with the legislative branch. The merit of Lockes view is that he

provides a safeguard in the form of revolt if the government does not serve the purpose

for which it is constituted. The direct implication of this theory the responsibility he

places in the people in the selection of the leaders who form the government. His

political view is of relevance in todays context and represents a better form of

government than the Platonic view.

Gandhis ideal is a practical one, which brings many social and political changes in

the society. Gandhi built on social and political kind of norms which always carries a


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moral ought. His view became an ideal for non -violence and truth. The correct path of

the formation of society was to be founded to consist of non-violence and self-sacrifice.

Each and everyone should sacrifice to some extent, for the good of the society and the

state. From this, it automatically follows that in a society there cannot be any individual

good and social good, because it is interlinked. According to Nehru as well, whatever

work people do, the work carries equal dignity. There is no high work and low work,

because everybodys aim is to earn a livelihood with their work.

Jawaharlal Nehru was an advocate of the democratic form of government.

Equality of opportunity and freedom for all was his idea of democracy. Yet he was aware

of lack of discipline in democracy. This factor has to be watched to maintain the true

spirit of democracy. Power should rest in the hands of responsible leaders. Like Plato, he

believed in rule of wise men that hold the power. He believed in non-violence to be the

right approach to the social and political problems, a peaceful means of protest to effect

changes, if necessary in political policies.

The church has responsibilities to the society which means it has to be aware of

changing political policies of a government. As we have seen, many of the church

documents tell us of its stand on political issues. At a particular stage in history, the rule

by the king was popular; the monarch was regarded as the able protector of the people

as he acted wisely in the interests of the people. Today many countries opt for other

forms of government besides monarchy as it is suitable for their needs. While the church

does not intervene directly in politics, yet it can support or oppose a political policy of a

particular government. In this manner, it fulfills its responsibility towards pointing out

issues of social injustice. However, as Vatican II states, the church and political

community do remain self-governing bodies independent of each other. Yet as all


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organizations a governing bodies share the responsibility towards public good and

socials issues, being aware of political issues and its implications on a society becomes a

necessity. In India, NGO and Church activities are often directed to maintaining social

justice and as caste distinction and inequalities are still part of the social problems in rural

areas, the need of the church to uphold human rights is even clearer.

The political structure and form of government varies with the needs of a

particular society. For instance, while monarchy may be suitable to a particular country,

democracy may suit the needs of another country. Keeping this in mind, one can check

the merits of the various forms of Government according to Plato, Machiavelli and

Locke. Each of them set out a form of political organization that fit the time and history

of a particular period. Yet, Lockes theory appears to have more appea l as it recognized

many features that give more roles to the citizens themselves, to a majority of the

people, in the formation of a government. On the Eastern side, it is Gandhian notion of

ahimsa that is difficult to practice but is an ideal to be followed in the interests of peace

and harmony between nations. Any political philosophy will have the parameter of

promoting the welfare of the society and protection citizens rights and that is the

justification for the choice of a form of governing political body. As a conclusion, one can

say political philosophies do not remain static and evolve making way for fresh changes

and progress of the society.


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Documents

Messiah_Implications of Political Philsophy