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An offprint from

Mesolithic HorizonsPapers presented at the Seventh International Conference

on the Mesolithic in Europe, Belfast 2005

Edited bySinéad McCartan, Rick Schulting, Graeme Warren and Peter Woodman

© OXBOW BOOKS 2009ISBN 978-1-84217-311-4

Contents

VOLUME IList of Contributors ixPreface (Peter Woodman) xvii

Plenaries (i) Mapping the European Mesolithic (S. K. Kozłowski) xx

(ii) The Mesolithic in Europe – some retrospective perspectives (Lars Larsson) xxvii

(iii) The way forward (T. Douglas Price) xxxiii

(iv) Ireland’s place in the European Mesolithic: why it’s ok to be different (Peter C. Woodman) xxxvi

(v) The Mesolithic and the 21st century (Marek Zvelebil) xlvii

New lands1 Introduction (Peter C. Woodman) 12 Climate change, demography and social relations: an alternative view of the Late Palaeolithic 3 pioneer colonization of southern Scandinavia (Felix Riede)3 Late Palaeolithic reindeer hunters – from a coastal perspective (Bengt Nordqvist) 114 Colonizing seascapes: comparative perspectives on the development of maritime relations in 16 the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in north-west Europe (Hein Bjartmann Bjerck)5 Entering new shores. Colonization processes in early archipelagos in eastern central Sweden 24 (Roger Wikell and Mattias Pettersson)6 TheflintcollectionfromtheRistolasiteinLahtiandtheculturalcontactsoftheearliest 31 Postglacial settlement of southern Finland (Hannu Takala)7 The Sujala site in Utsjoki: Post-Swiderian in northern Lapland? 38 (Jarmo Kankaanpää and Tuija Rankama)8 Hunter-gatherers of the Istrian peninsula: the value of lithic raw material analysis to study 45 small-scale colonization processes (Paolo Pellegatti)9 Early farmers on the coast: lithic procurement strategies of colonists in the eastern Adriatic 53 (Niels H. Andreasen)10 Thecolonisationofeasternalpineterritories:theValdiNoncasestudyandthe‘Regole’field 60 camps (Trento, Italy) (Giampaolo Dalmeri, Klaus Kompatscher, Maria Hrozny Kompatscher, Anna Cusinato and Michele Bassetti)

Mobility11 Introduction (C. R. Wickham-Jones) 7112 Moving perceptions: movement, mobility and the material dimension (Thomas Kador) 7313 Top-down or bottom-up?: Americanist approaches to the study of hunter-gatherer mobility 80 (Douglas B. Bamforth)14 Are we there yet? Using GIS to investigate paths and landmarks in the Mesolithic of south-west 89 Germany (Harry Starr and Susan Harris)15 RawmaterialandsettlementstrategiesatthePleistocene/HoloceneboundaryinTrentino 96 (north-eastern Italian Alps): (Fabio Cavulli and Stefano Grimaldi)16 Evidence of mobility between the coast and the inland region in the Mesolithic of northern 102 Fennoscandia (Mikael A. Manninen)17 Walking around the Federsee: analyzing mobility and settlement through regional surface survey 109 in south-west Germany (Susan K. Harris, Harry Starr, Lynn E. Fisher and Michael Jochim)18 One pig does not a winter make. New seasonal evidence at the Early Mesolithic sites of 115 Holmegaard and Mullerup and the Late Mesolithic site of Ertebølle in Denmark (Richard Carter)19 Deciphering archaeological palimpsests: an example from a Canadian Barrenland caribou 122 hunting camp (Bryan C. Gordon)

Contents v

People in their environment20 Introduction (Rick Schulting) 13121 Coastal perspectives on the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition (Nicky Milner and Eva Laurie) 13422 Current research on prehistoric human coastal ecology: Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene 140 hunter-gatherer transitions in north-west Sicily (Marcello A. Mannino and Kenneth D. Thomas)23 The tragedy of the shoreline? Social ecology of Mesolithic coastal subsistence, with reference to the site 146 of Culverwell, Isle of Portland (southern England) (Marcello A. Mannino and Kenneth D. Thomas)24 Small game exploitation through the Mediterranean Pleistocene-Holocene transition in southern France: 152 a key resource augmenting the dietary range (Alexandre Bournery)25 AnexaminationofMesolithicshellfishgatheringactivitiesinthelowerAsónriverbasin 161 (Cantabria, España) (F. Igor Gutiérrez Zugasti)26 Stone Age settlement sites on an environmentally sensitive coastal area along the lower reaches of 167 theRiverPärnu(south-westernEstonia),asindicatorsofchangingsettlementpatterns,technologies and economies (Aivar Kriiska and Lembi Lõugas)27 Automating the extrapolation of sea-level displacement curves: implications for Mesolithic research 176 in western Norway (David N. Simpson)28 Shells, seals and ceramics: an evaluation of a midden at West Voe, Sumburgh, Shetland, 2004–5 184 (Nigel D. Melton)29 Mesolithic elk (Alces alcesL.)fromZamostje2(Russia) (Louis Chaix) 19030 Animal bone studies and the perception of animals in Mesolithic society (Anna Mansrud) 19831 Cultural small-scale variations in a hunter-gatherer society: or ‘everybody wants to be a little bit 203 different!’ An ethnoarchaeological study from Siberia (Ole Grøn, Torunn Klokkernes and Michail G. Turov)32 StableisotopicreconstructionofEarlyMesolithicdietatPupićinaCave 210 (Clea Paine, Tamsin O’Connell and Preston T. Miracle)33 Human colonisation routes and the origins of Irish mammals (Ceiridwen J. Edwards, Daniel G. Bradley) 21734 The ecology of hazel (Corylus avellana) nuts in Mesolithic Ireland (Anne M. G. McComb) 225

People and Places35 Introduction (Sinéad B. McCartan) 23536 Settlement patterns, landscape and society in western Norway during the Late Mesolithic 237 (Sigrid Mannsåker Gundersen)37 Mesolithic inland settlement in southern Norway (Per Persson) 24338 The settlement patterns of the Maglemose culture on Bornholm, Denmark. Some preliminary results 248 and hypotheses (Claudio Casati and Lasse Sørensen)39 People and places in the Latvian Mesolithic: a case study from the Zvejnieki archaeological complex 255 (Ilga Zagorska)40 DąbrowaBiskupia71:aspecializedcampfromtheMaglemoseculture 261 (Lucyna Domańska and Marcin Wąs)41 Early Holocene landscape dynamics and forager land use diversity: the example of Hoge Vaart-A27 269 (Almere, The Netherlands) (Hans Peeters)42 Mesolithic territories and land-use systems in north-western Belgium 277 (Joris Sergant, Philippe Crombé and Yves Perdaen)43 Mesolithic settlement and land use in the Campine region (Belgium) 282 (Marc De Bie and Marijn Van Gils)44 Upland colonization: patterns of settling and habitation in northern Istria, Croatia (Darko Komšo) 28845 People and their land at the southern margins of the central Po Plain in the Early Mesolithic 296 (Federica Fontana, Maria Giovanna Cremona, Erika Ferrari, Federico Guarisco and Davide Mengoli)46 A view from the edges: the Mesolithic settlement of the interior areas of the Iberian Peninsula 303 reconsidered (Pablo Arias, Enrique Cerrillo-Cuenca, Esteban Álvarez-Fernández, Eloy Gómez-Pellón and Antonio González Cordero)47 RecentdevelopmentsinEarlyHolocenehunter-gatherersubsistenceandsettlement:aviewfrom south-western Iberia (Maria João Valente and António Faustino Carvalho) 31248 Mesolithic people in an open Mediterranean wetland 318 (Andrea L. Balbo , Darko Komšo and Preston T. Miracle)49 Occupation in a submerged Mesolithic landscape (Garry Momber, Julie Satchell and Jan Gillespie) 324

Contentsvi

Regional identities50 Introduction (Graeme Warren) 33351 Flint procurement in the French Alps during the Mesolithic: deciphering economic and cultural 336 territories (Céline Bressy)52 The power of place and regional identity in the British south-western Mesolithic (Clive Jonathon Bond) 34553 Worm’s Head and Caldey Island (south Wales, UK) and the question of Mesolithic territories 354 (Rick Schulting)54 Show me how you make your hunting equipment and I will tell you where you come from: technical 362 traditions,anefficientmeansofcharacterizingculturalidentities (Eva David)55 Being-in-the-(Mesolithic) world: place, substance and person in the Mesolithic of western Scotland 368 (Hannah L. Cobb)56 Man-landscape relations in Varanger, Finnmark, northern Norway (Maria Westrum Solem) 37357 Feast in the forest: creating a common cultural identity in the interior of the Scandinavian Peninsula 378 in the Late Mesolithic (Silje Elisabeth Fretheim)58 Ynys Enlli: shifting horizons 385 (Mark Edmonds, Robert Johnston, Emily La Trobe-Bateman, John Roberts and Graeme Warren)59 Inthemiddle,notinbetween:Svärdbärareninitsregionalcontext (Jenny Holm) 39260 ‘Foreign in origin and local in pattern’: Mesolithic pottery around the Baltic Sea (Fredrik Hallgren) 397

Dwellings61 Introduction (João Zilhão) 40762 Ishomewheretheheartis?ReflectionsaroundEarlyMesolithicsites,exemplifiedwithresultsfrom 409 an excavation on coastal south-western Norway (Astrid J. Nyland)63 Different ways of building, different ways of living: Mesolithic house structures in western Norway 414 (Leif Inge Åstveit)64 Islandsettlementsandmaritimehunter-fishers:spatialandtemporaltransformationsover11,000years 422 at Melkøya, northern Norway (Morten Ramstad)65 Twohousesand186,000artefacts.SpatialorganizationattheLateMesolithicsiteofStrandvägen, 430 Sweden (Tom Carlsson)66 Ålyst: a settlement complex with hut structures from the Early Mesolithic on Bornholm, Denmark 436 (Claudio Casati and Lasse Sørensen)67 Virtual hypothesis: the Maglemosian huts at Ålyst, Bornholm. Preliminary thoughts on the morphology 443 of dwellings on a Maglemosian site (Nicolai Garhøj Larsen)68 Findconcentrationsanddwellingstructures.TheinterpretationofFinalPalaeolithicfindscatters 450 (Frank Gelhausen, Jan F. Kegler and Stefan Wenzel)69 AlongtheshoresoftheAncylusLake.TrädgårdstorpandothercoastalMesolithicsettlementsites 458 during the Late Ancylus period in western Östergötland (Fredrik Molin)70 DwellingsandgravesfromtheLateMesolithicsiteofNivå10,easternDenmark (Ole Lass Jensen) 46571 Dreams and Landscapes: Mesolithic archaeology under water (Ole Grøn) 47372 Thembones:middensitesasadefiningcharacteristicoftheScottishMesolithic (C. R. Wickham-Jones) 47873 South-western regional identities: Birdcombe, Totty Pot and Hawkcombe Head (Paula J. Gardiner) 485

VOLUME II

Transitions74 Introduction (Rick Schulting) 49775 From Magdalenian to Early Neolithic: hunter-gatherers in transition in north-eastern Iberia 500 (Pilar García-Argüelles, Jordi Nadal and Josep M. Fullola)76 The end of the Mesolithic in western France: from taphonomy to the understanding of prehistoric 507 territories (Grégory Marchand)77 New perspectives on the Mesolithic/Neolithic transition in northern Italy (Thomas Perrin) 51478 Seasonal resource scheduling in the Mesolithic and Neolithic of Scotland (Rachel L. Parks) 52179 Thepaleoecologicalandpaleodietarysignificanceofediblelandsnails(Helix sp.) across the 527 Pleistocene-Holocene transition on the eastern Adriatic coast (Mia Rizner, Nikola Vukosavljević and Preston Miracle)80 Hunter-gatherer adaptations during the Pleistocene/Holocene transition in Portugal: data and 533 explanatory models (Ana Cristina Araújo)

Contents vii

81 Lollikhuse, a site from the transitional phase between the Mesolithic and Neolithic in Denmark 541 (Søren A. Sørensen)82 Dąbkirevisited:newevidenceonthequestionofearliestcattleuseinPomerania 548 (J. Kabaciński, D. Heinrich and T. Terberger)83 Huntersandfishersinachangingworld.InvestigationsonsubmergedStoneAgesitesofftheBaltic 556 coast of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany (Harald Lübke)84 The neolithisation of the Belgian lowlands: new evidence from the Scheldt Valley 564 (Philippe Crombé, Joris Sergant and Yves Perdaen)85 Interaction, exchange and imitation. Some short and preliminary notes on the distribution of Breitkeile 570 in Belgium and the Netherlands and its implications for the transition from Mesolithic to Neolithic (Leo B. M. Verhart)86 Confronting important animals (Trond Lødøen) 57687 The phase of transformation in western Norway (Thomas Bruen Olsen) 58388 Transition to farming in western Norway seen as a rapid replacement of landscapes (Asle Bruen Olsen) 589

Ritual in context89 Introduction (Ericka Engelstad) 59990 Caught in the middle: functional and ideological aspects of Mesolithic shores in Norway 602 (Knut Andreas Bergsvik)91 Between the rock and the sea: site location and ritual practise in the Mesolithic in eastern central 610 Sweden (Christina Lindgren)92 Whatgoeswhere?IntrasitestudiesofdepositionsofMaglemosianartandflintpicksofthe 614 Maglemose and Kongemose cultures (Peter Andreas Toft)93 Soul-trips to the underworld? Interpretations of a decorated slate pickaxe from western Sweden 621 (Robert Hernek)94 Prehistory as a continuum in the discussion of continuity and change in Britain, 16,000 to 6000 cal BP 627 (Stella M. Blockley)95 New radiocarbon dates from the Stone Age graves at Dragsholm, Denmark 632 (T. Douglas Price, Erik Brinch Petersen and Michael P. Richards)96 From single graves to cemeteries: an initial look at chronology in Mesolithic burial practice 639 (Christopher Meiklejohn, Erik Brinch Petersen and Jeff Babb)97 Burials in the cave: new evidence on mortuary practices during the Mesolithic of Cantabrian Spain 650 (Pablo Arias, Angel Armendariz, Rodrigo de Balbín, Miguel A. Fano, Juan Fernández-Tresguerres, Manuel R. González Morales, María José Iriarte, Roberto Ontañón, Javier Alcolea, Esteban Álvarez- Fernández, Francisco Etxeberria, María Dolores Garralda, Mary Jackes and Álvaro Arrizabalaga)98 Coping with cadavers: ritual practices in Mesolithic cemeteries (Liv Nilsson Stutz) 65799 Symbols around the body: tooth ornaments from the graves at the Zvejnieki cemeteries, northern Latvia 664 (Lars Larsson)

Understanding the social context100 Introduction (Nyree Finlay) 673101 Dogs and people, an arising relationship: Canis familiaris amongst hunter-gatherer societies in the 675 Iberian Peninsula (Cristina García-Moncó)102 Wood and wild animals: towards an understanding of a Mesolithic world (Steven Price) 683103 Transforming bodies: mortuary practices in Mesolithic Britain (Chantal Conneller) 690104 Fishysettlementpatternsandtheirsocialsignificance:acasestudyfromthenorthernMidlandsof 698 Ireland (Aimée Little)105 A Mesolithic social landscape in south-west Britain: the Somerset Levels and Mendip Hills 706 (Clive Jonathon Bond)106 Sounds like sociality: new research on lithic contexts in Mesolithic Caithness 717 (Steve Mills and Amelia Pannett)107 Theidentificationofchildren’sflintknappingproductsinMesolithicScandinavia 722 (Farina Sternke and Mikkel Sørensen)108 An experimental analysis of perforated shells from the site of Šebrn Abri (Istria), Croatia 730 (Samuel Benghiat, Darko Komšo and Preston T. Miracle)109 From sharing to giving: handling the inequality of things at the end of the Mesolithic (Roger Edenmo) 736

Contentsviii

Understanding Mesolithic technology110 Introduction (Sheila Coulson) 743111 The illustration of Mesolithic artefacts and its contribution to the understanding of Mesolithic 745 technology (Alan Saville)112 From the mountain to the sea: an ethnographic perspective for the Early Mesolithic settlement dynamics 754 in north-eastern Italy (Stefano Grimaldi and Elisabetta Flor)113 Early Mesolithic hunting strategies in the north-eastern Italian Alps: an experimental analysis 760 (Stefano Grimaldi)114 Tools and colour in Mesolithic Scotland (Karen Hardy, Steven Birch and Robert S. Shiel) 766115 ForagersinthealpineRhinevalley.InterpretingtwoMesolithicrocksheltersnearKoblach 772 in Vorarlberg, Austria (Sonja Laus)116 Macrolithic industries of the Portuguese Mesolithic: a human adaptive response 779 (Ana Cristina Araújo, Francisco Almeida and M. João Valente)117 ‘Rulers’ofsouthernSweden:technologicalaspectsofarediscoveredtool(Arne Sjöström and Björn Nilsson) 788118 One problem – many solutions: strategies of lithic raw material procurement in Mesolithic Europe 795 (Laurent-Jacques Costa and Farina Sternke)119 Variability of lithic resource exploitation systems in northern Italy during the early Holocene: the 802 case-studies of Mondeval de Sora (Belluno) and I.N.F.S. (Bologna) (Federica Fontana and Antonio Guerreschi)

Flint alternatives120 Introduction (Kjel S. Å. Knutsson) 811121 Quartz analyses of the Kaaraneskoski site, Lapland (Tuija Rankama) 813122 Ways to interpret quartz (Karl-Fredrik Lindberg) 820123 Percussion events by the shore: a comparative approach to the manufacture and use of quartz in 827 Uppland, Sweden (†Per Falkenström)124 Flint knappers or quartz knappers? The procurement of different types of quartz in south-east Mesolithic 833 Norway (Lotte Eigeland)125 RecentstonetooluseandmaterialcultureoftheWola,PapuaNewGuinea (Karen Hardy) 838126 Petrography and mechanics of the Armorican Massif rocks: the impact on Late Mesolithic industries 845 in western France (Rodrigue Tsobgou Ahoupe)127 Production and use of Mesolithic groundstone axes and adzes in Zealand, Denmark: description, 853 production, distribution and status (Susanne Ritz Nicolaisen)128 Theelusiveflint:rawmaterialsandlithictechnologyintheMesolithicofeasternAsturias,Spain 860 (Pablo Arias, Patricia Fernández, Celia Marcos and Irene Rodríguez) Current research129 ThetransitiontotheHoloceneintheBajoAsónBasin(Cantabria,Spain):anarchaeozoologicalpoint 869 of view (Ana Belén Marín Arroyo)130 Mesolithic human remains from Poza l’Egua and Colomba caves (Asturias, Spain) 871 (Labib Drak and María Dolores Garralda)131 An assessment of our knowledge, the main problems of research, and current investigations with 873 regard to the Mesolithic of Cantabrian Spain (9th–6th millennium cal BC) (Miguel Ángel Fano)132 Hermitage, Ireland: life and death on the western edge of Europe (Tracy Collins) 876133 The Early prehistory in the west of Ireland: investigations into the social archaeology of the 880 Mesolithic, west of the Shannon, Ireland (Killian Driscoll)134 Lake-platforms at Lough Kinale – memory, reach and place: a Discovery Programme Project 882 in the Irish midlands (Christina Fredengren)135 ReconstructingMesolithicpalaeodietusingdentalmicrowearanalysis (T. Rowan McLaughlin) 887136 TheexcavationofLateMesolithicfishtrapremainsfromtheLiffeyestuary,Dublin,Ireland 889 (Melanie McQuade and Lorna O’Donnell)137 LakesidedevelopmentsinCountyMeath,Ireland:aLateMesolithicfishingplatformandpossible 895 mooring at Clowanstown 1 (Matt Mossop)138 The development and historiography of pollen studies in the Mesolithic of the Scottish islands 900 (Kevin J. Edwards)139 Molluscan studies of the Danish Mesolithic-Neolithic shell-midden Krabbesholm II: new information 907 concerning the marine and terrestrial environment (Nina Helt Nielsen)

Consolidated Bibliography 908Index 998

Transitions

84. The neolithisation of the Belgian lowlands: new evidence from the Scheldt Valley

Philippe Crombé, Joris Sergant and Yves Perdaen

Recent salvage excavations in the ß oodplain of the Scheldt River have provided important new evidence concerning the neolithisation process of the sandy lowlands of northern Belgium, situated at the agrarian frontier of the central European loess belt. The data indicate a slow and gradual adaptation of Neolithic elements by indigenous hunter-gatherers during the Þ fth millennium cal BC, starting with local production of pottery and culminating in a radical change shortly before or after 4000 cal BC.

Keywords: Final Mesolithic, Early Neolithic, neolithisation process, acculturation, Scheldt Valley.

IntroductionUntil recently little was known about the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition in the sandy lowlands of northern Belgium. The only evidence was a few highly disturbed dry-land sites (Meeuwen, Dilsen, Weelde, etc.) that yielded a Late Mesolithic lithic industry, small amounts of pottery (Michelberg/Hazendonk tradition) and Neolithic tools (polished axes, arrowheads, large blades in mined ß int, etc.). Based on these largely surface data, several neolithisation models have been elaborated for the sandy area on the agrarian frontier in Belgium. In nearly all models, a long survival of the Late Mesolithic tradition is claimed. According to some of them, Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers in the sandy lowlands persisted almost without any inß uence from the adjacent Neolithic/agrarian groups of the central Belgian loess region, until or after the arrival of the Michelsberg culture (Verhart 2000, 111�5, 231), or even until the start of the Bronze Age (Vermeersch 1990, 100�1). Some (Creemers and Vermeersch 1989) have even proposed a �transhumance� model in which these native hunter-gatherers were employed by Michelsberg farmers during the Þ rst half of the fourth millennium cal BC for herding cattle in the sandy area. They even interpret the Michelsberg enclosures found at numerous locations in central Belgium as possible indications of some kind of tension between both population groups (Vermeersch 1996).

Recently, however, new and more reliable evidence, mainly from wetland sites, sheds a totally new light on this topic. Salvage research between 2000 and 2005 in the Scheldt Valley, in particular in the vicinity of Antwerp harbour, revealed at least three well-preserved wetland sites situated on relatively narrow coversand ridges. All three sites were discovered underneath thick layers of peat and

alluvial clay during construction works along the Deurganck dock at Doel, on the left bank of the Scheldt (Crombé et al. 2000; Bats et al. 2003; Crombé et al. 2004; Crombé 2005). Despite the poor conditions in which the salvage excavations had to be conducted, and considering that the analysis of the Þ nds is still in progress (Crombé 2005), the importance of these discoveries in understanding the neolithisation process of northern Belgium is already evident.

The Deurganck dock sitesThe three sites � site 1 (sector B/C), site 2 (sector J/L) and

Figure 84.1. Location of the three sites/sectors within the Deurganck dock in Antwerp harbour.

The neolithisation of the Belgian lowlands: new evidence from the Scheldt Valley 565

Figure 84.2. Generalised proÞ le of the western foundation trench of the Deurganck dock, marking the sand ridge in sector B (site 1).

Site code Sector Attested period Excavated surface (m²) Excavation period

Site 1 B/C Final Palaeolithic Early Mesolithic Final Mesolithic (Early/Middle) Neolithic

3500 2000

Site 2 J/L Early Mesolithic Final Mesolithic

3300 2003

Site 3 M Early Mesolithic Final Mesolithic

800 2003

Figure 84.3. Overview of the archaeological salvage excav-ations conducted in the Deurganck dock at Doel.

site 3 (sector M) � were found in the western foundation trench of the Deurganck dock at a mean depth of 0.5 to 1m below the actual sea level (Figures 84.1, 84.2 and 84.3). They were covered by c. three to four metres of (peri)marine clay and peat, the latter dating back to the onset of the Þ fth millennium cal BC at its earliest. During the second half of the Þ fth millennium BC peat covering was locally interrupted by inundations of the Scheldt, which resulted in the deposition of organic clayey, brackish water sediments, Late Calais deposits. At the beginning of the fourth millennium cal BC peat formed again until the Roman period, followed by clay sedimentation due to increasing marine inß uence. Detailed analyses have shown that all three sand ridges were already inaccessible for human occupation at the transition from the Þ fth to the fourth millennium cal BC.

On all three sand ridges evidence of different occupation events have been found. All sites yielded evidence of occupations dating back to the Early (Boreal) Mesolithic (c. 8000�7500 cal BC) and Final (Swifterbant) Mesolithic (c. 4500/4550�4000 cal BC). In addition, traces of a Late Glacial (Federmesser culture) and Neolithic (Michelsberg culture) occupation were recovered at site 1. All these remains were unstratiÞ ed and situated in the upper parts of the coversand deposits. The Federmesser artefacts were found dispersed in the upper 0.5m of the soil, while the Mesolithic and Neolithic remains only reached down 10�20cm into the coversand matrix. The latter were mainly situated in a humiferous layer (so-called BruniÞ ed Soil) right below the peat base. It is assumed that initially all archaeological remains were left on the top of the coversand ridges and since then migrated downwards as a result of intense bioturbation. This is corroborated by the presence of numerous fossil galleries of plant roots and animals (beetles, earthworms, etc.) in the top parts of the coversand

deposits. Fortunately in horizontal levels these different occupation events mostly occurred in separated areas so that spatial overlaps are rather limited. Hence it is mostly still possible to separate the remains of the individual occupation phases. Only the Final Mesolithic and Neolithic evidence will be discussed in this paper.

The Final Mesolithic sites

FeaturesOn all three sites the Final Mesolithic (5th millennium cal BC) remains were found exclusively on the top part of the sand ridges, indicating that the dune slopes were at that time most likely already too swampy for occupation. At site 3, for example, the Final Mesolithic occupation was restricted to a narrow strip of c. 15m on the dune top. Structural evidence in the form of features is almost completely lacking, except for one or perhaps two shallow dug-out hearths, Þ lled with a loamy/clayey lens (site 3). Far more numerous are small clusters of burnt artefacts and ecofacts (mainly burnt bone), most likely indicating former surface hearths. On the other hand, the more than 100 deep hearth-pits found on site 1 seem to belong to an older, presumably Late Mesolithic (7th millennium cal BC), activity phase (Crombé et al. 2005a).

Lithic industryThe lithic inventory still displays clear Mesolithic afÞ nities, both technologically and typologically (Figure 84.4). Besides some rather rudimentary ß ake knapping, the production of long parallel and regular blades (Montbani blades), typical of the Late Mesolithic of the seventh and sixth millennia cal BC, persists. Many of these blades are made of Wommersom quartzite, an exotic raw material originating from outcrops in central Belgium (c. 80km away), which was already frequently used in the Late Mesolithic. Clear Mesolithic afÞ nities are also preserved in the tool kit, in particular in the projectiles. The dominant projectile type is the trapeze, which, compared to the Late Mesolithic specimens, is more irregular (symmetric or weakly asymmetric forms) and much smaller. In addition they lack an inverse basal retouch and were no longer made with the microburin technique, typical

Philippe Crombé, Joris Sergant and Yves Perdaen566

Figure 84.4. Selection of lithic tools from the Final Meso-lithic (Swifterbant) level (upper two rows) and Neolithic (Michelsberg) level (lower two rows) at site 1. (Drawings: J. Sergant).

Figure 84.5. Two almost complete Final Mesolithic (Swifter-bant) vessels: upper (site 3), lower (site 1). (Drawings: J. Sergant).

of the Late Mesolithic trapezes. On the other hand, tool types are present which do not occur in Late Mesolithic assemblages, such as splintered pieces (pièces esquillées), i.e. ß akes characterised by hinge and step fractures either unifacial or bifacial along one or more edges, presumably resulting from their use. Comparable tools, albeit slightly larger, are frequently found in Early Neolithic/LBK and Blicquy/Villeneuve-Saint-Germain assemblages (Cahen et al. 1986; Allard 2005).

PotteryWith these lithic artefacts at all three sites substantial amounts of pottery were collected. The pottery presents the same technological and morphological characteristics at all three sites (Figure 84.5). It is mainly tempered with grog and plant material, relatively thick-walled and was Þ red in a reduced atmosphere. Morphologically it is dominated by slightly S-shaped vessels provided with a rounded or pointed base, and to a lesser degree by bowl-shaped vessels. Decoration is very restricted and mostly consists of oblique

incisions or impressions on the rim top (Randkerbung) and round or oval knobs, which are nearly always unperforated. Perforated knobs, series of small perforations underneath the rim as well as series of Þ ngertip impressions, only occur incidentally. Typologically this pottery, in particular the S-shaped vessels with conical bases, presents close similarities with the (Early) Swifterbant pottery typical of the Netherlands (Raemaekers 1999), and to a lesser degree with the pointed-base pottery traditions of the Baltic coast (such as Ertebølle and Narva) (Timofeev 1998; Hallgren 2004). A major difference with the latter is the so far total absence of clay lamps in the Belgian assemblages. On the other hand there are also clear similarities with the pottery from Early/Middle Neolithic cultures, for example with the Grossgartach/Blicquy/Villeneuve-Saint-Germain cultures and the Rössen/Cerny cultures (Crombé et al. 2005b; Crombé, in press). These pottery traditions offer good parallels for the Randkerbung and knob decoration as well as for the morphology of the bowl-shaped vessels. Although some inß uence might have come from northern indigenous pottery traditions, it seems more likely that the basic knowledge of pottery manufacturing was taken over from the above-mentioned southern Neolithic traditions. The Scheldt Valley was probably an important corridor in the diffusion of ideas and technical knowledge.

The neolithisation of the Belgian lowlands: new evidence from the Scheldt Valley 567

Subsistence evidenceBecause the inundation of the site areas (i.e. the dune tops) occurred rather late, only carbonised plant and faunal remains have been preserved. Despite the bias caused by the burning process and extreme fragmentation, it is possible to make a general reconstruction of the subsistence of these Final Mesolithic communities. The picture derived from the analysis of the burnt ecofacts is one of a broad spectrum economy in which hunting (mainly of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus)), Þ shing (almost exclusively of freshwater Þ sh, such as roach (Rutilus rutilus), rudd (Rutilus erythrophthalmus), bream (Abramis brama), etc.), and gathering of wild plants and fruit (hazelnuts (Corylus), wild apples (Malus sylvestris), sloes (Prunus spinosa), oak acorns (Quercus), berries from hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna), etc.) played an important role (Van Neer et al. 2005; Bastiaens et al. 2005). Evidence of domestication is almost completely lacking: on site 1 only a single cereal grain belonging to bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) was found.

Environmental evidenceThe results of pollen, botanical and pedogenetic analyses point to an overall wet environment during the Final Mesolithic occupation (Bastiaens et al. 2005). Apparently the tops of the sand ridges constituted the only dry islands within an overall wet area consisting of a peat fen in the immediate vicinity of the dunes and a perimarine inundated zone further away in the direction of the Scheldt River. The absence of marine or brackish water in the immediate vicinity of the sites is also corroborated by the nearly complete absence of marine Þ sh in the faunal assemblage of site 1. The Þ sh remains rather suggest the presence of a landscape dominated by stagnant or slow running fresh water around the site (Van Neer et al. 2005).

The assemblage of charcoal and charred seeds recovered from the archaeological level on site 1 reveals a picture that relates very well to a modern hardwood riverside woodland, i.e. a deciduous forest with broadleaved trees that give good timber � oak, elm (Ulmus) and ash (Fraxinus). This kind of forest is typical of higher grounds within or bordering a valley of a freshwater river and inundated only a few days a year at most. According to the ecology of present hardwood riverside woodlands, the river stretch could have been within the reach of freshwater tides, while the woodland itself was not. The vegetation is dominated by oak and alder (Alnus), followed by whitebeam (Sorbus aria), ash, dogwood (Cornus sanguinea), hazel and cherry (Prunus). Also remarkable is the high frequency of ivy seeds (Hedera) that seem to occur in clusters in the archaeological level of site 1. Although ivy might have been collected on Þ rewood and subsequently have been charred, the absence of ivy charcoal points towards the fact that the berries of common ivy (Hedera helix) were gathered deliberately and separately, perhaps for medicinal, practical (e.g. dyeing, animal fodder), or ritual purposes.

Dating evidenceUntil now only two sites have been radiocarbon dated (Figure 84.6). Initially the Final Mesolithic occupations were radiocarbon dated on the basis of food crust samples retrieved from the inner surfaces of a series of potsherds (Van Strydonck and Crombé 2005). Five such dates gave ages between c. 4900 and 4600 cal BC, which is at Þ rst sight in agreement with the relative dating based on pottery morphology and decoration (see above). However further dating on other organic samples, such as burnt bone fragments and carbonised seeds, nutshells and charcoal, from the same stratigraphical contexts, led to a re-evaluation of these food crust dates, as the latter seem to be several hundreds of years older than the former. According to the dates on carbonised plant and faunal remains the Final Mesolithic occupation should be dated to the second half of the Þ fth millennium cal BC. Subsequent chemical analyses by O. Craig (2005), using bulk stable (carbon/nitrogen) isotope analysis and gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) has shown that this dating problem is due to the presence of freshwater Þ sh in the dated food crust samples, causing a reservoir effect. The results also indicate that the dated vessels were most probably used to process a mixture of aquatic and terrestrial foodstuffs.

5500CalBC 5000CalBC 4500CalBC 4000CalBC 3500CalBC

Calibrated date

Doel-sector B

food crust dates

KIA-20232 6015±30BP

KIA-12260 5980±35BP

KIA-14339 5835±35BP

Doel-sector B

carbonised plant/bone dates

KIA-17995 5635±30BP

KIA-17996 5595±35BP

KIA-17994 5575±35BP

KIA-17987 5570±30BP

KIA-17997 5550±35BP

KIA-26465 5425±30BP

KIA-17986 5400±30BP

NZA-12076 5220±55BP

Doel-sector J/L

food crust dates

KIA-20207 5900±45BP

KIA-20233 5915±45BP

Atmospheric data from Reimer et al. 2004; OxCal v3.10 Bronk Ramsey 2005; cub r:5 sd: 12 prob usp[chron]

Figure 84.6. Calibrated radiocarbon dates, obtained on different materials, from the Final Mesolithic (Swifterbant) sites 1 (sector B/C) and 2 (sector J/L).

Philippe Crombé, Joris Sergant and Yves Perdaen568

The Neolithic siteSite 1 also yielded evidence of a Neolithic occupation connected with the Michelsberg culture. It is dated by one radiocarbon date at around 4000�3800 cal BC. Compared to the Final Mesolithic assemblages, important differences can be observed in both the lithic and ceramic inventories. New tool types appear (Figure 84.4), such as leaf-shaped and transverse arrowheads, polished axes and broad regular blades, as well as imported high quality ß int, partly originating from the ß int mine sites in the loess area. At the same time, typical Final Mesolithic tools and raw materials (e.g. Wommersom quartzite) seem to have disappeared completely. Important morphological and technological changes also occur in the pottery. The Swifterbant-like pottery is replaced by Michelsberg/Hazendonk 2/3 inspired vessels made of clay tempered with mainly crushed ß int. Unfortunately neither botanical nor faunal remains were preserved at this site.

ConclusionsThe data discussed in this paper clearly contradict the current neolithisation models, as they prove that the cultural habits of indigenous hunter-gatherers in the sandy lowlands of Belgium were already changing during the Þ fth millennium cal BC, albeit slowly and gradually, partly as a result of contact and interaction with agrarian communities living in the adjacent loess area. One of the most important changes was in the local production of pottery, a technique most probably taken over from Neolithic neighbours around the middle of the Þ fth millennium cal BC at its latest (Crombé, in press). As far as can be deduced from the scant subsistence data, the indigenous economy did not undergo major changes during the Þ fth millennium cal BC. The single cereal grain found at site 1 is not sufÞ cient evidence for claiming local agriculture, particularly in light of the Neolithic component at the site.

In addition it is very questionable whether the site environment was suitable for agriculture, given the wet conditions and the limited size of the available dry land. Arable Þ elds might have been situated in nearby locations outside the peat fen, but these have not yet been located. However, it is questionable whether the pottery-producing hunter-gatherers of the Þ fth millennium cal BC also occupied the dry coversand area of northern Belgium. So far there is no clear evidence which points in that direction. According to some scholars (Raemaekers 1999), the absence so far of Swifterbant sites in the dry coversand landscape might be a result of taphonomic factors, such as the poor preservation of weakly Þ red pottery in acid coversands, or the absence of diagnostic lithic artefacts within the ß int industry of the Swifterbant culture. The latter, however, is not valid, because the Belgian sites that are discussed in this paper yielded typical small trapezes that differ considerably from Late Mesolithic ones. An important argument against an intense occupation and exploitation of the dry coversand area during the second half of the Þ fth millennium cal BC is the observed trend towards a decreasing number of sites

from the middle of the eighth millennium cal BC, combined with a concentration along major river valleys. Compared to the Early Mesolithic there is much less evidence for inland occupation and exploitation during the Middle and Late Mesolithic. This pattern has been observed quite convincingly in the north-western part of Belgium (the area of Sandy Flanders), and could be related to major environmental and/or social changes (Crombé et al., in press). In the Campine area a similar shift in site location pattern was observed and could be linked with climatic and hydrological changes during the Early Holocene period. Rivers only became reliable water sources from the Boreal period onwards (Vanacker et al. 2001).

Another possibility regarding the origin of the bread wheat is that it was obtained through exchange with contemporaneous Neolithic farming communities further upstream of the Scheldt. Agro-pastoral groups belonging to the Epi-Rössen and Michelsberg cultures were already present from 4300 cal BC in the loamy upland as far as the border with the coversand area. Interaction between both communities must have been at least temporarily possible between c. 4300 and 4000 cal BC (Crombé and Vanmontfort 2007).

The most radical changes must have occurred near the end of the Þ fth, or the start of the fourth millennium cal BC, presumably due to the increased inß uence from, or colonisation by, the Michelsberg culture. Shortly before or after 4000 cal BC major changes occurred in the material culture, resulting in a total and presumably deÞ nitive disappearance of Mesolithic traces. It is surprising to note that similar changes took place with remarkable synchronicity in other north-western European countries, for example in southern Scandinavia (Fischer 2002), and northern Germany (Hartz et al. 2002; Hartz and Lübke 2005).

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