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The AMM headquarter is currently located at the Department of Engineering Design, IIT Madras. A new set of office bearers have taken charge of the affairs of AMM. AMM invites both individual and corporate membership from Indian academia, research organizations and industry. Membership benefits and other information about AMM are available at www.ammindia.org. The body of Zonal Vice Presidents (ZVPs) is active over the past several years with representations from the four corners of the country. They are playing the role of nodal agencies so as to decentralise the AMM official activities and to organise workshops under the aegis of AMM to popularise the mechanism science in their respective regions. They also form the editorial team of this news bulletin. AMM invites contributory articles from its members and others working in the various fields of mechanisms science for this quarterly news bulletin. Interested people can contact the editorial team.

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About the Association of Machines and Mechanisms (AMM)

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6

 Spacecraft Docking Mechanism‐ A Brief Overview 

Anoop Kumar Srivastava1 and R Ranganath2

Spacecraft Mechanisms Group,

Indian Space Research Organisation, Satellite Centre, Bangalore 1Email: akrs@isac.gov.in, 2Email: rrrr@isac.gov.in

1 Introduction

Present day scenario in space exploration has matured much beyond the aggressive competition among select nations towards proving technical superiority of the early 60s. It now touches each and every aspect of life tending towards finding ways of survivability of humans in space. Giant steps have been taken towards interplanetary exploration from landing on Moon to landing on Mars with the most recent one being landing on a Comet. Time has come when joint collaborations in the field of space exploration is becoming a necessity for realising an alternate habitat to mankind. Extending space exploration beyond the limits of earth observation could not be done without the development of some key technologies. One of the most crucial among them is the development of spacecraft docking technology. The rendezvous and docking of satellites forms the backbone of several proven services in space exploration like-

i) Building of large structures and laboratories in space; eg: MIR Space Station, International Space Station (ISS)

ii) Servicing of spacecrafts; eg: servicing of Hubble’s Telescope iii) Human interplanetary exploration; eg: Apollo programme for Landing on Moon

Advances in the field of docking were a result of intense technological race between the Russians and Americans. The Russians took the early lead by launching the Sputnik. The Americans in response announced their ambitious plan of landing a man on the moon and bring him back safely to earth. This triggered developmental activities which required a number of mission critical docking and undocking activities during the onward journey to the moon and for the return flight. The early 1960s witnessed tremendous developmental activities and conduct of docking experiments. The first successful docking could be achieved by Gemini VIII on March 16, 1966 with Agena Spacecraft [10]. This was later followed by the successful landing of men on the moon in Apollo 11 mission and their safe return to earth in 1969. This successful mission heralded a new dimension to the human spirit of exploration and a new impetus to space research. Needless to say, the docking mechanism is one of the critical systems in the success of space docking missions. This paper addresses a brief overview of docking mechanisms in different missions. Table 1 shows in brief the evolution of docking mechanisms from the 60 to till date including that in the near future.

Contributed Article

7

Spacecraft Docking Mechanism

Impact Energies

Impact Docking

Soft Docking

Mode of operation

Autonomous

Manual

Pressure sealing

Pressurised

Non Pressurised

Configuration

Androgynous

Non Androgynous

Table 1: Docking mechanism at a glance Vehicles Masses Year Mechanism

Gemini-Agena 3789kg-3175kg 1966 Index bar-docking cone.

Apollo: Command Service Module(CSM)-Lunar Module(LM)

30332kg- 14696kg 1969 Probe and Drogue

Apollo-Soyuz 16780kg- 6790kg 1975 International Docking Mechanism (androgynous)-APAS75

Soyuz/Progress-ISS ~7000kg- 344378kg 2003-Present

Probe and Drogue

Shuttle-ISS ~80000kg – 344378kg 1998-Present

APAS 75, APAS 89, APAS 95

ATV - ISS docking Upto 28T First Flight planned in

2016

International Berthing and Docking Mechanism (IBDM)

ISS docking Lowest 1183kg Unity to Zarya 1998 to till date

Common Berthing Mechanism (CBM)

ISS docking 5000 Kg– Chaser and Target (Light)

25T Chaser to 350T Target (Heavy)

Futuristic NASA Docking System (NDS)

ETS VII: Orihime –Hikoboshi

400kg- 2200kg 1997 Low impact mechanism : Claws and handle bars

Orbital Express: ASTRO-NextSAT)

1088kg- 226kg 2007 Three pronged Starsys docking mechanism

Shenzhou 8 – Tiangong 1 Docking

8082 kg- 8506 kg 2011 APAS -95

Mini AERCAM - ISS

5kg- 344378 kg Futuristic Magnetic docking system and ball lock mechanism

Docking concept for pico satellites

1 to 5 kg Futuristic Micro cilia arrays (MEMS based)

2 Classification of Docking Mechanisms

The docking mechanisms can be classified based on the impact energies, mode of operation, pressure sealing and modularity in configuration. Figure 1 shows this classification pictorially.

Figure 1. Classification of spacecraft docking mechanism

8

The figure above gives a very broad classification of the docking mechanisms used for spacecrafts. Details of each are discussed in the subsequent sections

2.1. Impact Energies

For docking between the two spacecrafts to occur a positive relative velocity between the two spacecrafts is a necessity. This results in relative kinetic energies between the two spacecrafts. Docking is the instance when two spacecrafts are joined together in space. At this instance if the relative kinetic energy is absorbed or dissipated to a large extent, then the docking procedure adopted is called as soft docking or low impact docking. On the other hand if this energy is made use of for actuating the capture mechanism or in simple terms not attenuated to a large extent then it results in Impact docking. Both have their inherent advantages and disadvantages which were used while configuring the systems. Typical examples of Low impact docking are the present Androgynous Peripheral Attachment System (APAS 95) used on ISS-Shuttle and example of impact docking is Apollo docking mechanism. The impact docking is generally preferred when the spacecraft involved in are axi-symmetric and their centre of mass are aligned. The proximity sensors requirements for impact docking are less stringent in comparison to that of soft docking. For large flexible and locally fragile spacecrafts and where the centre of mass of the chaser and target are offset from each other, soft docking is generally preferred. Impact docking was used by Apollo missions in their probe and drogue type of docking mechanism and also by the Russians. This enables the spacecrafts to be captured without the use of active capture mechanism and the two spacecrafts get captured using the kinetic energy of the spacecrafts. Another important aspect is the docking disturbances which are discussed in subsequent sections.

2.2. Mode of Operation

Docking sequence can be made to be conducted by direct intervention of Astronauts, by ground command or it can also be made autonomous. The autonomous features gain importance when dealing with interplanetary missions. In manual docking sequence, a target and a marker is used for achieving the requisite alignments making use of manual operation of thrusters in pulse mode. For autonomous docking sequence, closed loop operation making use of sensors is performed where corrective actions are taken for every misalignments observed. In this mode even the capture, stabilisation, retraction and rigidisation is performed by onboard autonomous commands.

2.3. Pressure Sealing

Docking mechanism for spacecrafts are used for all purposes including human transfer, material transfer, refuelling and repair services. Instances when shirt sleeve environment for astronauts has to be ensured, in such scenarios pressure sealing has to be achieved across the docking ports. This is done making use of pressurised locking and fastening mechanism which ensures very low leakage of air. However, where only material transfer is required or repair service has to be performed externally in such instance pressure sealing can be avoided. The two docking modules are rigidised in non pressurised state and the activities are performed. Pressure sealing becomes a large overhead on the overall system thus the application of that is always scrutinised and then adopted.

2.4. Configuration

This classification basically deals with the design configuration which is directly based on the development of the type of docking mechanism. Earlier developed docking mechanisms including Apollo and Gemini were centrally placed and along the axis of symmetry. They were of the non androgynous types as they had two different modules for chaser and target

9

spacecrafts. Subsequently, the mounting of docking mechanism on the periphery became popular as their capture and rigidisation elements could be place on the periphery and were simpler in operation in comparison to centrally placed docking mechanism. To increase the reliability of operation, androgyny was adopted so that identical mechanisms are mounted on the chaser and target. This enabled either of them acting as chaser or target.

3 Docking Disturbances

Docking disturbance is a function of docking force and docking time. Disturbance can be in terms of resultant force or resultant torque. The resultant torque is obtained as a product of docking force and perpendicular distance of the application of force to the CG of the spacecraft (d). This would tend to spin the two spacecrafts. Mathematically it can be seen as given below

Docking disturbance = f (docking force, docking time)

Disturbing moment = docking force x distance of CG from the docking port

The docking force is a function of the relative velocities between the two spacecrafts at contact. The docking time is a function of the characteristics of the capture mechanism. If the relative velocities between the two spacecrafts are kept low at contact and time of operations of the capture latches are kept to a minimum (fast acting), the docking disturbances can be reduced.

Large docking disturbance present in impact docking results in considerable burden on the spacecraft control systems. It is preferred to reduce it significantly and this is achieved in soft docking methods.

4 Types of Docking Mechanisms

Since the advent of the docking technologies giant steps have been taken in this field. Latest technologies have matured way beyond from the first Gemini VIII adaptor cone based docking mechanism. Docking mechanism in the initial days was operated using manual commands and the presently fully autonomous docking mechanisms have become operational for unmanned missions. Each type of docking mechanism is configured suiting to the requirements of the approach parameters as defined by the mission. Change in these approach parameters lead to major configuration changes. There have been developments of various kinds of docking mechanisms apart from the ones used by ESA and NASA for ISS. They are used for docking of small satellites. The subsequent article shall deal with the type of docking mechanisms developed and their approach parameters which provide the baseline for the design of the docking mechanism.

4.1. Gemini Docking Mechanism

Gemini docking was performed between Gemini and Agena spacecrafts using a cup and a cone arrangement as shown in figure 1. This was operated manually by the Astronaut on Gemini and docking was achieved between the active Gemini Spacecraft and passive Agena spacecraft. The V shaped indexing bar is used for the alignment of the spacecrafts. This was a non androgyny non autonomous docking mechanism which did not allow for crew transfer between the two spacecrafts.

10

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ure mechani

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21

Dockin The subwhich cdockingmagnet approxielectromdraw thapproxirotationmagnetspacecrextendepolarityspacecrvehicle.

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OngoinsatelliteexpecteSince thshould primaryconnectmicro-sthe speccilia sursatelliteconnectof flexibenefit docking

ng Mechani

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developed inn electromadesigned fotromagnet aa 5-in. (

d within an spacecraft

nment priornt into onee docking pr. At this pge and refuectromagnetystem is cu

Fig 15

Mechanism

focuses oize of a satewill force mnt docking ple and quicaching the mand electric

d is dependement mechag micro-cilily speed up d be mated tumbersome micro-cilia ament techniq

nclude (1) agnet, a balor the smalas shown in12.7-cm) cangular mi

t toward thr to contace of 12 posiport, the baloint the ele

ueling are tot can be revurrently bei

: Docking m

Using MEM

on using Mellite shrinkmicro-satellsubtracts frck as possi

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to fixed conumbilical

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a docking ll lock mecller spacecrn figure 13.cube centersalignment he larger oct. Mechaniitions. Oncll-lock mecectromagneto be performversed to ping incorpo

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MS Actuat

MEMS cilias their abilitlites to docom the micible. When ite to the la. The first o

w quickly vesecond taskm the delicag operation

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one and thical alignme the docki

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provide a georated into

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a arrays forty to carry f

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docking marger craft, of these taskelocity adjuk is made siate final oriebecause th

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gned for thend a service

contains eure envelopee front of

Thereafter, tis brings t

ment guidesing vehicle activated, wned off, andionally, durentle push tthe design

on [20]

r precisionfuel and powly to replens’ mission t

micro spaceand orientaks is largelyustments caimpler and fentation ande entire sate

satellite. Thpositioning on in mass

e larger spae probe; aneither a pee for this syf the dockthe magnetithe spacecrs provide th

has been cwhich locks d the servicring undockto separate of Mini A

n docking ower is reduc

nish their retime, this prcraft there

ating the saty the domaian be made,faster by thed positioninellite, with is alleviatessystems. Acompared

acecraft, nd (2) a rmanent ystem is

king-port ic forces raft into he final captured the two

ce probe king, the

the two AERCam

of pico-ced. It is

esources. rocedure are two tellite to in of the , and on e micro-ng of the its fixed s the use

A further to other

22

The arrshown ilayers tthan thefrom th

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5 Co

This pathat in specificdockingterrestridevelop Refere 1) Do

Ber

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3) Ric200Sta

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5) Ap

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rayed actuatin figure 16that make ue bottom CT

he substrate

cro-cilia armlyamide layactuator incrrtical displaay are made

nclusion

aper addressthe near fu

cations haveg technologial frontier ping this tec

ences

ocument Northing Dock

e Andersonound operati

chard J Mc01-01-2435ation”.

chael Hardacia, Peter 11 Constan

ocking with

pollo-Soyuz

ernational Dvision C, N

Fig 16

tors are def6. The curlinup the bimoTE. The theat low temp

m is placedyers. When reases, and cements at to move by

ses the evoluture. The e been illuy for expanis multifold

chnology is

. ESA-HSFking Mecha

n, Tim Brisions, “Deve

claughlin an, “The Co

dt, Carlos MUrmston. 1

nce, Germathe Interna

Test Proje

Docking SyNovember 20

6: MEMS ba

formable mng of the acorph structuermal stressperatures an

d into motioan electric the structurthe tip of th

y coordinati

lution of dosalient aspstrated. It m

nding the hod. The massa standing t

F-COU-027,nism (IBDM

scoe, Montyelopment of

nd Williamommon Ber

Mas, Anton14th Europeany, 28-30 ational Berth

ect , Informa

ystem Stand0, 2013

ased dockin

microstructurctuators is dures. For ths from this ind towards i

on using a hcurrent is p

re deflects dhe micro-ciing the defle

ocking mechpects of themay be notorizon of thesive investmtestimony f

, Rev 2.0, InM)”.

y Caroll , f the Interna

m H Warr, rthing Mech

nio Ayuso,ean Space M

Septembehing & Doc

ation for Pre

dards (IDSS

ng mechanis

res that curdue to the dhese devicesinterface cait when heat

heating resipassed throudownward. lia. Objectsections of m

hanisms froe docking ated that thee activities

ments made for its impor

nternational

et al., Jonsational Dock

Society of hanism (CB

, Daniel CoMechanism

er 2011, “cking Mecha

ess 1975, pg

S), Interface

sm [21]

rl out of thedifferent CTs the top laauses the acted.

istor, sandwugh this looThis produ

s in contact many actuato

om the 60’sapproaches e immense of the humaby the spac

rtance in the

l Space Stat

son Space king System

AutomotivBM) for In

ocho, Luis ms & Tribol

Validation anism and a

g 41

e Definition

e substrate pTE of the poayer CTE isctuator to cu

wiched betwop, the tem

uces both howith the su

ors.

, to the presalong withpotential o

an kind in tce faring nae decades to

tion, “Intern

Centre, Spm Standards

ve Engineernternationa

Mollinedology Sympoof Space

a Kuka Rob

n Document

plane as olyamide s greater url away

ween the mperature orizontal urface of

sent and h typical of space the extra ations in o come.

national

pace and s”.

rs 2001, al Space

o, Oscar osium – Vehicle

bot”.

t (IDD),

23

7) Pejmun Motaghedi, Siamak Ghofranian, The Boeing Company, Huntington Beach, CA, 90703, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, “Feasibility of the SIMAC for the NASA Docking System

8) Joseph A Bonometti, Space 2006 Conference, San Jose, CA, September 19-21, 2006,AIAA-2006-7239, “Boom Rendezvous Alternative Docking Approach”

9) Erica Lynn Gralla, Thesis for Master of Science in Aeronautics and Astronautics at Massachussets Institute of Technology 2006, “Strategies for launch and Assembly of Modular Spacecrafts”.

10) John Cook, Valery Aksamentov, Thomas Hoffman and Wes Bruner, “ISS Interface Mechanisms and their Heritage”.

11) Dotts H, Nolting R, Hoyler W, Havey J, Carter T and Jhonson R, Gemini Summary Conference, NASA SP 138, Houston, TX, 1967, pp42, “Operational Characteristics of the Docked Configuration”

12) Robert D Langley, 7th Aerospace Mechanism Symposium, NASA TM X-58016, Houston, TX, 1972, “The Apollo 14 Docking Anomaly”.

13) Apollo Operations Handbook, SM2A -03-Block II-(1)

14) http://www.russianspaceweb.com/docking.html

15) David S F Portee, NASA RP 1357, March 1995, “Mir Hardware Heritage”

16) http://space.stackexchange.com/questions/894/how-do-manned-spacecrafts-achieve-an- airtight-connection-while-docking

17) C A Hatfield, ISS Mars DC Conference, April 2011, “ISS-Enabling Exploration Through Docking Standards”

18) Oda, Mitsushige; Kawano, Isao; Kibe, Kouichi; Yamagata, Fumio; ETS-7, IEEE, “A Rendezvous Docking and Space Robot Technology Experiment Satellite-Result of the Engineering model development work”

19) Shane Stamm, Pejmun Motaghedi, “Orbital Express Capture System: concept to reality”

20) Fredrickson, Steven E. et al, NASA Technical Report, 2006, “AERCam Autonomy Intelligent Software Architecture for Robotic Free Flying Nanosatellite Inspection Vehicles”

21) Joel Reiter, Mason Terry, Karl F Bohringer, Mark Campbell,American Institure of Aeronautics and Astronautics, “Docking System for Micro Satellites Based on MEMS Actuator Arrays”

22) http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2013/07/nasa-planning-module-relocat...

23) http://www.alternatewars.com/SpaceRace/SP-4205/Chapter_12.htm

24) Marco Caporicci, Peter Urmston, Oscar Gracia, Materials and Structures Symposium, 61st International Astronautical Conference 2010, “ IBDM: The International Berthing Docking Mechanism for Human Missions to Low Earth Orbit and Exploration”

25) http://history.nasa.gov/SP-4002/p3a.htm

24

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