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Cateran TrailMen's Retreat

ContentsArticles

Pilgrimage 1Kirkmichael 9Spittal of Glenshee 11Blairgowrie and Rattray 13Masculinity 19

ReferencesArticle Sources and Contributors 27Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 28

Article LicensesLicense 29

Pilgrimage 1

PilgrimageA pilgrimage is a journey or search of great moral or spiritual significance. Typically, it is a journey to a shrine orother location of importance to a person's beliefs and faith. Many religions attach spiritual importance to particularplaces: the place of birth or death of founders or saints, or to the place of their "calling" or spiritual awakening, or oftheir connection (visual or verbal) with the divine, or to locations where miracles were performed or witnessed, orlocations where a deity is said to live or be "housed," or any site that is seen to have special spiritual powers. Suchsites may be commemorated with shrines or temples that devotees are encouraged to visit for their own spiritualbenefit: to be healed or have questions answered or to achieve some other spiritual benefit. A person who makessuch a journey is called a pilgrim. In America, the term pilgrim is typically associated with an early colonialProtestant sect known for their strict rules of discipline.The Holy Land acts as a focal point for the pilgrimages of the Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, andIslam. According to a Stockholm University study in 2011, these pilgrims visit the Holy Land to touch and seephysical manifestations of their faith, confirm their beliefs in the holy context with collective excitation, and connectpersonally to the Holy Land.[1]

In the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, the visitation of certain ancient cult-centers was repressed in the 7th centuryBCE, when worship was restricted to the YHWH at the Temple in Jerusalem. In Syria, the shrine of Astarte at theheadwater spring of the river Adonis survived until it was destroyed by order of Emperor Constantine in the 4thcentury.In mainland Greece, a stream of individuals made their way to Delphi or the oracle of Zeus at Dodona, and onceevery four years, at the period of the Olympic games, the temple of Zeus at Olympia formed the goal of swarms ofpilgrims from every part of the Hellenic world. When Alexander the Great reached Egypt, he put his whole vastenterprise on hold, while he made his way with a small band deep into the Libyan desert, to consult the oracle ofAmmun. During the imperium of his Ptolemaic heirs, the shrine of Isis at Philae received many votive inscriptionsfrom Greeks on behalf of their kindred far away at home.As a common human experience, pilgrimage has been proposed as a Jungian archetype by Wallace Clift and JeanDalby Clift.[2]

Pilgrimage centres

AntiquityMany ancient religions had sacred sites, temples, oracles and sacred groves to which pilgrimages were made.

Bahá'í FaithBahá'u'lláh decreed pilgrimage to two places in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas: the House of Bahá'u'lláh in Baghdad, Iraq, andthe House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran. Later, `Abdu'l-Bahá designated the Shrine of Bahá'u'lláh at Bahji, Israel as asite of pilgrimage.[3]

Bahá'í pilgrimage consists of visiting the holy places in Haifa, Acre, and Bahjí at the Bahá'í World Centre innorthwest Israel, and Bahá'ís can apply to join an organized nine-day pilgrimage where they are taken to visit thevarious holy sites, or attend a shorter three-day pilgrimage.[3]

Pilgrimage 2

Buddhism

Ancient excavated Buddha-image at the Mahaparinirvana Temple,Kushinagar.

Tibetans on a pilgrimage to Lhasa, doing full-body prostrations, often for theentire length of the journey.

There are four places that Buddhists makepilgrimage to:• Lumbini: Buddha's birth place (in Nepal)• Bodh Gaya: place of Enlightenment• Sarnath: where he delivered his first teaching• Kusinara: (now Kusinagar, India) where he

attained mahaparinirvana (died).

Other pilgrimage places in India and Nepalconnected to the life of Gautama Buddha are:Savatthi, Pataliputta, Nalanda, Gaya, Vesali,Sankasia, Kapilavastu, Kosambi, Rajagaha,Varanasi.

Other famous places for Buddhist pilgrimageinclude:• India: Sanchi, Ellora, Ajanta.• Thailand: Sukhothai, Ayutthaya, Wat Phra

Kaew, Wat Doi Suthep.• Tibet: Lhasa (traditional home of the Dalai

Lama), Mount Kailash, Lake Nam-tso.• Cambodia: Angkor Wat, Silver Pagoda.• Sri Lanka: Polonnaruwa, Temple of the

Tooth (Kandy), Anuradhapura.• Laos: Luang Prabang.• Myanmar: Bagan, Sagaing Hill.• Nepal: Bodhnath, Swayambhunath.• Indonesia: Borobudur.• China: Yung-kang, Lung-men caves. The Four Sacred Mountains• Japan: Kansai Kannon Pilgrimage, Chūgoku 33 Kannon Pilgrimage, Shikoku Pilgrimage, Mount Kōya.

Pilgrimage 3

Christianity

Orthodox pilgrim in Kiev Pechersk Lavra, Ukraine.

Christian pilgrimage was first made to sites connected with thebirth, life, crucifixion and resurrection of Jesus. Survivingdescriptions of Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land date fromthe 4th century, when pilgrimage was encouraged by churchfathers like Saint Jerome and established by Helena, the mother ofConstantine the Great. Pilgrimages also began to be made to Romeand other sites associated with the Apostles, saints and Christianmartyrs, as well as to places where there have been apparitions ofthe Virgin Mary. Chaucer's The Canterbury Tales recounts thetales told by pilgrims on their way to Canterbury and the shrine ofSaint Thomas Becket

Hinduism

Bathing ghat on the Ganges during Kumbh Mela, Haridwar

Pilgrimage to Kedarnath

According to Karel Werner's PopularDictionary of Hinduism, "[m]ost Hinduplaces of pilgrimage are associated withlegendary events from the lives ofvarious gods.... Almost any place canbecome a focus for pilgrimage, but inmost cases they are sacred cities, rivers,lakes, and mountains."[4] Hindus areencouraged to undertake pilgrimagesduring their lifetime, though thispractice is not considered absolutelymandatory.[5] Most Hindus visit siteswithin their region or locale.

Kumbh Mela: Kumbh Mela is thelargest pilgrimage recorded inhistory.[6][7][8] Kumbh Mela is alsocredited with the largest gathering ofhumans in the entire world. Thelocation is rotated among Allahabad,Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain.

Char Dham (Famous FourPilgrimage sites): The four holy sitesPuri, Rameswaram, Dwarka, andBadrinath (or alternatively the

Pilgrimage 4

Himalayan towns of Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri) compose the Char Dham (four abodes)pilgrimage circuit.Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi, Allahabad formerly known as Prayag,Haridwar-Rishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, and Ayodhya.Major Temple cities: Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and Rath Yatra celebration; Katra,home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recent temples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi,home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala - Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala,whereSwami Ayyappan is worshipped.Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, where the Mother Goddess isworshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.Following is a comprehensive list of Pilgrimage sites:•• Allahabad•• Amarnath•• Arunachala•• Ayodhya•• Bhavani, Erode•• Benares•• Chidambaram•• Chitrakuta•• Dakshineshwar•• Dharmasthala•• Kedarnath•• Kumbh Mela•• Ganga Talao•• Gaya•• Guruvayoor•• Hampi•• Haridwar•• Kalahasti•• Kanchipuram•• Kanyakumari•• Kateel•• Kollur•• Kumbakonam•• Kukke Subramanya•• Kunrakudy•• Madurai•• Mahabalipuram•• Maihar•• Marudamalai•• Mathura•• Mandher Devi temple in Mandhradevi•• Mayapur•• Mount Kailash•• Nashik•• Nathdwara

Pilgrimage 5

•• Palani•• Pazhamudircholai•• Pandharpur•• Gangotri•• Pushkar•• Puttaparthi•• Yamunotri•• Rishikesh•• Sabarimala•• Shakumbhri Devi•• Shirdi•• Sikkal•• Sivagiri, Kerala•• Somnath•• Sringeri•• Srirangam•• Swamimalai•• Swamithope•• Talapady•• Tanjavur•• Thiruchendur•• Tiruchirappalli•• Thiruparamkunram•• Thiruthani•• Thiruvannamalai•• Tirupati•• Ujjain•• Udupi•• Malai Mandir•• Vaishno Devi•• Vayalur•• Vindhyachal•• Viralimalai•• Virpur•• Vrindavan•• Badrinath•• Dwarka•• Puri•• RameshwaramThe last four sites in the list together comprise the Chardham, or four holy pilgrimage destinations. It wastraditionally believed that one who undertakes a pilgrimage to all four sites will attain moksha, the release fromsamsara (cycle of rebirths), at the time of death. The holy places of pilgrimage for the Shaktism sect of Hinduism arethe Shakti peethas (Temples of Shakti).

Pilgrimage 6

Islam

Muslim Pilgrims circumambulating the Kaabaduring the Hajj

Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al-Haram, Mecca, Saudi Arabia

The pilgrimage to Mecca (the Hajj) is one of the FivePillars of Islam. It should be attempted at least once in thelifetime of all able-bodied Muslims who can afford to doso.[9] It is the most important of all Muslim pilgrimages,and is the largest pilgrimage for Muslims.[10]

Another important place for Muslims is the city ofMedina, the second holiest place in Islam, in SaudiArabia, where Muhammad rests in Al-Masjid al-Nabawi(the Mosque of the Prophet).

The ihram (white robes of pilgrimage) is meant to showequality of all pilgrims in the eyes of Allah: that there isno difference between a prince and a pauper. Ihram isalso symbolic for holy virtue and pardon from all pastsins.

While wearing the ihram in Mecca, a pilgrim may notshave, clip their nails, wear perfume, swear or quarrel,hunt, kill any creature, uproot or damage plants, cover thehead for men or the face and hands for women, marry,wear shoes over the ankles, perform any dishonest acts orcarry weapons. If they do any of these their pilgrimage isinvalid .

Judaism

The Wailing Wall is all that remains of the Western wall of the Temple inJerusalem.

The Temple in Jerusalem was the center of theJewish religion, until its destruction in 70 CE,and all adult men who were able were requiredto visit and offer sacrifices (korbanot),particularly during Passover, Shavuot andSukkot.

Following the destruction of the Second Templeand the onset of the diaspora, the centrality ofpilgrimage to Jerusalem in Judaism wasdiscontinued. In its place came prayers andrituals hoping for a return to Zion and theaccompanying restoration of regularpilgrimages.

Until recent centuries, pilgrimage had been afairly difficult and arduous adventure. But now,Jews from many countries make periodic pilgrimages to the holy sites of their religion.

Pilgrimage 7

The western retaining wall of the original temple, known as the Wailing Wall, or Western Wall remains in the OldCity of Jerusalem and this has been the most sacred site for religious Jews. Pilgrimage to this area was off-limitsfrom 1948 to 1967, when East Jerusalem was controlled by Jordan.There are numerous lesser Jewish pilgrimage sites, mainly tombs of tzadikim, throughout the Land of Israel and allover the world, including: Hebron; Bethlehem; Mt. Meron; Netivot; Uman, Ukraine; Silistra, Bulgaria; Damanhur,Egypt; and many others.[11]

Sikhism

A Sikh pilgrim at Harmandir Sahib (the Golden Temple) in Amritsar

The Sikh religion does not place greatimportance on pilgrimage. Guru Nanak Devwas asked "Should I go and bathe at pilgrimageplaces?" and replied: "God's name is the realpilgrimage place which consists ofcontemplation of the word of God, and thecultivation of inner knowledge."

Eventually, however, Amritsar and HarmandirSaheb (the Golden Temple) became the centreof the Sikh faith, and if a Sikh goes onpilgrimage it is usually to this place consideredthe spiritual and cultural centre of Sikhs ratherthan a pilgrimage.[12]

Zoroastrianism

The Zoroastrians take pilgrimage trips in India to the eight Atash Behrams in India and one in Yazd.

Meher BabaThe main pilgrimage sites associated with the spiritual teacher Meher Baba are Meherabad, India, where Babacompleted the "major portion"[13] of his work and where his tomb is now located, and Meherazad, India, where Babaresided later in his life.

Secular pilgrimageIn modern usage, the terms pilgrim and pilgrimage have developed in sense to include sites of secular importance.For example, fans of Elvis Presley may choose to visit his home, Graceland, in Memphis, Tennessee. Visits to warmemorials such as the Vietnam Veterans Memorial are often seen as pilgrimages. Similarly one may refer to acultural center such as Venice as a "tourist Mecca." Historic preservation groups sometimes refer to house andgarden tours of antebellum homes as Fall or Spring Pilgrimage. Tickets to these tours are sold to raise funds forpreservation activities.

Pilgrimage 8

Paris CommuneThe Père Lachaise Cemetery, where the defenders of the Paris Commune made their last stand and many of themwere afterwards summarily executed, is the focus of annual pilgrimages by parties and organizations of the FrenchLeft.

CommunismIn a number of Communist countries, secular pilgrimages were established as an "antidote" to religious pilgrimages,the most famous of which are:• USSR: Mausoleum of Lenin in Red Square, Moscow• PRC: Mausoleum of Mao Zedong in Tiananmen Square, Beijing• Germany: Birthplace of Karl Marx, Trier

FascismThe mausoleum of Italian Dictator Benito Mussolini in Predappio, Italy serves as a pilgrimage site for ItalianNeo-Fascists. In post-World War II Germany, considerable efforts were made to prevent Hitler's bunker in Berlinfrom becoming a similar place of pilgrimage for Neo-Nazis.

Notes[1] Metti, Michael Sebastian (2011-06-01). "Jerusalem - the most powerful brand in history" (http:/ / www. metti-bronner. com/ Jerusalem. pdf).

Stockholm University School of Business. . Retrieved 01July 2011.[2] Clift, Jean Dalby; Clift, Wallace (1996). The Archetype of Pilgrimage: Outer Action With Inner Meaning. The Paulist Press.

ISBN 0-8091-3599-X..[3] Smith, Peter (2000). "Pilgrimage". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 269. ISBN

1-85168-184-1.[4] Werner, Karel (1994). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Curzon Press. ISBN 0700710493.[5] Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs - Hinduism (http:/ / berkleycenter. georgetown. edu/ resources/ traditions/ hinduism)

See drop-down essay on "Hindu Practices"[6] Digitaljournal.com (http:/ / www. digitaljournal. com/ article/ 84149)[7] Washingtonpost.com (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ article/ 2007/ 01/ 15/ AR2007011500041. html)[8] News.bbc.co.uk (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6226895. stm)[9] Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs - Islam (http:/ / berkleycenter. georgetown. edu/ resources/ traditions/ islam) See

drop-down essay on "Islamic Practices"[10] Colin Wilson (1996). Atlas of Holy Places & Sacred Sites. DK Adult. p. 29. ISBN 978-0789410511.[11] See David M. Gitlitz and Linda Kay Davidson, Pilgrimage and the Jews (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2006) for history and data on several

pilgrimages to both Ashkenazi and Sephardic holy sites.[12] Re-xs.ucsm.ac.uk (http:/ / re-xs. ucsm. ac. uk/ re/ pilgrimage/ sikhism. htm)[13] Deshmukh, Indumati (1961). "Address in Marathi." The Awakener 7 (3): 29.

Further reading• al-Naqar, Umar. 1972. The Pilgrimage Tradition in West Africa. Khartoum: Khartoum University Press. [includes

a map 'African Pilgrimage Routes to Mecca, ca. 1300-1900']• Coleman, Simon and John Elsner (1995), Pilgrimage: Past and Present in the World Religions. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press.• Coleman, Simon & John Eade (eds) (2005), Reframing Pilgrimage. Cultures in Motion. London: Routledge.• Davidson, Linda Kay and David M. Gitlitz (2002), Pilgrimage: From the Ganges to Graceland: An

Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, Ca.: ABC-CLIO.• Gitlitz, David M. and Linda Kay Davidson (2006). Pilgrimage and the Jews. Westport, CT: Praeger.• Jackowski, Antoni. 1998. Pielgrzymowanie [Pilgrimage]. Wroclaw: Wydawnictwo Dolnoslaskie.

Pilgrimage 9

• Kerschbaum & Gattinger, Via Francigena - DVD- Documentation, of a modern pilgrimage to Rome, ISBN3200005009, Verlag EUROVIA, Vienna 2005

• Margry, Peter Jan (ed.) (2008), Shrines and Pilgrimage in the Modern World. New Itineraries into the Sacred.Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press.

• Sumption, Jonathan. 2002. Pilgrimage: An Image of Mediaeval Religion. London: Faber and Faber Ltd.• Wolfe, Michael (ed.). 1997. One Thousands Roads to Mecca. New York: Grove Press.• Zarnecki, George (1985), The Monastic World: The Contributions of The Orders. pp. 36–66, in Evans, Joan (ed.).

1985. The Flowering of the Middle Ages. London: Thames and Hudson Ltd.

KirkmichaelKirkmichael (Gaelic: Cille Mhìcheil [1])is a village in South Ayrshire, Scotland, located between Patna, Mayboleand Straiton. Kirkmichael means "The Church of St. Michael".

The villageKirkmichael lies three miles east of Maybole and started life as the focus of a well populated rural parish served byits church. Today it is a strikingly attractive, largely white harled small village set amid the rolling hills of SouthAyrshire. It is a ten mile drive south of central Ayr.Its origins date back to the 13th century when John de Gemmelstoun founded a church beside the Dyrock Burn here,which he dedicated to St. Michael. For much of its early life the village was called Kirkmichael of Gemilston, afterits founder, but the name was eventually simplified.The village church dates back to 1787 and is a fairly typical T-plan design intended to provide a large number ofseats within a fairly small space, all exposed to the full force of the preacher's oratory.The surrounding churchyard reflects its much greater age, though the attractive lich gate leading to it only dates backto 1702, according to the inscription on its bell. The lich gate was intended to accommodate mourners at funerals.Kirkmichael focuses on two intersecting streets, largely occupied by white cottages built for hand-weavers in the1790s. The most unusual building is the red stone McCosh Hall in Patna Road. This serves as the village hall and in1898 was gifted to the village by James McCosh, President of Princeton University, whose family came from thispart of Ayrshire. At the junction of Patna Road and Straiton Road lies the white-painted Kirkmichael Arms, a longone-storey village inn.It has a pub, a restaurant and one post office.

Guitar festivalPossibly the most surprising facet of modern Kirkmichael was its role as the venue as the Kirkmichael InternationalGuitar Festival. From 1999 until 2005 (except 2004 when the event was not held) for 3 days in May, Kirkmichaelbecame Scotland's guitar village and played host to thousands of music lovers from around the world. They cametogether for a weekend catering to all musical tastes from folk to flamenco and jazz to rock and roll.

IndustryThe mining industry that dominated much of South Ayrshire left Kirkmichael unscathed. The same cannot be saidfor many of those employed in the industry, and it is a mark of the village's attractive location and environment thatin the early 20th century the large Kirkmichael House, to the south of the village, was converted into a miners'welfare home, while another was opened near Cloncaird Castle to the south east. Both closed in the 1950s.

Kirkmichael 10

References[1] http:/ / www. linguae-celticae. org/ dateien/ Gaidhlig_Local_Studies_Vol_21_January_2005-a. pdf

External links• Kirkmichael Village Website (http:/ / www. maybole. org/ community/ kirkmichael/ kirkmichael. htm)• Kirkmichael International Guitar Festival (http:/ / www. p3music. com/ kmgf/ frameset. html)• grid reference NS343089

Spittal of Glenshee 11

Spittal of Glenshee

Spittal of Glenshee

Spittal of Glenshee

 Spittal of Glenshee shown within Perth and Kinross

OS grid reference NO110701

Council area Perth and Kinross

Lieutenancy area Perth and Kinross

Country Scotland

Sovereign state United Kingdom

Post town BLAIRGOWRIE

Postcode district PH10Dialling code 01250

Police Tayside

Fire Tayside

Ambulance Scottish

EU Parliament Scotland

UK Parliament Perth and North Perthshire

Scottish Parliament PerthMid Scotland and Fife

Looking north to the Cairnwell Pass, Spittal ofGlenshee is in the foreground.

The Spittal of Glenshee lies at the head of Glenshee in the highlandsof eastern Perth and Kinross, Scotland where the confluence of manysmall streams flowing south out of the Grampians form the SheeWater. For centuries, there has been a hostel or inn at the site and, inmodern times, the small village has become a centre for travel, tourismand winter sports in the region, sited at a bend on the A93 trunk roadwhich leads from Blairgowrie north past the Spittal to the Glenshee SkiCentre and on to Braemar.

Inhabitation in the Neolithic period is indicated by a Megalithicstanding stone[1] behind the old kirk, and the Four Poster stone circle

on a nearby mound.[2]

Spittal of Glenshee 12

Standing stone at Spittal of Glenshee

When interest in ski mountaineering revived after the First World Warand the Scottish Ski Club was resuscitated in 1929, they restartedweekly snow reports with reporters appointed at Lix Toll near Killin,Dalwhinnie, Braemar and the Spittal of Glenshee. The Dundee SkiClub used the Spittal Hotel as its meeting place, and pioneeredimprovements, setting up the first ski tows in Britain at Glenshee inDecember 1950. The hotel burnt down in 1959, but Spittal of Glensheehas continued to provide accommodation near to the slopes.[3]

The village also provides a stopping place on the Cateran Trailwaymarked long distance footpath which provides a 64 mile (103km)

circuit in the glens of Perthshire and Angus.[4]

References[1] The Megalithic Portal and Megalith Map: Spittal Of Glenshee Standing Stone (Menhir) (http:/ / www. megalithic. co. uk/ article.

php?sid=1271)[2] Spittal Of Glenshee -Four Poster stone circle (http:/ / www. megalithics. com/ scotland/ spittalg/ spitmain. htm)[3] Simpson, Myrtle (1982). Skisters. Carrbridge, Inverness-shire: Landmark Press. ISBN 0-9503440-1-X.[4] Cateran Trail Feature Page on Undiscovered Scotland (http:/ / www. undiscoveredscotland. co. uk/ uswalks/ caterantrail/ index. html)

Blairgowrie and Rattray 13

Blairgowrie and Rattray

BlairgowrieScottish Gaelic: Blàr Ghobhraidh

Scots: Blairgowrie

Blairgowrie town centre

Blairgowrie

 Blairgowrie shown within Perth and Kinross

Population Expression error: "7,965" must be numericTemplate:Infobox UK place/trap[1] (2001census)est. 8,090[2] (2006)

OS grid reference NO178452

Council area Perth and Kinross

Lieutenancy area Perth and Kinross

Country Scotland

Sovereign state United Kingdom

Post town BLAIRGOWRIE

Postcode district PH10Dialling code 01250

Police Tayside

Fire Tayside

Ambulance Scottish

EU Parliament Scotland

UK Parliament Perth and North Perthshire

Scottish Parliament PerthMid Scotland and Fife

Blairgowrie and Rattray 14

Blairgowrie and Rattray is a twin burgh in Perth and Kinross, Scotland.

Entrance to Wellmeadow

Amongst locals, the town is colloquially known simply as "Blair".Blairgowrie is the larger of the two former burghs which were unitedby an Act of Parliament in 1228 and lies on the south-west side of theRiver Ericht while Rattray is on the north-east side. Rattray claims tobe the older and certainly Old Rattray, the area round Rattray Kirk,dates back to the 12th century. New Rattray, the area along the BoatBrae and Balmoral Road dates from 1777 when the River was spannedby the Brig o' Blair. The town lies on the north side of Strathmore atthe foot of the Grampian Mountains. The west boundary is formed bythe Knockie, a round grassy hill which is a popular walk and CraighallGorge on the Ericht. Blairgowrie & Rattray developed over the

centuries at the crossroads of several important historic routes with links from the town to Perth, Coupar Angus,Alyth and Braemar. The roads to Coupar Angus and Braemar form part of General Wade's military road from Perthto Fort George. The town's main feature and centrepiece is the Wellmeadow, a grassy triangle in the middle of townwhich hosts regular markets and outdoor entertainment. Other parks include Rattray's Davie Park, Blairgowrie's J JCoupar Sports Ground and Lochy Park.

The nameThe name Blairgowrie is from Scottish Gaelic, in which language it is spelt Blàr Ghobharaidh[3][4][5][6] or BlàrGhobhraidh[7]. The name Rattray is Raitear in Gaelic, and may derive from an English language cognate of Gaelicràth meaning "fortress" plus a Pictish term cognate with Welsh tref meaning "settlement".

History

Early history

The Cleaven Dyke

The area around Blairgowrie has been occupied continuously since theNeolithic, as evidenced from the Cleaven Dyke, a cursus monument 2miles SSW of the town,[8] as well as a Neolithic long mortuaryenclosure 4 miles WSW at Inchtuthil.[9] Several stone circles of thisage can also be found in the area, notably the circle bisected by theroad at Leys of Marlee, 1 mile to the west of Blairgowrie.[10]

Numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age artifacts have been found in theimmediate area, including a number of flint arrowheads, spearheads,knives and scrapers found at Carsie, half a mile to the south ofBlairgowrie, and which are now displayed at Perth Museum,[11] and

bronze axes,[12] and a bronze sword now in Kelvingrove Museum, Glasgow.[13]

The remains of a remarkable Roman legionary fort can be found 4 miles WSW of Blairgowrie at Inchtuthil, datingfrom the decade 80-90. Unencumbered by subsequent development, this is considered to be one of the mostimportant archaeological sites in Britain.[14]

Blairgowrie and Rattray 15

Pictish sculptured stones at Meigle Museum

Pictish remains are in abundance in this part of Scotland and one of thelargest collections of Pictish sculptured stones is housed 5 miles to theEast of the town at the Meigle Sculptured Stone Museum. The size ofthe collection, all of which were found in Meigle, suggests this was anecclesiastical centre of some importance in the 8th to 10th centuries.[15]

Modern History

From around 1600 to the turn of the 19th century, Blairgowrie had afairly stable population, recorded at 425 inhabitants at in the firstStatistical Account in 1792. in the second Statistical Account of 1853?notes a disproportionate increase due to an influx of families attracted by the expanding textiles industry[16] Gaelicwas declining but still partially spoken in the upper part of the parish at that time, with all speaking English.

Blairgowrie was made a barony in favour of George Drummond of Blair in 1634 by a royal charter of Charles I, andbecame a free burgh in 1809.The town expanded hugely in the 19th century thanks to the employment provided by the many textile mills whichwere built along the River Ericht, all now closed. By 1870 there were 12 mills along the river employing nearly 2000men and women and the population had increaed from 400 in the 1700s to 4000. Some of the disused mill buildingscan be seen from the riverside walk west from the bridge and from Haugh Road to the east . Keithbank Mill has beenconverted to apartments.Soft fruit growing, mainly raspberries and strawberries developed in the 20th century and became a very importantpart of the town's economy with Smedleys opening a cannery in Haugh Road, Adamsons a jam factory in Croft Laneand huge quantities of table berries and pulp being despatched to markets and jam factories throughout Britain. Berrypickers were brought in by bus from Perth and Dundee, and large encampments were set up on farms for pickersfrom further afield, mainly from the Glasgow area, who made this their annual holiday. They were joined by thetravelling community who congregated here for the berry season. One of the best examples was the Tin City atEssendy, which housed workers in a complex of tin huts with its own chapel, post office, shop, kitchens, etc.The coming of the railway revolutionised the textile and soft fruit trade, but the last train ran in the 1960s, and theextensive railway yards are now the site of the Tesco supermarket and Welton Road industrial estate.Blairgowrie had a busy livestock market at the bottom of the Boat Brae but this closed in the 1960s and is now thesite of the Ashgrove Court sheltered housing complex.

Rattray church.

A short distance upstream from the bridge on the riverside path is Cargill'sLeap, a historic site where Donald Cargill, a minister and covenanter,escaped Government troops by jumping over the rocky gorge of the RiverEricht.

Just outside the Rattray boundary on the A93 is Craighall Castle, theancestral home of the chieftain of the Clan Rattray. The castle occupies adominating position on the edge of the gorge above the river butunfortunately is no longer occupied by a Rattray, having been sold in 2010.

Newton Castle, home to the current chieftain of the Clan Macpherson, SirWilliam Macpherson, and Ardblair Castle, home to the Blair Oliphant family, both have Jacobite history andaccording to legend are connected by a secret tunnel.

Blairgowrie and Rattray 16

EconomyMuch of the expanding population works in the nearby cities of Dundee and Perth. The surrounding area is still thesoft fruit centre of Scotland, and the local population increases greatly in summer when Eastern European studentsflock in to harvest the fruit, mainly raspberries and strawberries. Like the Scottish pickers of old, they are housed incamps on the farms, but these now tend to be residential caravans or cabins rather than huts and tents.Locally based companies include Proctors of Blairgowrie who manufacture and supply insulation, Davidson theChemists who have a network of retail chemist shops throughout North East Scotland as well as an agricultural andveterinary business, Croles Coachworks, Blairs Laundry, Gordons Caterers, Stagecoach Strathtay buses, TaysideContracts, PM Forest and Field Engineering, Graham Environmental, and CO-AN Supplies.The main supermarket is Tesco, supplemented by a Co-Operative store which incorporates the Post Office. The mainshopping streets are High Street, Allan Street, and the Wellmeadow where there are chain stores and independentshops. Balmoral Garage are Ford agents, and Norman Laing are Peugeot. There are several repair garages.Tourism is probably now the biggest industry, and there are three hotels, the Angus, the Royal, and the Altamount.There are another nine inns and pubs.The local weekly newspaper is the Blairgowrie Advertiser, known universally as "the Blairie", which is nowproduced and printed in Perth by Scottish Universal Newspapers. The old print works in Reform Street were takenover by Hamilton Scott who carried on for many years as a commercial printer, but they are now mothballed.There are regular Saturday outdoor markets in the Wellmeadow with stalls offering local produce and occasionalContinental Markets with traders from all over Europe.

Bridge over the River Ericht, joining Blairgowrie and Rattray

Education

The new Blairgowrie Campus opened inElm Drive in 2009 incorporating NewhillPrimary and St Stephens RC Primary.Newhill primary holds about 360 childrenwhile St Stephens RC primary is a smallerunit holding about 70 pupils. Rattray Primary serves children on that side of the river. Blairgowrie High School inBeeches Road provides secondary education for all round the area.

Public transportStagecoach Strathtay provide all the bus services to and from Blairgowrie with routes to Perth, Dundee, Alyth,Coupar Angus, Dunkeld, Aberfeldy, Kirkmichael and Glenshee as well as a circular town service. The bus station isopposite the Wellmeadow. The nearest railway station is Perth and the nearest airport is Dundee.

CultureIn 1996, Blairgowrie hosted the Royal National Mod.[17]

SportFootballBlairgowrie and Rattray is home to the Scottish Junior Football East Region Premier League side Blairgowrie F.C.as well as the Scottish Amateur Football Association sides Rattray A.F.C [18] and Balmoral United A.F.C. [19] whichplay in the Perthshire Amateur League [20].

Blairgowrie and Rattray 17

Golf Blairgowrie Golf Club was founded in 1889 and has been expanded over the years with much of the design byJames Braid. There are now two 18 hole courses, Rosemount and Lansdowne, and a 9-hole course. The substantialclubhouse is on Golf Course Road.SkiingThe Glenshee Ski Centre in Glenshee (Glenshee or Gleann Shith which translates from Gaelic as Glen of theFairies), is some 18 miles to the north at the Cairnwell Pass on the A93 Braemar road which is the highest publicroad in the UK.Ski-ing started here in the 1930s and in 1957 the Dundee Ski Club built the first T-bar tow. In the 1960s theGlenshee Chairlift Company was formed to make the most of the new leisure facility at Cairnwell. During the "glorydays " of the 1970s and 80s the car and coach parks would be full to capacity and lift queues would run into hours.The Glenshee Chairlift Co Ltd was forced into receivership in May 2004 by lack of snow over many winters but amanagement buyout by Glenshee Ltd and the return of good snow ensured that ski-ing and snowboarding continue atScotland's biggest ski area which now has 21 lifts spread over 4 mountains and 3 valleys.RattrayThe traditional ball game of Rattray no longer takes place, but the Rattray silver ball which was the trophy retainedby the winners is still in existence. It is believed to have been donated by Sylvester Rattray of Nether Persie whobecame minister of Rattray in 1591 and continued there until his death in 1623.[21] The Rattray silver ball is nowkept at Perth Museum and Art Gallery.[22]

Highland Games Blairgowrie Highland Games are held annually on the first Sunday of September in Bogles Fieldon Essendy Road. It is noted for its Hill Race and its mass tug o'war where as many contestants as possible fromBlairgowrie and Rattray compete against each other.The evening before is known as Braemar Night with entertainment in the Wellmeadow and fireworks along the river.This tradition started in the 1960s to encourage travellers returning from Braemar Highland Games (held on theSaturday) to stop in the town and quickly grew into a huge programme of entertainments, pipe bands, fireworks,funfairs etc. which drew tens of thousands not only returning south from Braemar but on special excursions fromPerth and Dundee. The current event is somewhat scaled down but extremely popular with locals.Recreation Centre The council funded recreation centre in Beeches Road was rebranded Live Active Blairgowrie in2009, but it is still referred to by locals as The Rec. Irrespective of its name this excellent facility provides trainingand sports facilities and a swimming pool and is ever popular.

Medical FacilitiesBlairgowrie Community Hospital sits on Perth Road and is a GP-led unit offering a Minor Injury and IllnessEmergency Unit, palliative care and step-down care. There are two GP surgeries, Ardblair in Ann St and Strathmorein Jessie St, and a large dental practice in the High St.

Twin cities• Pleasanton, California, USA• Fergus, Ontario, Canada

Blairgowrie and Rattray 18

References[1] "Comparative Population Profile: Blairgowrie Locality" (http:/ / www. scrol. gov. uk/ scrol/ browser/ profile. jsp?profile=Population&

mainArea=blairgowrie& mainLevel=Locality). Scotland's Census Results Online. 2001-04-29. . Retrieved 2008-08-31.[2] http:/ / www. gro-scotland. gov. uk/ statistics/ publications-and-data[3] Iain Mac an Tàilleir. "Placenames" (http:/ / www. scottish. parliament. uk/ Gaelic/ placenamesA-B. pdf) (PDF). Scottish Parliament. .

Retrieved 28 November 2011.[4] "Blàr Ghobharaidh - Fiosrachadh Meòire" (http:/ / www. acgmod. org/ branches/ detail/ blairgowrie/ ga). An Comunn Gàidhealach. .

Retrieved 28 November 2011.[5] "I'm No Comin Oot the Noo (and 379 others)" (http:/ / www. tobarandualchais. co. uk/ gd/ fullrecord/ 42617/ 3). Tobar an Dualchais. .

Retrieved 28 November 2011.[6] "Am Mòd Nàiseanta - Ionadan gach bliadhna" (http:/ / www. smo. uhi. ac. uk/ gaidhlig/ mod/ ). Sabhal Mòr Ostaig. . Retrieved 28 November

2011.[7] "Database" (http:/ / www. gaelicplacenames. org/ databaseresult. php?redirect=true& keyword=blairgowrie& lang=en). Ainmean Àite na

h-Alba. . Retrieved 28 November 2011.[8] Barclay, G; Maxwell, G.S. (1998), The Cleaven Dyke and Littleour: monuments in the Neolithic of Tayside (http:/ / books. google. com/

books?id=HzvHNKNZSOoC& printsec=frontcover#v=onepage& q=& f=false), Society of Antiquaries of Scotland Monograph Series, KingsStanley, Gloucestershire: Past Historic, , retrieved 2009-12-02

[9] Barclay, G.J.; Maxwell, G.S. and Mills, C. (2002). "Excavation of a Neolithic long mortuary enclosure within the Roman legionary fortress atInchtuthil, Perthshire" (http:/ / ads. ahds. ac. uk/ catalogue/ adsdata/ PSAS_2002/ pdf/ vol_121/ 121_027_044. pdf). Proceedings of the Societyof Antiquaries of Scotland 121: 27–44. . Retrieved 2009-12-03.

[10] Coles, F.R. (1909). "Report on stone circles surveyed in Perthshire (Southeast district), with measured plans and drawings obtained underthe Gunning fellowship" (http:/ / ads. ahds. ac. uk/ catalogue/ adsdata/ arch-352-1/ dissemination/ pdf/ vol_043/ 43_093_130. pdf).Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 43: 93–130. . Retrieved 2009-12-02.

[11] Canmore database, Carsie (http:/ / www. rcahms. gov. uk/ pls/ portal/ newcanmore. newcandig_details_gis?inumlink=28880), RoyalCommission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland, , retrieved 2009-12-03

[12] Cowie, T; Reid, A. (1986). "Some recent finds of Bronze-Age metalwork from Perthshire" (http:/ / ads. ahds. ac. uk/ catalogue/ adsdata/PSAS_2002/ pdf/ vol_116/ 116_069_088. pdf). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 116: 69–88. . Retrieved 2009-12-02.

[13] Coles, J.M. (1959). "Scottish Late Bronze Age Metalwork: Typology, Distributions and Chronology." (http:/ / ads. ahds. ac. uk/ catalogue/adsdata/ PSAS_2002/ pdf/ vol_093/ 93_016_134. pdf). Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 93: 16–134. . Retrieved2009-12-02.

[14] Breeze, D.J. (2002), Roman Forts in Britain (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=3INnKGkjZE8C& pg=PA40&dq=inchtuthil#v=onepage& q=inchtuthil& f=false) (2 ed.), Princes Risborough, Buckinghamshire: Shire Publications, , retrieved 2009-12-03

[15] Ritchie, A (1989), Picts: An Introduction to the Life of the Picts and the Carved Stones in the Care of the Secretary of State for Scotland,Edinburgh: HMSO Publications

[16] McDonald, R. (1843), "Parish of Blairgowrie" (http:/ / books. google. co. uk/ books?id=5u41AAAAMAAJ& pg=PA1197& dq=statistical+account+ scotland+ blairgowrie#v=snippet& q=blairgowrie& f=false), The new statistical account of Scotland 10: pp. 897–933, , retrieved2009-12-03

[17] "Mod News: Royal Seal of Approval" (http:/ / www. acgmod. org/ nationalmod/ moddetail/ royal-seal-of-approval). 1 Oct 2010. . Retrieved21 Sep 2011.

[18] http:/ / www. rattrayafc. co. uk/[19] http:/ / www. webteams. co. uk/ Home. aspx?team=balmoralunitedafc[20] http:/ / www. freewebs. com/ perthshireamateurs/ index. htm[21] Perthshire Diary - The Rattray silver ball - January 30th 1623 (http:/ / www. perthshirediary. com/ html/ day0130. html)[22] Silver ball of Rattray (http:/ / www. rls. org. uk/ database/ record. php?usi=000-000-496-719-C& searchdb=scran)

External links• Blairgowrie & Rattray Community Website (http:/ / www. blairgowrieandrattray. com/ )• Blairgowrie, Rattray & East Perthshire Tourist and Visitor (http:/ / www. heartofscotland. com/ )• Blairgowrie & East Perthshire Tourist Association Website (http:/ / www. visiteastperthshire. co. uk/ )• Blairgowrie & Rattray Community Council Information Guide (http:/ / www. brcommunitycouncil. org. uk/ )• Blairgowrie & Rattray Photo Gallery (http:/ / www. barryged. co. uk/ )

Masculinity 19

Masculinity

In Greek mythology, Heracles is synonymouswith Apollonian masculinity.

Masculinity is possessing qualities or characteristics consideredtypical of or appropriate to a man. The term can be used to describeany human, animal or object that has the quality of being masculine.When masculine is used to describe men, it can have degrees ofcomparison—more masculine, most masculine. The opposite can beexpressed by terms such as unmanly or epicene.[1] A typicalnear-synonym of masculinity is virility (from Latin vir, man);[1] andthe usual complement is femininity.[1]

Literature review

Ancient

Cicero wrote that "a man's chief quality is courage."[2]

Ancient literature goes back to about 3000 BC. It includes both explicitstatements of what was expected of men in laws, and implicitsuggestions about masculinity in myths involving gods and heroes. In1000 BCE, The Hebrew Bible states King David of Israel told his son "Be strong, and be a man" upon David's death.Men throughout history have gone to meet exacting cultural standards of what is considered attractive. Kate Cooper,writing about ancient understandings of femininity, suggests that, "Wherever a woman is mentioned a man'scharacter is being judged – and along with it what he stands for."[3] One well-known representative of this literatureis the Code of Hammurabi (from about 1750 BC).

•• Rule 3: "If any one bring an accusation of any crime before the elders, and does not prove what he has charged, heshall, if it be a capital offense charged, be put to death."

• Rule 128: "If a man takes a woman to wife, but has no intercourse with her, this woman is no wife to him."[4]

Scholars suggest integrity and equality as masculine values in male-male relationships,[5] and virility in male-femalerelationships. Legends of ancient heroes include: The Epic of Gilgamesh, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Such narrativesare considered to reveal qualities in the hero that inspired respect, like wisdom or courage, the knowing of things thatother men do not know and the taking of risks that other men would not dare.

Masculinity 20

MedievalJeffrey Richards describes a European, "medieval masculinity which was essentially Christian and chivalric."[6]

Again ethics, courage and generosity are seen as characteristic of the portrayal of men (=niela) in literary history.Anglo Saxon Beowulf, Hengest and Horsa are famous examples of medieval ideals of masculinity.

Masculine physical attributes

During the first half of the twentieth century, menwere often associated with images of

industrialization

Some researchers argue that a large number of women are arousedmostly by broad chins and shoulders and high cheekbones, thoughthere are cultural differences in those preferences, and arousal may be aindication of socialized notions of attractiveness. Other researchsuggests that women unconsciously recognize a sculpted physique asindicative of "masculine" discipline, focus and self-control.

Biology and culture

Direct competition of physical skill and strength is afeature of masculinity which appears in some form in

virtually every culture on Earth. Here, two U.S.Marines compete in a wrestling match.

Some gender studies scholars will use the phrase "hegemonicmasculinity" to refer to an ideal of male behavior which men arestrongly encouraged to aim, which is calculated to guarantee thedominant position of some men over others.

Western trends

According to a paper submitted by Tracy Tylka to the AmericanPsychological Association (APA), in contemporary America:"Instead of seeing a decrease in objectification of women insociety, there has just been an increase in the objectification ofboth sexes. And you can see that in the media today." Men andwomen restrict their food intake in an effort to achieve what theyconsider an attractively thin body, in extreme cases leading toeating disorders.[7] Thomas Holbrook, also a psychiatrist, cites a

recent Canadian study indicating as many as one in six of those with eating disorders were men.[8]

"Younger men and women who read fitness and fashion magazines could be psychologically harmed by the images of perfect female and male physiques," according to recent research in the United Kingdom. Some young women

Masculinity 21

and men exercise excessively in an effort to achieve what they consider an attractively fit and muscular body, whichin extreme cases can lead to body dysmorphic disorder or muscle dysmorphia.[9][10][11]

Although the actual stereotypes may have remained relatively constant, the value attached to the masculine andfeminine stereotypes have changed over the past few decades.Those associated with recent work in the study of masculinity from a philosophical perspective view masculinity asan unstable phenomenon and never ultimately achieved.[12]

Masculinity in declineThere has been a recent uptick of books,[13][14][15] articles and research studies documenting an endocrinological (orhormone) decline in the general male population. Recent analysis shows average testosterone levels receding in menof all ages.[16] In addition, average sperm quality, quantity and even testicle size has seen a marked reduction.[17]

Although many theories are presented to why this is happening, from endocrine disruptors, to evolutionarybiology,[18] researchers ultimately concede the reason is still unknown.

Development

A construction worker.

A great deal is now known about the development of masculinecharacteristics and the process of sexual differentiation specific to thereproductive system of Homo sapiens. The SRY gene on the Ychromosome interferes with the process of creating a female, causing achain of events that leads to testes formation, androgen production, anda range of both natal and post-natal hormonal effects. There is anextensive debate about how children develop gender identities.

In many cultures, displaying characteristics not typical to one's gendermay become a social problem for the individual. Within sociology suchlabeling and conditioning is known as gender assumptions, and is apart of socialization to better match a culture's mores. Among men,some non-standard behaviors may be considered a sign ofhomosexuality, which frequently runs contrary to cultural notions ofmasculinity. When sexuality is defined in terms of object choice, as inearly sexology studies, male homosexuality is interpreted as"feminine" sexuality. The corresponding social condemnation ofexcessive masculinity may be expressed in terms such as machismo or testosterone poisoning.

The relative importance of the roles of socialization and genetics in the development of masculinity continues to bedebated. While social conditioning obviously plays a role, some hold that certain aspects of the feminine andmasculine identity exist in almost all human cultures, though this has not been thoroughly substantiated.The historical development of gender role is addressed by such fields as behavioral genetics, evolutionarypsychology, human ecology, anthropology and sociology. All human cultures seem to encourage the development ofgender roles, through literature, costume and song. Some examples of this might include the epics of Homer,Hengest and Horsa tales in English, the normative commentaries of Confucius. More specialized treatments ofmasculinity may be found in works such as the Bhagavad Gita or bushidō's Hagakure.Another term for a masculine woman is butch, which is associated with lesbianism. Butch is also used within thelesbian community, without a negative connotation, but with a more specific meaning (Davis and LapovskyKennedy, 1989).

Masculinity 22

Downside and failure of conceptIt is a subject of debate whether masculinity concepts followed historically should still be applied. Researchers suchas Care International have argued that there is a harmful downside due to considerations such as the following:• The relationship between masculinity and gender-based violence[19]

• The disempowerment and impoverishment of women and the persistence of gender inequalities through men’sviolence[19]

• The loss of men's dignity and self-esteem when they are taught to behave violentlyThe images of boys and young men presented in the media may lead to the persistence of harmful concepts ofmasculinity. Men's rights activists argue that the media does not pay serious attention to men's rights issues and thatmen are often portrayed in a negative light, particularly in advertising.[20]

Pressures associatedIn 1987, Eisler and Skidmore did studies on masculinity and created the idea of 'masculine stress'. They found fourmechanisms of masculinity that accompany masculine gender role often result in emotional stress. They include:•• The emphasis on prevailing in situations requiring body and fitness•• Being perceived as emotional•• The need to feel adequate in regard to sexual matters and financial statusBecause of social norms and pressures associated with masculinity, Men with spinal cord injuries have to adapt theirself identity to the losses associated with SCI which may “lead to feelings of decreased physical and sexual prowesswith lowered self-esteem and a loss of male identity. Feelings of guilt and overall loss of control are alsoexperienced.”[21]

Masculinity is something that some fear is becoming increasingly challenged, especially in the last century, with theemergence of Women's rights and the development of the role of women in society. In recent years many 'Man Laws'and similar masculinist manifestos have been published, as a way for men to re-affirm their masculinity. A popularexample is the Miller Lite Man Laws, and other various sites on the internet offering rules such as: "15. A real mandoes not need instruction manuals." [22] Although many of these rules are offered in a humorous fashion, theyattempt to define masculinity, and indicate that proper gender is taught and performed rather than intuited.

Risk-takingThe driver crash rate per vehicle miles driven is higher for women than for men; although, men are much more likelyto cause deaths in the accidents they are involved in.[23] Men drive significantly more miles than women, so, onaverage, they are more likely to be involved in motor vehicle accidents. Even in the narrow category of young(16-20) driver fatalities with a high blood alcohol content (BAC), a male's risk of dying is higher than a female's riskat the Same BAC level.[24] That is, young women drivers need to be more drunk to have the same risk of dying in afatal accident as young men drivers.Men are three times more likely to die in all kinds of accidents than women. In the United States, men make up 92%of workplace deaths, indicating either a greater willingness to perform dangerous work, a societal expectation toperform this work, or that women are not hired for this work.[25]

Health careA growing body of evidence is pointing toward the deleterious impact of masculinity (and hegemonic masculinity in particular) on men's health help-seeking behaviour.[26] American men make 134.5 million fewer physician visits than American women each year. In fact, men make only 40.8% of all physician visits, that is, if women's visits for pregnancy are included, childbirth and associated obstetrical and gynecological visits. A quarter of the men who are 45 to 60 do not have a personal physician. Many men should go to annual heart checkups with physicians but do not,

Masculinity 23

increasing their risk of death from heart disease. Men between the ages of 25 and 65 are four times more likely to diefrom cardiovascular disease than women. Men are more likely to be diagnosed in a later stage of a terminal illnessbecause of their reluctance to go to the doctor.Reasons men give for not having annual physicals and not visiting their physician include fear, denial,embarrassment, a dislike of situations out of their control, or not worth the time or cost.

Media encouragement

According to Arran Stibbe (2004), men's health problems and behaviors can be linked to the socialized gender roleof men in our culture. In exploring magazines, he found that they promote traditional masculinity and claims that,among other things, men's magazines tend to celebrate "male" activities and behavior such as admiring guns, fastcars, sexually libertine women, and reading or viewing pornography regularly. In men's magazines, several "ideal"images of men are promoted, and that these images may even entail certain health risks.

Alcohol consumption behavior

Research on beer commercials by Strate (Postman, Nystrom, Strate, And Weingartner 1987; Strate 1989, 1990) andby Wenner (1991) show some results relevant to studies of masculinity. In beer commercials, the ideas ofmasculinity (especially risk-taking) are presented and encouraged. The commercials often focus on situations wherea man is overcoming an obstacle in a group. The men will either be working hard or playing hard. For instance thecommercial will show men who do physical labor such as construction workers, or farm work, or men who arecowboys. Beer commercials that involve playing hard have a central theme of mastery (over nature or over eachother), risk, and adventure. For instance, the men will be outdoors fishing, camping, playing sports, or hanging out inbars. There is usually an element of danger as well as a focus on movement and speed. This appeals to andemphasizes the idea that real men overcome danger and enjoy speed (i.e. fast cars/driving fast). The bar serves as asetting for the measurement of masculinity (skills like pool, strength and drinking ability) and serves as a center formale socializing.

Traditional Masculinity

Father with his son

Traditional avenues for men to gain honor were that ofproviding adequately for their families and exercisingleadership.[27] The traditional family structure consistedof the father as the bread-winner and the mother as thehomemaker. During World War II, women entered theworkforce in droves to replace the soldiers who were sentoverseas. While some returned home to resume theirpositions as homemakers if their husbands survived thewar, and others remained in the workplace. Over thedecades since, women have risen to high political andcorporate positions. This shift has caused an increase inwomen becoming the primary income-earners and men

the primary care-givers[27] --a process author Jeremy Adam Smith calls "the daddy shift" in his 2009 book of thattitle.[28] As of 2007, 159,000 dads were primary care-givers and this number is increasing.[29] Dubbed stay-at-homedads, these men are performing duties in the home which are not being done by women. Regardless of age ornationality, men more frequently rank good health, harmonious family life and good relationships with their spouseor partner as important to their quality of life.[30]

Masculinity 24

Footnotes[1] Roget’s II: The New Thesaurus, 3rd. ed., Houghton Mifflin, 1995.[2] "Viri autem propria maxime est fortitudo." Cicero, Tusculanae Quaestiones, 1:11:18.[3] Kate Cooper, The Virgin and The Bride: Idealized Womanhood in Late Antiquity, (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=QVvn8vUMZdIC&

pg=PA19& lpg=PA19& dq="wherever+ a+ woman+ is+ mentioned+ a+ man's+ character+ is+ being+ judged"& source=web&ots=lYAXvJa29I& sig=LvrybebcK9gPm4PaJWe5934jD5Y) (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1996), p. 19.

[4] The Code of Hammurabi (http:/ / www. wsu. edu/ ~dee/ MESO/ CODE. HTM), translated by LW King, 1910.[5] Karen Bassi, ['Acting like Men: Gender, Drama, and Nostalgia in Ancient Greece', Classical Philology 96 (2001): 86-92.][6] Jeffrey Richards, 'From Christianity to Paganism: The New Middle Ages and the Values of ‘Medieval’ Masculinity,' (http:/ / www.

ingentaconnect. com/ content/ bpl/ cuva/ 1999/ 00000003/ 00000002/ art00057) Cultural Values 3 (1999): 213-234.[7] Pressure To Be More Muscular May Lead Men To Unhealthy Behaviors (http:/ / researchnews. osu. edu/ archive/ maleobj. htm)[8] Goode, Erica (2000-06-25). "Thinner: The Male Battle With Anorexia" (http:/ / query. nytimes. com/ gst/ fullpage. html?sec=health&

res=9F02EED7133EF936A15755C0A9669C8B63). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2010-05-12.[9] "Magazines 'harm male body image'" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ health/ 7318411. stm). BBC News. 2008-03-28. . Retrieved

2010-05-12.[10] Muscle dysmorphia – AskMen.com (http:/ / www. askmen. com/ sports/ bodybuilding/ 56_fitness_tip. html)[11] Men Muscle in on Body Image Problems | LiveScience (http:/ / www. livescience. com/ health/ 060815_bodyimage_men. html)[12][12] Reeser, T. Masculinities in Theory, Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.[13] Cross, Gary. Men to Boys: The Making of Modern Immaturity (http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Men-Boys-Making-Modern-Immaturity/ dp/

023114430X). .[14] Sax, Leonard (2007). Boys Adrift: The Five Factors Driving the Growing Epidemic of Unmotivated Boys and Underachieving Young Men

(http:/ / www. amazon. com/ Boys-Adrift-Epidemic-Unmotivated-Underachieving/ dp/ 0465072097). .[15] Whitmire, Richard. Why Boys Fail: Saving Our Sons from an Educational System That's Leaving Them Behind (http:/ / www. amazon. com/

Why-Boys-Fail-Educational-Leaving/ dp/ 0814415342/ ref=pd_sim_b_4). .[16] Travison, T. Araujo, A., O’Donnell, A. Kupelian, V. and McKinlay, J. (2007). "A Population-Level Decline in Serum Testosterone Levels in

American Men" (http:/ / jcem. endojournals. org/ content/ 92/ 1/ 196. abstract). The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 92 (1):196–202. doi:10.1210/jc.2006-1375. .

[17] Dindyal, S. (2007). "The sperm count has been decreasing steadily for many years in Western industrialised countries: Is there an endocrinebasis for this decrease?" (http:/ / www. ispub. com/ ostia/ index. php?xmlFilePath=journals/ iju/ vol2n1/ sperm. xml). The Internet Journal ofUrology 2 (1): 1–21. .

[18] Rogers (Nov. 2010.). "The dramatic decline of the modern man" (http:/ / www. salon. com/ books/ feature/ 2010/ 11/ 14/manthropology_interview). Salon. .

[19][19] UNIFEM GENDER FACT SHEET No.5[20] Farrell, W. & Sterba, J. P. (2008) Does Feminism Discriminate Against Men: A Debate (Point and Counterpoint), New York: Oxford

University Press.[21][21] Hutchinson, Susan L "Heroic masculinity following spinal cord injury: Implications for therapeutic recreation practice and research".

Therapeutic Recreation Journal. FindArticles.com. 07 Apr, 2009[22] "List of Man Law Rules/Rules for Men" (http:/ / www. fuckingmanly. com/ man-rules). Fucking Manly. . Retrieved 2009-08-20.[23] Johns Hopkins School Of Public Health (1998, June 18). Women Not Neccessarily Better Drivers Than Men. (http:/ / www. sciencedaily.

com/ releases/ 1998/ 06/ 980618032130. htm) ScienceDaily.[24] Crash Data and Rates for Age-Sex Groups of Drivers, 1996 (http:/ / www-nrd. nhtsa. dot. gov/ Pubs/ 98. 010. PDF), Ezio C. Cerrelli,

January 1998, National Center for Statistics & Analysis - Research & Development[25] CFOI Charts, 1992–2006 (http:/ / www. bls. gov/ iif/ oshwc/ cfoi/ cfch0005. pdf)[26] Galdas P.M., Cheater F. & Marshall P. (2005) Men and health help-seeking behaviour: Literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 49,

616-23[27] George, A., “Reinventing honorable masculinity” Men and Masculinities[28][28] Smith, Jeremy Adam. The Daddy Shift. Boston: Beacon Press, 2009.[29] Stay-at-Home Dads (http:/ / careerplanning. about. com/ cs/ altoptgenl/ a/ stay_home_dads. htm), By Dawn Rosenberg McKay, About.com

Guide[30] Men defy stereotypes in defining masculinity (http:/ / www. tricitypsychology. com/ blog/ men-defy-stereotypes-in-defining-masculinity/ ),

August 26, 2008, Tri-City Psychology Services

Masculinity 25

References• Levine, Martin P. (1998). Gay Macho. New York: New York University Press. ISBN 0-8147-4694-2.• Stibbe, Arran. (2004). "Health and the Social Construction of Masculinity in Men's Health Magazine." Men and

Masculinities; 7 (1) July, pp. 31–51.• Strate, Lance "Beer Commercials: A Manual on Masculinity" Men's Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner,

Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001

Further reading

Present situation•• Arrindell, Willem A., Ph.D. (1 October 2005) "Masculine Gender Role Stress" Psychiatric Times Pg. 31•• Ashe, Fidelma (2007) The New Politics of Masculinity, London and New York: Routledge.• Broom A. and Tovey P. (Eds) Men’s Health: Body, Identity and Social Context London; John Wiley and Sons

Inc.• Burstin, Fay "What's Killing Men". Herald Sun (Melbourne, Australia). October 15, 2005.•• Canada, Geoffrey "Learning to Fight" Men's Lives Kimmel, Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and

Bacon. Boston, London: 2001• Raewyn Connell: Masculinities (as Robert W. Connell), Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995 ISBN 0-7456-1469-8• Courtenay, Will "Constructions of masculinity and their influence on men's well-being: a theory of gender and

health" Social Science and Medicine, yr: 2000 vol: 50 iss: 10 pg: 1385–1401• bell hooks, We Real Cool: Black Men and Masculinity, Taylor & Francis 2004, ISBN 0415969271• Galdas P.M. and Cheater F.M. (2010) Indian and Pakistani men’s accounts of seeking medical help for angina and

myocardial infarction in the UK: Constructions of marginalised masculinity or another version of hegemonicmasculinity? Qualitative Research in Psychology

• Levant & Pollack (1995) A New Psychology of Men, New York: BasicBooks• Juergensmeyer, Mark (2005): Why guys throw bombs. About terror and masculinity (pdf) (http:/ / web. fu-berlin.

de/ gpo/ pdf/ juergensmeyer/ juergensmeyer_e. pdf)•• Kaufman, Michael "The Construction of Masculinity and the Triad of Men's Violence". Men's Lives Kimmel,

Michael S. and Messner, Michael A. ed. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, London: 2001• Mansfield, Harvey. Manliness. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. ISBN 0300106645• Reeser, T. Masculinities in Theory, Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010.•• Robinson, L. (October 21, 2005). Not just boys being boys: Brutal hazings are a product of a culture of

masculinity defined by violence, aggression and domination. Ottawa Citizen (Ottawa, Ontario).• Stephenson, June (1995). Men are Not Cost Effective: Male Crime in America. ISBN 0-06-095098-6•• Walsh, Fintan. Male Trouble: Masculinity and the Performance of Crisis. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave

Macmillan, 2010.• Williamson P. "Their own worst enemy" Nursing Times: 91 (48) 29 November 95 p 24–7• Wray Herbert "Survival Skills" U.S. News & World Report Vol. 139, No. 11; Pg. 63 September 26, 2005• "Masculinity for Boys"; published by UNESCO, New Delhi, 2006; (http:/ / unesdoc. unesco. org/ images/ 0014/

001465/ 146514e. pdf)•• Smith, Bonnie G., Hutchison, Beth. Gendering Disability. Rutgers University Press, 2004.

Masculinity 26

History• Michael Kimmel, Manhood in America, New York [etc.]: The Free Press 1996•• A Question of Manhood: A Reader in U.S. Black Mens History and Masculinity, edited by Earnestine Jenkins and

Darlene Clark Hine, Indiana University press vol1: 1999, vol. 2: 2001•• Gary Taylor, Castration: An Abbreviated History of Western Manhood, Routledge 2002• Klaus Theweleit, Male fantasies, Minneapolis : University of Minnesota Press, 1987 and Polity Press, 1987• Peter N. Stearns, Be a Man!: Males in Modern Society, Holmes & Meier Publishers, 1990•• Shuttleworth, Russell. "Disabled Masculinity." Gendering Disability. Ed. Bonnie G. Smith and Beth Hutchison.

Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey, 2004. 166-178.

External linksBibliographic

• The Men's Bibliography (http:/ / mensbiblio. xyonline. net/ ), a comprehensive bibliography of writing on men,masculinities, gender and sexualities, listing over 16,700 works. (mainly from a constructionist perspective)

• Boyhood Studies (http:/ / www. boyhoodstudies. com), features a 2200+ bibliography of young masculinities.Other

• Practical Manliness (http:/ / www. practicalmanliness. com), A manly blog that applies "historical ideals tomodern men".

• The ManKind Project of Chicago (http:/ / www. mkpchicago. org), supporting men in leading meaningful lives ofintegrity, accountability, responsibility, and emotional intelligence

• NIMH web pages on men and depression (http:/ / menanddepression. nimh. nih. gov/ ), talks about men and theirdepression and how to get help.

• Article entitled "Wounded Masculinity: Parsifal and The Fisher King Wound" (http:/ / howellgroup. org/ parsifal.html) The symbolism of the story as it relates to the Wounded Masculinity of Men by Richard Sanderson M.Ed.,B.A.

• BULL (http:/ / www. bullmensfiction. com), Print and online literary journal specializing in masculine fiction fora male audience.

• Art of Manliness (http:/ / www. artofmanliness. com), An online web magazine/blog dedicated to "reviving thelost art of manliness".

• The Masculinity Conspiracy (http:/ / masculinityconspiracy. com), An online book critiquing constructions ofmasculinity.

Article Sources and Contributors 27

Article Sources and ContributorsPilgrimage  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=479142569  Contributors: -lulu-, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, 5-HT8, ABF, AVand, AWCBoris, Abecedare, Adam Bishop,Adam.J.W.C., Adderabbi, AdjustShift, Ahoerstemeier, AjitPD, Alansohn, Alekjds, Alexandre-Jérôme, Alfalfahotshots, Aliceinlampyland, Americanization, Anchitk, Andre Engels, Andrejj,Andrewpmk, Anthony.cee, Appleseed, Aquarius Rising, Art LaPella, Arthena, Ashishseo, Atomsx, Attilios, Auntof6, Aureliusmagnus, BD2412, Babbage, Babette gallard, Bakhsm0a, Bbatsell,Begoon, Bentogoa, Bhadani, Binlardin, Bluemask, Bobo192, BokicaK, Boolyme, Branson03, Brianga, Buddhipriya, C.Logan, CDThieme, CQJ, Calliopejen1, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,CanadianLinuxUser, Canthusus, Cantiorix, Capricorn42, Captain-n00dle, CardinalDan, Catholiccga, Ccfcboy, Cgingold, CharlesDexterWard, Chezhiyan, Chirag, Chodorkovskiy, Choster, ChrisStrolia-Davis, Christopher Parham, ClockworkLunch, Conversion script, CoolGuy, Coppertwig, Cornwallis38, Corwen, Courcelles, Crazycomputers, Cunado19, Cyprus2k1, D.brodale, DaGizza,Darwinek, DavidSpencer.ca, Dayaanjali, Dbfirs, Dfrg.msc, Dgitlitz, Diderot, Difu Wu, Discospinster, Dodo78, Don Sowell, Doprendek, DoriSmith, Dougofborg, Dr CJHowell, Dr mindbender,Dreftymac, Drewrau, Dsouzamarshall, Dws, Dycedarg, Dysepsion, Edgarneo, Editor2020, Edward, El C, ElinorD, Elmomanlover, Elmondo21st, Emufarmers, Eoghanacht, Fahadeng,Fantasticchris, Faradayplank, Figaro, Firien, Fishal, FlamesBlaze, Flamingspinach, Forestgraph, Foxj, Francs2000, Frederick prussia, GEAO, Gafia, Gerald Farinas, Ghirlandajo, Gilliam, GogoDodo, Goodnightmush, Grafen, Grahamhopgood, Greenback, Gscshoyru, Guoguo12, Gurch, Hajor, HalfShadow, Halibutt, Hectorian, Hede2000, Hemanshu, Hertz1888, HinduPundit, Hmains,Hu12, Husond, Huszarpet, IZAK, Icuc2, Imc, Infrogmation, Irishguy, IronGargoyle, Iulius, Iwanttoeditthissh, Ixfd64, JASpencer, JNW, JaGa, Jackaranga, Jacofin, Jagged 85, Jamesofur,Jauerback, Javert, Jbruce, Jdavidb, Jeff3000, Jeronimo, JesseW, Jim1138, Jjbananaboy, Jjron, Jmh649, JodyB, Johnbod, Jonathunder, Jorgenpfhartogs, Julian Mendez, Juliancolton, Juman.Aj,Just zis Guy, you know?, KHomstad, KIDB, Karimarie, Kbthompson, Keeves, Kelisi, Ken Gallager, Kevinjwright, Klausness, KnowledgeOfSelf, Koavf, KoshVorlon, Koveras, Kukini, Kyle sb,Lappon, Larry Rosenfeld, Laurapalumbo, Lear's Fool, Lindert, Liveangel93, Longhairandabeard, Lotje, Luci Sandor, MARussellPESE, Magioladitis, Mahmudmasri, Man vyi, Mandarax, Mani1,Manika, Mankar Camoran, MarcoLittel, Mark83, MartinHarper, Matt-rex, Mattis, Mattisse, Max Naylor, Mckaysalisbury, Melsaran, Mentalhead, Michael Gäbler, Michael Hardy,MichaelTinkler, MikeLeeds, Mikeo, MishaPan, Mo0, Mono, Mpatel, Mps, Mtking, Mxn, Nagig, Nathanael Bar-Aur L., Navidazizi, NawlinWiki, Netscott, Newandold, Niceguyedc, NickelShoe,Nis abbas, Nlu, Nobleeagle, Nof20, Nomadic Whitt, NotMuchToSay, Novalamatrix, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Nurg, Ojigiri, Olivier, Orphic, Oulal, Panairjdde, Patgibbs1, Patrick, Patrickneil,Patstuart, Patsw, Pauli133, Pavithrapl, PeeJee, Penalba2000, Persian Poet Gal, Philip Trueman, Philippe, Piano non troppo, Pinecar, Pinethicket, Pip2andahalf, Pishaww, PrestonH, Pricejb, PsalmTours, Psonar, Ptolemy Caesarion, Puchiko, R.123, RDF, RMHED, Rainbowjeremy, Rajaramraok, Ramdas214, RazorICE, Regan123, Regancy42, Regression Tester, Reinthal, Rettetast, RichFarmbrough, Rich257, Richardprins, Rjwilmsi, Rmaria2005, Roomie, RovingLibrarian, SDC, Sacca, Samin096, Samogitia, Sandstein, Sapovadia, SatuSuro, Scientific29, Seddon, ShabbirHussain7, Shadowjams, Sheeana, Shmilyshy, SiobhanHansa, Sjmn, Skapur, SkerHawx, Skittle, SlackerMom, Slakr, Slawojarek, Someone65, SpaceFlight89, Spartacus007, Spellbinder, Spitfire,Splitbean, Squids and Chips, Ssbohio, Ssumkhu, Steamroller Assault, Stephensuleeman, Steven Zhang, Stijn Calle, Stoneagestudy, Suffusion of Yellow, Sumit2709, Svick, Tabletop, Talrias,Taylorutah, Tb, Tbhotch, Tcncv, Thanneer, Tharsan Jeyachandran2008, The Anome, The Thing That Should Not Be, The undertow, TheGrimReaper NS, Theanthrope, Thesmothete, Thingg,Think outside the box, Thisthat2011, Tide rolls, Tigeroo, TimBuck2, Tobby72, Tomaxer, Toushiro, Trusilver, U-ali-r6, Una Smith, Unint, Used2BAnonymous, Usedbook, Usmausma,Vegaswikian, Venu62, Versageek, Victoriagirl, Vinay84, Vox Rationis, Vrenator, WVhybrid, Waggers, Walton One, Warrior4321, Wayne Slam, Wayward, Wernher, Wiki alf, Wiki-uk,WikiPuppies, WikiSlasher, Willking1979, WoodElf, Woohookitty, Xargon666x6, Yaksar, Yenemus, Yuckfoo, Zahid Abdassabur, Zalgo, Zigger, 846 anonymous edits

Kirkmichael  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=454638271  Contributors: Aelfthrytha, An Siarach, Canis Lupus, Catapult, Deacon of Pndapetzim, Dlsnider, Dsreyn, EdwardWaverley, Fraslet, Giraffedata, Hmains, Lancaster uk, MacSteaphain, Mais oui!, MsHighwater, Richpettit, Rosser1954, Rosserlloyd, SameerKhan, Sionnach1, Skinsmoke, Warofdreams, 10anonymous edits

Spittal of Glenshee  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=461762257  Contributors: Ben Ben, Cactus.man, CarolGray, Catfish Jim and the soapdish, Dave souza, Lou Sander, Maisoui!, Moscow101, Regan123, Steven J. Anderson, Vclaw, WilliamThweatt, X201, 1 anonymous edits

Blairgowrie and Rattray  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=478651904  Contributors: AED, Aelfthrytha, Akerbeltz, Altzinn, Amire80, Andymacp, Asarlaí, Astoker87,Blairbear49, Camerong, CarolGray, Catfish Jim and the soapdish, Chris j wood, Colonies Chris, Cowardly Lion, Cs-wolves, Derek Ross, Digitalinkmedia, Dlsnider, DrDaveHPP, Dudesleeper,Epbr123, Fraserkp, Fraslet, Garik, Gentgeen, Hanii Puppy, Harami2000, Heartofblair, Holypeanut, Improv, Ixfd64, JYolkowski, Jmb, Joseph Solis in Australia, Kerry1704,Kirkmichaelvillagecottages, Lamro, Liamcrouse1, Liempt, LilHelpa, Lodgewoman67, M100jwm, Mais oui!, Marek69, Mjager, Mummymonkey, Nick Number, Nuclearfacestation, Ogg,Pedrolongshaft, RJHall, Ramagamma2, Regan123, Renata, Saga City, SchuminWeb, Sloman, Susvolans, Swe2003, Talskiddy, Tearlach, The Hybrid, The Thing That Should Not Be, Thrissel,Wangi, Warofdreams, WereSpielChequers, WilliamThweatt, Wockneys, Woohookitty, 153 anonymous edits

Masculinity  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=481014416  Contributors: 16@r, 5 Easy Pieces, 5 albert square, A.G. Pinkwater, A8UDI, Abtract, Achilles Ormson,AgnosticPreachersKid, Airplaneman, Aitias, Alakhriveion, Alansohn, Alastair Haines, Aldenhm, Alphabet55, Anaxial, Anderst22, Andrew Parodi, Andycjp, Antburner, Apple1976, Arch dude,ArchStanton69, ArcticNorth, Art Carlson, Arxiloxos, Aunt Entropy, Avicennasis, B0Rn2bL8, BD2412, Badon, Bagel, BarbD, Barticus88, Bean007, Beezhive, Beland, Beter pan, Bfigura's puppy,Bike756, Bkonrad, Blackworm, Blu Aardvark, Bluedenim, Bobblehead, Bobo192, Bonze blayk, Borgx, BrackBoii, Bronxb225, C mon, CWenger, Cailil, Calmer Waters, Can't sleep, clown willeat me, Canadian-Bacon, Cantus, Carlminez, Casper2k3, Ccady, Ccd85, Cenarium, Cfrydj, Chrisch, Cimorcus, Closedmouth, Coasterlover1994, Coleencoleen, Colonel Warden,CommonsDelinker, ComputerGeezer, Courcelles, CrashGordon94, Cymru.lass, DagnyB, Damian Yerrick, Dan23tss, DanB DanD, Dandelion1, Daniel Olsen, Danitri, Dar-Ape, Dark Tichondrias,Dasani, David Sneek, Davidm82, Daz902, DeadEyeArrow, Deagle AP, Deglr6328, Deltabeignet, Denis C., Devourer09, Diannaa, Directmedia, Discospinster, Djk3, Dmol, Doctor63-4, Doczilla,Domzalskis, Download, Dpv, Dr. Blofeld, Dr.Bastedo, Dragonsscout, DroEsperanto, Durova, Ec5618, Edward, Edward321, Elassint, Eldamorie, Elkman, Eltomzo, Emersoni, Englishnerd,Eperotao, Erntab72, Euku, Everyking, Eyu100, Fastifex, FilipeS, Firsfron, Fizzerbear, Flewis, Floquenbeam, Fredturtle, Fromgermany, Gazooks842545, Gdo01, GenevieveDH, Geniac,GilesDunk, Gilliam, Gioto, Giraffedata, Glover, Gogorin14, GraemeL, Gustav von Humpelschmumpel, Haiduc, Handover111, Harald Haugland, Hasek is the best, Haukurth, Hbackman,HeadCaptain, Hoejamma, Holycharly, Hoplites, Hu12, Hyacinth, Hyad, IAmTheCoinMan, Ian Pitchford, Ianweller, Iberon, Iceblock, Ihcoyc, Ihidnan, Ikiroid, Insiriusdenial, Iridescent, Irishguy,Isotope23, Ixfd64, J.delanoy, JCDenton2052, Jackfork, Jacob Finn, Jakes18, Jarhed, Jaybee From his Castle, Jeff3000, Jengod, Jimm9349pk, Jjron, Joel7687, John, John Ericson, John ofReading, John67832, Josh Parris, Jossi, Jysexton, JzG, Kaoruchan42, King Murph, Kingturtle, KirinX, Kitty555, Klilidiplomus, Kollision, Kramer 345, Kurtkowalchuk, Kuzmaster,Kwamikagami, Kylmcd, Lacivelle, Lefty, LibrarianJessica, LinguistAtLarge, Lipedia, Lochaber, Lousydropout, Lucky Mitch, Luna Santin, M. Frederick, M.O.X, MBisanz, MECU, MPS,MPerel, Makwy2, Map.marc, Marfin12, Mark.murphy, Masculinity, Max 2000, Mbakaitis, Meco, MeltBanana, Mereda, Merovingian, MethaneSymphony, Mgiganteus1, Michael Flood, MichaelHardy, MightySaiyan, Mike Dillon, Mike2000, Minority2005, MisfitToys, Missfauntleroy, Mithos7, Monobi, Mouäwen, MrOllie, Mrmrbeaniepiece, Mschel, Mullet, Mwanner, Mwilso24,NYScholar, Nadyes, NeantHumain, Neelix, Netwrox, Nic007, Nisiotisgypsy, Noah Salzman, Noraalicia, Ntennis, Nufy8, Nunquam Dormio, Ocelotl10293, Ohnoitsjamie, Onodevo, Owen,Oxymoron416, P4k, PaperTruths, Patstuart, Paul foord, Payjacks7, Penny Theophilou, Petter Bøckman, PhilKnight, Phillipeb, Piggggu, Pigman, Pjbaines, Plasticup, Portillo, Pound9696,PranksterTurtle, PrimeTime05, Pringletot, Pschemp, Pstanton, Puceron, Purplefeltangel, Pyrate1700, Qrc2006, Quadell, Qwerty Binary, R'n'B, Radiant!, Radus2, Ratiocinate, Reaper Eternal,Rebroad, RekishiEJ, Retired user 0001, Rhobite, Rich Farmbrough, Rivertorch, Rjonesca97, Rjwilmsi, Ronhjones, Ronrat, Rorybowman, RoxorFuxor, Rpresser, Rustylane, Rweblknfkjbekj.b,Sam Blacketer, Sam Spade, Sango123, Sannse, SarahStierch, SatyrTN, Searchme, Sempre30, Shimgray, Shoeofdeath, Silverbackman, Sjö, Skrug2009, SlackerMom, Slau, Slp1, Someone thePerson, SquidSK, SteinbDJ, Sumek, Superballs, Superking, Sven Manguard, T800m101, Tabercil, Tainted Conformity, TannerBear, Tassedethe, The Bread, The Epopt, The Thing That ShouldNot Be, TheRingess, Tide rolls, Tim buckley, Tinpac, Tom Lougheed, Tommy2010, Tony Sidaway, Totorotroll, Tpicompany, Tricktrapp, Tropic of Capricorn, Twinsday, USchick, Uriel8,Useight, User0529, Ute in DC, VFHwebdev, Vaarsuvius, Varano, VasilievVV, Velps, Vgy7ujm, Vranak, Wadayow, Wavelength, White Devil, Whoretester, Wik09wik, Wikidudeman, WilliamAvery, Witch Hazell, Witch Hazzel, WoodElf, Wrp103, Wtmitchell, Wwwwolf, Xomic, Yono, Yorkshirian, YrPolishUncle, Zarniwoot, Ziiv, Zoe, Обывало, 559 ,דוד שי anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 28

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:mahaparinirvana.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mahaparinirvana.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: myselfFile:Pilgrimage to Lhasa.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pilgrimage_to_Lhasa.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: Gao from Beijing,ChinaFile:Orthodox pilgrim.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Orthodox_pilgrim.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: User:PetarMFile:Bathing ghat on the Ganges during Kumbh Mela, 2010, Haridwar.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bathing_ghat_on_the_Ganges_during_Kumbh_Mela,_2010,_Haridwar.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: EdsonWalker from Curitiba, BrazilFile:Kedarnathroute.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kedarnathroute.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors: anurupa_chowdhuryImage:Kaaba mirror edit jj.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Kaaba_mirror_edit_jj.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: edited by jjronFile:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Supplicating_Pilgrim_at_Masjid_Al_Haram._Mecca,_Saudi_Arabia.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5  Contributors: AliMansuriFile:Jews place of wailing, 1860.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Jews_place_of_wailing,_1860.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Engraving by E.Challisafter an etching by W.H.Bartlett, 1844File:Sikh pilgrim at the Golden Temple (Harmandir Sahib) in Amritsar, India.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sikh_pilgrim_at_the_Golden_Temple_(Harmandir_Sahib)_in_Amritsar,_India.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike Contributors: Paulruddfile:Perth and Kinross UK location map.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perth_and_Kinross_UK_location_map.svg  License: Creative CommonsAttribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Nilfanion, created using Ordnance Survey dataFile:Red pog.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Red_pog.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieImage:Glenshee from the Spittal.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glenshee_from_the_Spittal.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: LindaFile:Standing stone at Spittal of Glenshee - geograph.org.uk - 36204.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Standing_stone_at_Spittal_of_Glenshee_-_geograph.org.uk_-_36204.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic Contributors: -File:Blairgowrie.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blairgowrie.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: Mike PenningtonFile:Wellmeadow - Blairgowrie Town Centre.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wellmeadow_-_Blairgowrie_Town_Centre.jpg  License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: DlsniderFile:Cleaven Dyke.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cleaven_Dyke.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic  Contributors: Rob BurkeImage:Meigle Museum.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Meigle_Museum.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: Simon BurchellFile:Rattray church.JPG  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rattray_church.JPG  License: Public Domain  Contributors: ThrisselImage:blairgowrie-rattray.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Blairgowrie-rattray.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Original uploader was Digitalinkmedia aten.wikipediaFile:Flag of the United States.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Flag of Canada.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: AnomieFile:Landsdowne Herakles.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Landsdowne_Herakles.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.0  Contributors:http://flickr.com/photos/maveric2003/Image:Lewis Hine Power house mechanic working on steam pump.jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lewis_Hine_Power_house_mechanic_working_on_steam_pump.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Lewis HineImage:Marines wrestle.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Marines_wrestle.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Deglr6328, 1 anonymous editsFile:PalmercarpenterA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:PalmercarpenterA.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Palmer, Alfred T., photographer. (Farm SecurityAdministration - Office of War Information Collection)File:06-09-09(27).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:06-09-09(27).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: -

License 29

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