MesolithicMesolithic

Hunter-Gatherer ComplexityHunter-Gatherer ComplexityMesolithic Mesolithic

Development of CeramicsDevelopment of CeramicsNeolithicNeolithic

Hunter-Gatherer ComplexityHunter-Gatherer Complexity StereotypeStereotype

““Hunter-gatherers move around alot and live in small Hunter-gatherers move around alot and live in small groups”groups”

Based on living, marginal groups such as the !Kung San Based on living, marginal groups such as the !Kung San and the Inuit.and the Inuit.

Much greater diversity.Much greater diversity. Conditions for more complexityConditions for more complexity

Higher-than normal pop, concentrated in relatively small Higher-than normal pop, concentrated in relatively small areas such as river valleys, circumscribed by geography areas such as river valleys, circumscribed by geography and neighbors.and neighbors.

More intense, diverse, specialized food gathering.More intense, diverse, specialized food gathering. Food storage and preservationFood storage and preservation Permanent and nearly permanet settlements, often Permanent and nearly permanet settlements, often

linear.linear. Highly developed food procurement and processing Highly developed food procurement and processing

technologies.technologies. Divison of labor.Divison of labor. Simple social ranking.Simple social ranking. Trade.Trade. More elaborate ritual and ceremonial beliefsMore elaborate ritual and ceremonial beliefs ..

Mesolithic in Europe Mesolithic in Europe Mesolithic forest and coastal h-gs replaced Mesolithic forest and coastal h-gs replaced

tundra reindeer hunters around 13,000 b.p.tundra reindeer hunters around 13,000 b.p. Not impoverished as earlier thought but rich in Not impoverished as earlier thought but rich in

wildlife such as red and roe deer, many plant wildlife such as red and roe deer, many plant foods.foods.

Coast, estuaries very productive.Coast, estuaries very productive. Called affluent foragers.Called affluent foragers.

Distinct cultures of the Upper Paleolithic Distinct cultures of the Upper Paleolithic covering areas of over 38 k sq miles, but in covering areas of over 38 k sq miles, but in the Holocene reduced to 6 k sq miles and the Holocene reduced to 6 k sq miles and many different zones and territories.many different zones and territories.

European Mesolithic ended around 8,000 European Mesolithic ended around 8,000 B.P. with the spread of agriculture.B.P. with the spread of agriculture.

Discovery of a Mesolithic burial at Discovery of a Mesolithic burial at Mezzocorona, Trento, ItalyMezzocorona, Trento, Italy

The modern town of Mezzocorona is located north of Trento, in the Adige valley, by the northern margin of the Rotaliana plain, a fertile alluvial fan at the confluence of the Noce stream and the river Adige.

In the Autumn of 1995 archaeological investigations were resumed in collaboration with the Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali and the University of Trento, in order to investigate the Mesolithic residual deposits. A one square metre trial trench was thus excavated by the rockwall. Right at the end of the excavation period a mound of stones was uncovered, just under the rockwall. Digging was concentrated in the area of the foresaid mound of stones under which a burial dated to the late Sauveterrian (early Mesolithic) was brought to light.

The burial was formed by a shallow grave, The burial was formed by a shallow grave, oriented east-west; the eastern and western oriented east-west; the eastern and western walls were slightly inclined, whereas the walls were slightly inclined, whereas the northern and southern ones were almost northern and southern ones were almost vertical. vertical.

Inside the grave, a skeleton, probably of a Inside the grave, a skeleton, probably of a female aged over 30 years, lied in a supine female aged over 30 years, lied in a supine position. She was oriented east-west, with position. She was oriented east-west, with her face looking south, her hands on the her face looking south, her hands on the stomach and her feet slightly on top of one stomach and her feet slightly on top of one another. Both here head and feet were another. Both here head and feet were positioned above her pelvic girdle. No grave positioned above her pelvic girdle. No grave goods were present.goods were present.

A preliminary analysis of the skeleton, which A preliminary analysis of the skeleton, which was well preserved, showed that she had was well preserved, showed that she had lost her molar teeth from some time as the lost her molar teeth from some time as the roots had filled in naturally; possible bone roots had filled in naturally; possible bone paleo-pathologies on the lower and upper paleo-pathologies on the lower and upper limbs were also remarked.limbs were also remarked.

NW Europe & ScandinaviaNW Europe & Scandinavia

Maglemose Period (9500-7700 B.P.)Maglemose Period (9500-7700 B.P.) Seasonal exploitation of rivers, lakes and terrestrial Seasonal exploitation of rivers, lakes and terrestrial

hunting. hunting. Inland spring and summer settlements are represented by Inland spring and summer settlements are represented by

the Ulkestrup site in Denmark.the Ulkestrup site in Denmark. People lived in large huts with bark and wood floors People lived in large huts with bark and wood floors

on a peat island near a lake.on a peat island near a lake. Used canoes, one paddle was found preserved.Used canoes, one paddle was found preserved. people fished with bone and antler barbed points, trapped people fished with bone and antler barbed points, trapped

birds and hunted red deer, wild ox and pig.birds and hunted red deer, wild ox and pig. In fall bands foraged for hazlenuts and other In fall bands foraged for hazlenuts and other

plants, elk and other game were hunted, fishing plants, elk and other game were hunted, fishing less important.less important.

Starr Carr, EnglandStarr Carr, England

Starr CarrStarr Carr

Starr Carr in Yorkshire was a typical Mesolithic site Starr Carr in Yorkshire was a typical Mesolithic site in England. in England.

Around 9,500BP about 20 individuals inhabited the Around 9,500BP about 20 individuals inhabited the site.site.

They used stone axes and adzes to fell trees, and They used stone axes and adzes to fell trees, and made a variety of barbed bone and antler spear made a variety of barbed bone and antler spear points.points.

Hunting was the main activity, with red deer, elk, Hunting was the main activity, with red deer, elk, aurochs, and roe deer being the main prey. aurochs, and roe deer being the main prey. Hunters used long wooden arrows tipped with small flint Hunters used long wooden arrows tipped with small flint

blades that were set in the shaft with tree resin. blades that were set in the shaft with tree resin. Dogs assisted in hunting. Dogs assisted in hunting. Hazelnuts were collected in the autumn and perhaps Hazelnuts were collected in the autumn and perhaps

stored. stored.

ScandinaviaScandinavia

Kongemose Period (7700-6600 B.P.)Kongemose Period (7700-6600 B.P.)Baltic sea coast sites, along bays and near Baltic sea coast sites, along bays and near

lagoons, exploitation of marine and lagoons, exploitation of marine and terrestrial resources.terrestrial resources.

Segebro settlement (larger than earlier Segebro settlement (larger than earlier ones) which is now submerged in brackish ones) which is now submerged in brackish water.water.occupied year round, but mainly in spring and occupied year round, but mainly in spring and

summer.summer.carbon isotope analysis of human bone show carbon isotope analysis of human bone show

that fish and sea mammals were major diet.that fish and sea mammals were major diet.

ScandinaviaScandinavia

Ertebolle Period (6600-5200 B.P.)Ertebolle Period (6600-5200 B.P.) Culmination of Mesolithic culture, occupying Culmination of Mesolithic culture, occupying

coastal settlements year round, wide range of coastal settlements year round, wide range of food resources, wide variety of tools.food resources, wide variety of tools.

Greater social complexity, such as cemetaries Greater social complexity, such as cemetaries and more diverse technology.and more diverse technology.

Vedbok Bogebakken cemetary had at least Vedbok Bogebakken cemetary had at least 22 people of different ages buried.22 people of different ages buried. extended positions.extended positions. grave goods.grave goods. some showing evidence of violent death, such some showing evidence of violent death, such

as projectile points embedded in bone.as projectile points embedded in bone.

Southwest Asia Southwest Asia (Mediterranean and Middle East)(Mediterranean and Middle East) Transition to more complex hunter-Transition to more complex hunter-

gatherers-Kebaran cultures (14-12,000 B.P.).gatherers-Kebaran cultures (14-12,000 B.P.). Small and highly mobile hunter-gatherer Small and highly mobile hunter-gatherer

bands, found in a wide variety of bands, found in a wide variety of environments, variation in tool kits.environments, variation in tool kits. 11,000 B.P. significant environmental and 11,000 B.P. significant environmental and

vegetational changes.vegetational changes. more concentrated stands of wild cereal grains more concentrated stands of wild cereal grains

(emmer wheat, barley, etc.) and nuts (almonds (emmer wheat, barley, etc.) and nuts (almonds and pistachios).and pistachios).

harvestable over longer periods of time, less harvestable over longer periods of time, less temperature sensitive.temperature sensitive.

Franchthi Cave, Greece Franchthi Cave, Greece

Characterized by two new developments: Characterized by two new developments: (1) the appearance of large quantities of fish (1) the appearance of large quantities of fish

bones, particularly those of large fish; bones, particularly those of large fish; (2) the appearance of substantially larger (2) the appearance of substantially larger

quantities of obsidian from Melos as a material quantities of obsidian from Melos as a material in the local chipped stone industry. in the local chipped stone industry.

These two developments were initially These two developments were initially considered to be closely related and to considered to be closely related and to show that the inhabitants of Franchthi show that the inhabitants of Franchthi Cave not only sailed to Melos (150 kms. Cave not only sailed to Melos (150 kms. away) for obsidian but also fished in deep away) for obsidian but also fished in deep water for the first time. water for the first time.

There is still no pottery or architecture.There is still no pottery or architecture.

Burial at FranchthiBurial at Franchthi

The earliest burial found at Franchthi The earliest burial found at Franchthi is of Mesolithic date: is of Mesolithic date: a 25-year-old male buried in a a 25-year-old male buried in a

contracted position in a shallow pit near contracted position in a shallow pit near the mouth of the cave. the mouth of the cave.

The pit was covered with fist-sized The pit was covered with fist-sized stones; there were no burial goods; the stones; there were no burial goods; the young man had died from blows to the young man had died from blows to the forehead, but he seems to have already forehead, but he seems to have already been suffering severely from malaria. been suffering severely from malaria.

SW AsiaSW Asia

By 10,000 B.P. people began to more By 10,000 B.P. people began to more intensively exploit these plant intensively exploit these plant resources called the Natufians.resources called the Natufians.exploited wild emmer and barley, nuts, exploited wild emmer and barley, nuts,

gazelle hunting also important.gazelle hunting also important.larger populations, more sedentary larger populations, more sedentary

hamlets, clear signs of social ranking .hamlets, clear signs of social ranking .

Pottery in Ancient TimesPottery in Ancient Times

Coil (vessel built from clay or with Coil (vessel built from clay or with long coils by hand).long coils by hand).

Mold (vessel built from lump of clay Mold (vessel built from lump of clay that is pressed into a concave mold that is pressed into a concave mold or over a convex mold).or over a convex mold).

Wheel (potter’s wheel invented in Wheel (potter’s wheel invented in Mesopotamia ca. 5,000 B.P.-clay Mesopotamia ca. 5,000 B.P.-clay rotated on platform and formed with rotated on platform and formed with hands).hands).

Clay PreparationClay Preparation

CLAYS can be found near the ocean CLAYS can be found near the ocean or by inland streams and ponds. or by inland streams and ponds.

The clay formed when tiny bits of dirt The clay formed when tiny bits of dirt carried by streams sank and settled carried by streams sank and settled in still water ponds.in still water ponds.

Clays must be plastic enough to be Clays must be plastic enough to be rolled into a coil and bent without rolled into a coil and bent without breaking. breaking.

Adding TemperAdding Temper

TEMPER may be crushed TEMPER may be crushed shell, sand, broken shell, sand, broken pottery bits, or plant pottery bits, or plant material. material.

Up to 1/10 of the clay Up to 1/10 of the clay mixture can be made up mixture can be made up of temper for very fine of temper for very fine natural clays.natural clays.

Tempering pottery Tempering pottery makes it able to take makes it able to take rapid changes in rapid changes in temperature when temperature when placed in a fire. placed in a fire.

PinchingPinching Pinch thumbs into the Pinch thumbs into the

center of a ball of clay. center of a ball of clay. Squeeze on the Inside with Squeeze on the Inside with your fingers on the your fingers on the outside of the pot. outside of the pot. Continue squeezing and Continue squeezing and rotating the pot until the rotating the pot until the walls of the vessel are walls of the vessel are about 1/4 in. thick. about 1/4 in. thick.

2. Place the base in a 2. Place the base in a hollow in the ground, or in hollow in the ground, or in a bowl a bowl shaped vessel shaped vessel which can be rotated which can be rotated easily by the potter as the easily by the potter as the pot is built up.pot is built up.

CoilingCoiling The coils ore rolled between the The coils ore rolled between the

palms of the hands or rolled against palms of the hands or rolled against a flat surface in a back and forth a flat surface in a back and forth and center to ends direction. Coils and center to ends direction. Coils range from 1/2 to 1 inch in range from 1/2 to 1 inch in thickness. thickness.

To be joined properly, the coils To be joined properly, the coils should be roughened should be roughened using a moistened using a moistened stiff brush. This helps seal out any stiff brush. This helps seal out any air air when the calls are squeezed when the calls are squeezed 10gether, and helps keep the 10gether, and helps keep the coil moist coil moist while it is being added to the pot.while it is being added to the pot.

Shaping and SmoothingShaping and Smoothing

DecorationDecoration

Shell edge or back of shell can be Shell edge or back of shell can be stamped and/or dragged in the clay.stamped and/or dragged in the clay.

Cord Wrapped Paddle: used to Cord Wrapped Paddle: used to compress the coils, leaving parallel compress the coils, leaving parallel impressions of cordage.impressions of cordage.

Pointed Stick: used to make incised Pointed Stick: used to make incised lines or dots on a pot.lines or dots on a pot.

Net and Textiles: a layer keeps dirt Net and Textiles: a layer keeps dirt away from the surface of a pot & away from the surface of a pot & leaves its mark.leaves its mark.

Shell ToolShell Tool

Shell ToolImpression/Design

Cord-Wrapped PaddleCord-Wrapped Paddle

Paddle with wrapped cordage Impression

Netting/TextilesNetting/Textiles

Loose Netting Impression

Pointed StickPointed Stick

StickPunctations and Lines

Firing StructureFiring Structure

Four of the pots after firing -- the black marks on the pots are not soot, they do not wash off... the marks are from the differences in oxidation and reduction of the clay; where the pot is orange, it was more open to the air(oxidized); where the pot is black, the air was cut off (reduced).

Firing ResultsFiring Results

Otzi & NeolithicOtzi & Neolithic

The Ice ManThe Ice Man

Found by 2 hikers in 1991Found by 2 hikers in 1991 Originally thought to be the body of a Originally thought to be the body of a

modern-day mountaineer who had died modern-day mountaineer who had died while out climbingwhile out climbing

Named “Otzi” after the Otztaler region of Named “Otzi” after the Otztaler region of the Alps where he was foundthe Alps where he was found

The Otztaler AlpsThe Otztaler Alps

RecoveryRecovery

A team of men, uneducated in A team of men, uneducated in archaeology or recovery, chipped away at archaeology or recovery, chipped away at the ice unsuccessfully. the ice unsuccessfully.

Despite warnings that the corpse may be Despite warnings that the corpse may be of significance, no archaeologist was of significance, no archaeologist was present as he was dug up by a forensic present as he was dug up by a forensic scientist who used an ice pick and a ski scientist who used an ice pick and a ski pole.pole.

Result of the recovery was damage to the Result of the recovery was damage to the right leg of the bodyright leg of the body

Otzi’s PreservationOtzi’s Preservation

The body was never exposed to the The body was never exposed to the surface of the glacier before it was foundsurface of the glacier before it was found

There was no weathering of the skin or the There was no weathering of the skin or the leather found with him leather found with him

No evidence of temperature changesNo evidence of temperature changes The body was perfectly preserved due to The body was perfectly preserved due to

the constantly frozen climatethe constantly frozen climate

How Old is Otzi?How Old is Otzi?

5300 years old5300 years oldDates to the Neolithic Dates to the Neolithic

periodperiodThis period is This period is

associated with metal associated with metal tools and weapons, tools and weapons, and sedentary and sedentary horticultural horticultural settlementssettlements

The NeolithicThe Neolithic

Otzi carried many Neolithic goods and tools, Otzi carried many Neolithic goods and tools, including: quiver with a bow and arrows, flint including: quiver with a bow and arrows, flint dagger, copper axe, framed backpack, fire dagger, copper axe, framed backpack, fire making kit, 3 layers of clothing, dried fruit and making kit, 3 layers of clothing, dried fruit and other foods, bearskin hat, assortment of fungi other foods, bearskin hat, assortment of fungi that could be used for medicinal purposesthat could be used for medicinal purposes

Pictured above: (L) Copper axe (R) Flint DaggerPictured above: (L) Copper axe (R) Flint Dagger

Objects found with OtziObjects found with Otzi

More ObjectsMore Objects

More Clues about the More Clues about the NeolithicNeolithic

Medicine and RitualMedicine and RitualTattoos-body art or therapy?Tattoos-body art or therapy?Otzi’s last meal consisted of goat Otzi’s last meal consisted of goat

meat and bread that was cooked in a meat and bread that was cooked in a charcoal ovencharcoal oven

Who was Otzi?Who was Otzi? First thought to be a farmer or Shepard or First thought to be a farmer or Shepard or

primitive workerprimitive worker These theories have been thrown out due to the These theories have been thrown out due to the

absence of wool, and his tools and weapons were absence of wool, and his tools and weapons were too extensive for a farmertoo extensive for a farmer

Could not have been a hunter because most of Could not have been a hunter because most of his arrows were broken and there were 2 points his arrows were broken and there were 2 points present, also the bow was unstrungpresent, also the bow was unstrung

Other theories that he was an outlaw, trader, Other theories that he was an outlaw, trader, Shaman, or warrior have no solid basis or Shaman, or warrior have no solid basis or evidence.evidence.

The question of Otzi’s identity has yet to be The question of Otzi’s identity has yet to be resolvedresolved

Not the Primitive Cave ManNot the Primitive Cave Man

We do know that Otzi and his people were We do know that Otzi and his people were not as primitive as we first thought.not as primitive as we first thought.

Well equipped for the cold climate, Well equipped for the cold climate, weapons were strong, carried a “first aid weapons were strong, carried a “first aid kit” of fungi and mosses known to have kit” of fungi and mosses known to have medicinal usesmedicinal uses

ClothingClothing

What we do know about OtziWhat we do know about Otzi

He was unwell at the time of deathHe was unwell at the time of deathFingernail growth patterns show he Fingernail growth patterns show he

was very ill in the last 6 months of was very ill in the last 6 months of his lifehis life

He had been infested with intestinal He had been infested with intestinal worms and parasites that caused worms and parasites that caused dysentery dysentery

But these were not the causes of his But these were not the causes of his deathdeath

How did Otzi die? There are How did Otzi die? There are several theories:several theories:

Early theory was he suffered from Early theory was he suffered from hypothermia and disease, however there hypothermia and disease, however there is no medical evidenceis no medical evidence

2001-examiners announced the discovery 2001-examiners announced the discovery of a flint arrowhead that had gone of a flint arrowhead that had gone unnoticed in initial examinationsunnoticed in initial examinations

Examiners probed the wound above Otzi’s Examiners probed the wound above Otzi’s left shoulder to find the point, and left shoulder to find the point, and presumed this injury was the cause of presumed this injury was the cause of deathdeath

Cold Case of MurderCold Case of Murder

Doctors theorize Otzi Doctors theorize Otzi had been struck from had been struck from behind with the arrowbehind with the arrow

The arrow shaft was The arrow shaft was missing-it probably missing-it probably was pulled out by Otzi was pulled out by Otzi after he was hit, after he was hit, leaving the point leaving the point embedded in his embedded in his shouldershoulder

The point hit a vein, The point hit a vein, causing a slow deathcausing a slow death

Arrow EntryArrow Entry

Murder InvestigationMurder Investigation

The injury no doubt played a major part in The injury no doubt played a major part in Otzi’s deathOtzi’s death

Otzi was definitely murdered- due to the Otzi was definitely murdered- due to the angle of the point embedded in him, he angle of the point embedded in him, he could not have fallen on it, or was it self-could not have fallen on it, or was it self-inflictedinflicted

Evidence that Otzi was involved in a Evidence that Otzi was involved in a struggle before he died: gashes on his struggle before he died: gashes on his hands and body match that of a blade he hands and body match that of a blade he was carrying, as well as bruises on his was carrying, as well as bruises on his body as if he had been beatenbody as if he had been beaten

Why was he murdered? No one knows.Why was he murdered? No one knows.

Where is Otzi now?Where is Otzi now?

He has been on display in various He has been on display in various institutions including the South Tyrol institutions including the South Tyrol Archaeology Museum in Bozen-Bolzano, Archaeology Museum in Bozen-Bolzano, Italy. Italy.

He is preserved under conditions that He is preserved under conditions that mimic the glacier in which he was foundmimic the glacier in which he was found

A “sandwich system” of sterile surgical A “sandwich system” of sterile surgical cloth, crushed ice, and 2 plastic foils with cloth, crushed ice, and 2 plastic foils with ice packs. ice packs.

Temperature of -6 degrees c and 99% Temperature of -6 degrees c and 99% humidityhumidity

Custody battle between two Custody battle between two countriescountries

Who does Otzi belong to? Who does Otzi belong to? Austria vs. ItalyAustria vs. ItalyHe was first examined in 1991 in He was first examined in 1991 in

Innsbruck, Austria but he was found Innsbruck, Austria but he was found on the Italian side of the Alpson the Italian side of the Alps

Italy has the rights to claim him, Italy has the rights to claim him, build a museum to feature him, and build a museum to feature him, and receive all financial rewards from receive all financial rewards from merchandise, etc.merchandise, etc.

An Interesting TwistAn Interesting Twist

Was Otzi and early Austrian or Early Was Otzi and early Austrian or Early Italian?Italian?

Using the mineral composition of his Using the mineral composition of his dental enamel and leg bone, the dental enamel and leg bone, the environment in which his food was grown environment in which his food was grown can be reconstructed.can be reconstructed.

By comparing the isotopes of Austria and By comparing the isotopes of Austria and Italy with his mineral composition it was Italy with his mineral composition it was concluded that Otzi came from the South concluded that Otzi came from the South Tyrol area of Italy Tyrol area of Italy