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Breeding Method and Reproductive Performance of Dairy Cattle in Bekoji District

ADAMA SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY UNIVERSITY

ASELLA SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE

BERHANU ADUGNA BEKELE

June, 2012

Adama University

Ethiopia

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to praise Jesus Christ, my Creator and shepherd for His uncountable salvation and mercy. God supported me through all my daily activities. I would have done nothing if Jesus hadn’t supported me during this graduation paper preparation.

Next, I want to extend my thanks to my supervisor, Ato Ermias for his unlimited supports and advice on my apparent works. Also, I would like to take this opportunity to thank to all Bekiji Veterinary Clinic officials, especially Ato Deme and Ato Solomon for their material assistance and friendly cooperation. I would also like to say “God bless you” to my family who helped me with all financial and other materials. Finally, an honorable mention goes to my advisor, Shiferaw Garoma (MSc) for his invaluable advice and support.

ACRONYMS

AFC…………………………….……..Age at First Calving

AI…………………...…………………Artificial Insemination

AM-PM………………………………..Ante Meridiem-Post Meridiem

AP……………………………………..Age at Puberty

CI………………………………......….Calving Interval

CSA…………………………………...Central Statistical Agency

F1……………………………………..First Generation

HF………………………………….…Holstein Friesian

KARC………………………………...Kulumsa Agricultural Research Center

LBWARDO…………………………..Lemu Bilbilo Woreda Agricultural Rural Development Office

NM…………………………………....Natural Mating

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OBPED……………………………….Oromia Bureau of Planning and Economic Development

SPC……………………………..…….Service Per Conception

Table of ContentsACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................................II

ACRONYMS................................................................................................................................................II

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY...........................................................................................................................1

1. INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................2

1.2. Statement of problem..............................................................................................................................4

1.3. General objective................................................................................................................................4

1.4. Specific objectives..............................................................................................................................4

2. REVIEW OF LITRATURE.......................................................................................................................5

2.1 Reproductive efficiency measurement.................................................................................................5

2.2 Age at puberty and Age at first calving...............................................................................................5

2.3 Age at first service...............................................................................................................................6

2.4. Calving interval...................................................................................................................................7

2.5. Days open............................................................................................................................................7

2. 6. Number of service per conception.....................................................................................................8

2.7. Gestation length..................................................................................................................................8

2.8. Conception rate...................................................................................................................................8

3.9. Dairy cattle breeding methods............................................................................................................9

3.9.1. Natural mating.................................................................................................................................9

3.9.2. Selecting for breeding soundness of bulls.......................................................................................9

3.9.3. Artificial insemination...................................................................................................................10

2. METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................................11

2.1. The study area...................................................................................................................................11

2.1.1. Location.....................................................................................................................................11

2.1.2. Climate, soil type and vegetation...............................................................................................11

2.1.3. Population, farming systems and livestock population.............................................................11

2.1.4. Study animals and their management........................................................................................12

2.1.5. Sources and methods of data collection.....................................................................................12

2.1.6. Method of data analysis.............................................................................................................12

2.1.7. Significance of the study............................................................................................................12

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION................................................................................................................13

3.1. Household characteristics and herd management.............................................................................13

3.1.1. Educational level of the households..........................................................................................13

3.1.2 Breed types..................................................................................................................................14

3.1.3. Management of dairy cattle.......................................................................................................15

3.2. Mating systems of dairy cattle..........................................................................................................16

3.2.1. Selection of bull for natural mating...........................................................................................16

3.2.2. Eostrus detection........................................................................................................................17

3.2.3. The appropriate period of mating..............................................................................................18

3.3. Reproductive performance of dairy cattle.........................................................................................19

3.3.5. Major dairy cattle problems in the area.....................................................................................20

4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMONDATION......................................................................................21

7. BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................................22

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

The study was conducted to identify the mating method and reproductive performance of dairy

cattle in Bekoji district from March to May, 2012. Of a total 15 households, 60% owned Arsi

zebu, 27% crossbreed and 13% HF. The households’ response for their preference of local breed

to exotic one was that local breeds were adapted to harsh conditions, poor management, disease,

feed, etc. Exotic breed (HF) cannot withstand these harsh conditions. Majority of the households

of the area (67%) use natural mating, while only 33% of them use AI. The main constraint for AI

in this area was inaccessibility of AI in the area. Some farmers responded that AI is something

not natural. There were poor institutional and technical constraints for AI application in the

area. Indigenous cattle have lower reproductive performance than exotic one. They have higher

calving interval, higher age at first calving and age at puberty (on average, 14, 45.5 and 23

months). While HF has lower calving interval, age at first calving and age at puberty (on

average, 11, 30.5 and 15 months). The crossbreed of two cattle had intermediate age at puberty,

age at first calving and calving interval. This indicates that genetic factors affected the

reproductive performance of dairy cattle. There were also some other factors that affected the

reproductive performance of the cattle, feeding, disease, housing, poor heat detection, etc. The

cows those didn’t feed well showed low estrus signs or silent. Failure to detect estrus sign of the

cattle closely also led to poor reproductive performance of the cattle. Well organized estrus

detection enabled the household to reduce the number of service preconception and calving

interval.

Dairy cattle faced a plenty of challenges. For example, the main source of dairy cattle feed was

natural pasture which is low in nutritional value, there was no clear strategy on animal breed,

community’s awareness on animal breeding was very low and there was animal disease such as

Brucella abortus.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Ethiopia, with its 49.33 million heads of cattle has the largest cattle population in Africa (CSA

2008) and about 42% are milk cows (Tsehay, 1997 and Azage and Alemu, 1997). Over 99% of

the cattle population in Ethiopia is local or indigenous with very few hybrids, 0.5%, and exotic

0.1%. There are two domestic species of cattle, Bos indicus and Bos taurus. The indigenous

cattle of the country belong to the species Bos indicus. This species is well adapted to tropical

environments. It possesses a high degree of heat tolerance. This indigenous breed is resistant to

tick borne and to other diseases occurring in the tropics and has a low maintenance requirement.

However, its potential for milk production is low. Cattle production is therefore characterized by

high pre-weaning calf mortality, slow growth rate, low fertility and calving rates, low milk yield

and high calving interval. On the other hand, Bos taurus (European type) is the predominantly

specialized dairy breed of the temperate countries. These breeds have high milk yield potentials,

high growth rate and high fertility, but lack heat tolerance and disease resistance.

Despite the huge livestock resources in the country, their productivity (milk, meat, etc) is

extremely low due to various reasons among which the low genetic potential of indigenous cattle

for milk and meat production (Negussie et al 1998; Shiferaw et al 2003). Improvement of the

genetic potential of indigenous cattle in the country can be achieved most suitably by cross

breeding high producing cattle of temperate origin, Bos taurus with adapted indigenous cattle at

a level where the advantage of heterosis is most exploited (Mason 1974). In Ethiopia, crossbred

cattle mainly cross of zebu with Holstein Friesian (HF) cattle have been used for milk production

for decades (Alberro 1983; Mukasa-Mugerwa et al 1991; Bekele et al 1991; Negussie et al

1998). Accurate evaluation of the reproductive efficiency of indigenous stocks and their

crossbred in different production systems is essential for the development of appropriate

breeding strategies (Negussie et al 1998). Low reproductive efficiency hinders genetic

improvement efforts and causes direct economic loss (Mukasa-Mugerwa et al 1991). In many

cases reproductive efficiency of cattle has been measured mainly by considering parameters such

as age at puberty, age at first calving, calving interval and number of services per conception

(Alberro 1983; Agyemang and Nkhonjera 1990; Haile-Mariam et al 1993; Bekana 1997;

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Negussie et al 1998; Shiferaw et al 2003; Masama et al 2003; Lyimo et al 2004). Reproductive

efficiency of dairy cows is influenced by different factors including genetic, season, age,

production system, nutrition, management, environment and disease (Alberro 1983; Agyemang

and Nkhonjera 1990; Mukasa-Mugerwa et al 1991; Bekele et al 1991; Negussie et al 1998;

Shiferaw et al 2003). Failure to detect estrus sign of the cattle is also leads to poor reproductive

performance. Estrus has been defined as a period when the female shows characteristic sexual

behavior in the presence of a mature male, such as immobility, raising the hind quarters or

arching the back, pricking of the ears-features that are collectively termed lordosis in small

laboratory animals; mounting and riding behavior between females is also common (Gomes,

1977; Herman et al., 1994). A number of research works have been conducted on reproductive

performance of indigenous and crossbred cows under a relatively controlled condition at research

centers, government owned farms and in some urban and peri-urban dairy areas in central

highland of Ethiopia (Alberro 1983; Mukasa-Mugerwa et al 1991; Bekele et al 1991; Haile-

mariam et al 1993; Negussie et al 1998; Shiferaw et al 2003). However, there is no such work

conducted in rural areas especially in the lowland areas. One way of improving tropical cattle

regarding milk production is through crossbreeding with Bos taurus dairy breeds. Crossbreeding

is the process of crossing or mating individual of different breeds or species to produce

intermediate hybrid vigor. The purpose of all breeding decisions is to increase profitability of the

herd. This has been widely used in order to combine the high milk yield potential of exotic

breeds with the adaptability of the local ones. The first crossbred generation (F 1), usually from

native females mated with exotic males, has been a success in most cases. The F 1 crosses can

produce up to three times more milk, and have longer lactation and shorter calving intervals than

the local breeds (Kiwuwa et al 1983). The crossbreeding or mating method can be applied either

through the application of Artificial insemination (AI) or natural mating (NS). Artificial

insemination (AI) is defined as the collection of sperm a male and placing it in the uterus of an in

estrus female. While in natural service, the selected bull is used for mating or breeding naturally.

The primary reward with Al is that is allows you to use outstanding bulls, likely some of the best

the industry offers; access to the bulls is generally at moderate prices. The use of artificial

insemination is cost effective, reduces disease infestation, easy to manage (record keeping) and

helps to give service (to cross) for huge number of cattle. Despite the advantages of artificial

insemination (AI), natural service (NS) continues to be commonly used by dairy producers in the

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country because of many reasons; such as lack of functionally effective responsible bodies to

coordinate and regulate the AI services, no proper mechanisms of controlling indiscriminate

insemination, absence of policy that guides the distribution of semen in the country, absence of

legal framework for regulation of AI service importation and distribution of semen, poor

infrastructure for storage, handling, and transportation (Gebremedhin, 2005). The study is also

concerned with the natural mating.

1.2. Statement of problem

Ethiopia has a huge cattle population in Africa. Most of the cattle of the country, above 99% are

local or indigenous breeds. These cattle breeds are well adapted to extreme climatic condition of

the country, scarcity of feed, and water, poor management and are resistant to tropical disease.

However, their productivity is extremely low. They are genetically poor in milk production as

compared to exotic breeds. Moreover, indigenous cattle breeds have low conception rate, low

fertility rate, low birth weight, high calving interval and slow growth rate. Crossbreeding

indigenous cattle with exotic breeds helps to uphold or to improve the genetic deficit, low

productivity of indigenous cattle. There is no other way to overcome low productivity, genetic

deficit of indigenous cattle.

1.3. General objective

To understand the merit and demerit of existing indigenous cattle breeds and assess the

way in which they explore their production potential

1.4. Specific objectives

To identify breeding or mating method of the study area

To know the reproductive performance of the dairy cattle in the study area breeds

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2. REVIEW OF LITRATURE

2.1 Reproductive efficiency measurementIn many cases reproductive efficiency of cattle has been measured mainly by considering

parameters such as age at puberty, age at first calving, days open, calving interval, gestation

length, and number of services per conception (Alberro, 1983; Agyemang and Nkhoon Gera

1990; Hailemariam et al, 1993; Bekana 1997, Negussie et al, 1998; Shifera et al, 2003; Masana

et al, 2003; Lyimo et al 2004).

2.2 Age at puberty and Age at first calving

Age at first calving determines the beginning of the cow’s productive life and influences her

lifetime productivity (Ojango and Pollott, 2001). Age at first calving has a significant influence

on the total cost of raising dairy replacements with older calving heifers being more expensive to

rise than younger ones (Tozer and Heinrichs, 2001). Both ages at first calving and at puberty are

influenced by genetic makeup or genome of the cattle breed. The local/ indigenous breeds attain

maturity very slowly and this affects the number of calf that could the cow born during its

reproductive life which could increase lifetime productivity of cow. These traits (AFC and AP)

can be also affected by other various factors, such as management, environmental condition,

nutrition and disease (Nigussie, al et 1998). For instance, age at puberty and first calving

increase if the cattle are exposed to extreme weather, poor nutrition and management (Haile-

mariam et al 1993; Kiwuwa et al 1983).

Estimated age at first calving for Ethiopian cattle ranges from 35-62 months (McDowell, 1972;

Kiwuwa et al., 1983; Alberro, 1983; Mekonnen and Goshu, 1987; Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1989;

Mulugeta et al., 1991; Hailemariam and Kassamersha, 1994; Ababu, 2002). There are different

factors that advance or delay age at first calving. The time taken by an animal to attain puberty

and sexual maturity depends among others on the quality and quantity of feed available, which

affects growth rate. There has been substantial evidence that dietary supplementation of heifers

during their growth will reduce the interval from birth to first calving (Kayongo-Male et

al.,1982), probably because heifers that grow faster will cycle earlier and exhibit behavioral

estrus. Breed difference among cattle has also significant effect on age at first calving (Mukasa-

Mugerwa, 1989).

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Age at puberty varies among species, breeds and even strains and families. On average, the zebu

reaches puberty 6-12 month later than Bos taurus cattle (Warnick, 1965; Wilt bank et al, 1969).

Temperate taurine breeds of dairy cattle reach puberty at 30-40% of their adult body weight

(Hafez, 1980). In contrast, ranched zebu heifers in Ethiopia do not attain puberty until they

reach 60% of their adult body weight.

2.3 Age at first serviceIt is the age at which heifers attain body weight, body condition and sexual maturity for

accepting service for the first time. It influences both the productive and reproductive life of the

female through its effect on her lifetime calf crop. Age at first service is influenced by genotype,

nutrition and other environmental factors (Alberro, 1983). An earlier age at puberty for F1

Friesian crosses than for indigenous zebu breeds. In addition, age at first service reported in

Ethiopia include about 53 months for highland Zebu (Mukasa-Mugerwa et al., 1989), 55 months

for Horro cattle (Mulugeta et al., 1991), 53.9 months for Boron cattle inseminated artificially

(Ababu, 2002) and 34.4 months for Ogaden cattle (Getinet, 2005). Moreover, irregularities in

feed supply and differences in management systems may bring about variations in age at first

service in different areas (Gebeyehu et al., 2005).

Age at first calving in the recent studies is lower than 36.7 and 40.1 months estimated for

crossbred dairy heifers in smallholder dairy farms in Malawi (Agyemang and Nkhonjera 1990),

and 58.3 and 36.8 months reported for smallholder crossbred dairy heifers at two locations in

Zimbabwe (Masama et al 2003) and 40.6 months for crossbred dairy heifers in different dairy

production systems in central highlands of Ethiopia (Shiferaw et al 2003). A number of previous

works indicated that management factor especially nutrition determines pre-pubertal growth rates

and reproductive development (Negussie et al 1998; Masama et al 2003).

The better-managed and well-fed heifers grow faster, served earlier and resulted in more

economic benefit in terms of sales of pregnant heifers and/or more milk and calves produced

during the lifetime of the animal.

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2.4. Calving intervalCalving interval is a function of calving-to-conception interval or days open, which is considered

to be the most important component determining the length of calving interval, and gestation

length, which is more or less constant. Calving interval varies slightly due to breed, calf sex, calf

size, dam age, year, and month of calving. Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. (1991) and Kiwuwa et al.

(1983) reported mean calving interval of about 459 days for crossbred dairy cattle. Estimates of

calving interval in zebu cattle ranged from 12.2 to 26.6 months (Mukassa- Mugrewa, 1989).

Nutritional conditions that vary seasonally and yearly have major effects on calving interval

(Oyedipe, 1982; Hailemariam and Kassamersha, 1994).

Lower conception rates, longer calving intervals and an increased incidence of silent heat have

been considered to be the results of energy deficiency (Otterby and Linn, 1981). Increased

calving interval is undesirable, particularly in a production system in which there is a high

demand for pregnant or lactating heifer. This can occur if a higher yielding animal produces

fewer replacements, due to negative phenotypic correlation between calving interval and milk

production.

2.5. Days openAn increase in the number of days between calving and conception, also known as days open,

influences profitability of the dairy production. This influence is partly attributed to factors such

as increased breeding cost, increased risk of culling and replacement costs, and reduced milk

production (de Vries and Risco, 2005). Days open is influenced by breeds of cattle. Mekonen

(1987) reported that mean days open for pure Fogera and F1 Friesian X Fogera were about 151

and 151 days, respectively. Days open affects lifetime production and generation interval

(Ababu, 2002). Days open should not exceed 80 to 85 days, if a calving interval of 12 months is

to be achieved (Peters, 1984; Enyew, 1992). This requires re-establishment of ovarian activity

soon after calving and high conception rates. Kefena (2004) also reported mean length of days

open to be about 200 days for Boran crossbred cows. Nutritional deficiencies coupled with heavy

internal and external parasite load under extensive management systems, and allowing calves to

suckle their dams may all interfere with ovarian function, thereby prolonging the days open

(Short et al., 1990; Hafez, 1993). The effect of low level of nutrition on extended postpartum

period due to weight loss was noted by Gebreegziabher et al. (2005). Moreover, Tadesse and

Zelalem (2004) reported that increasing the level of protein supplementation from low (2 kg/day)

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to high (4 kg /day) reduced post partum interval from 159 to 100 days. Cows that are over

conditioned at calving or those that lose excess body weight are more likely to have a prolonged

interval to first oestrus, which could result in longer days open (James, 2006).

2. 6. Number of service per conception The mean values for NSPC for crossbred cows in the urban (1.67) and rural (1.66) smallholder

dairy farms (Bekele et al 1991 and Shiferaw et al 2003). 1.61 services per conception reported

by Haile-mariam et al (1993) in Abernossa Ranch. It is, however, slightly lower than 2.0 services

per conception reported for cows at Asella (Negussie et al 1998). This is probably due to the

better experiences that farmers gained through extension services and demonstration trial on the

management of crossbred dairy cows and the benefit of AI from the nearby Agricultural

Research Station, Abernossa Ranch. Negussie et al (1998) and Bekele et al (1991) reported a

decreasing NSPC in the subsequent parities.

2.7. Gestation lengthThe overall mean GL of 278 days for crossbred cows in the urban and rural smallholder dairy

farms found in the present study is similar with 277 days reported by Negussie et al (1998) but

lower than 286 days reported by Albero (1983) for F1 Friesian and Zebu crosses in the central

highland of Ethiopia.

The absence of significant effect of breed and parity on the length of gestation obtained in the

present study is in agreement with the reports of (Negussie et al 1998). This is may be due to the

fact that GL is more or less a constant feature within a given species (Agyemang and Nkhonjera

1990).

2.8. Conception rateIt is widely known that conception rates are influenced by a combination of several factors such

as heat detection accuracy, cow fertility, timing of insemination, semen quality and inseminator

technique (Esselmont, 1992). However, other factors namely, semen quality, inseminator skills

and unfavorable environmental conditions such as high ambient temperature or humidity in the

cow sheds (Galina, 1991) could also have been involved.

In general, low fertility rates of cattle in the tropics compared to temperate regions are probably

related to environmental differences including in adequate nutrition, prevalence of diseases and

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parasites as well as the interaction between genotype and environment (Mukasa-Muger wall

1987).

3.9. Dairy cattle breeding methodsThe present livestock breeds in the world are the results of both natural selection and human

intervention. Natural selection operates to provide reproductive ability and continuity of the

fittest while human intervention is to change one or more traits of animals that the owner thinks

desirable under his environment. The genetic variations available both within breeds and

between breeds, has been used to accommodate interests and farmers wishes to make livestock

more efficient in using available resources to produce human food and other agricultural

products (Sendros and Tesfaye, 1997 and Rendel, 1991).

3.9.1. Natural matingThe use of bulls for natural service remains widespread even in areas where artificial

insemination has proven to be very efficient. Many farmers believe that pregnancy rates are

higher when a bull is used. The use of natural service may be indicated when personnel are

inefficient to perform the tasks associated with heat detection and the techniques of AI, when

long term genetic gain is of minor importance and when local conditions do not provide the

infrastructure necessary for successful AI (Wattiaux, 1998).

3.9.2. Selecting for breeding soundness of bullsIn undertaking natural mating, the bull must be morphologically and functionally sound.

Testicles should have a distinct neck and should not be fibrotic or flaccid in consistency. This is

essential because testicles must be a reasonable distance away from the internal body

temperature. A scrotal circumference of 30cm and 34 cm is recommended for 15 months old and

24 months old Friesian bulls respectively (Jensen, 1997). Azage et al. (1997) indicated that there

is a direct relationship between scrotal circumference and semen production. A breeding bull is

required also to have a good libido or serving capacity. Differences in pregnancy rates were also

associated with high, medium and low serving capacities of bulls (Chenoweth, 2000). Breeding

bulls should be replaced to avoid inbreeding. Previous works recommend not using a bull for

more than two to four years in a herd without replacement or switching with bulls from other

sites (Lee et al, 1998 and IIRR, 2000).

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The hand mating system requires accurate heat detection skills and proper timing of services by

the farmers. Esslemont et al (1985) recommended that it is useful to watch for heat three or four

times a day, leaving not more than 8 hours between visits in order to improve heat detection rates

up to 80%. Cows in heat must be served at the right time. Robert (1971) recommended that cows

seen in estrus in the morning should be served that same day while those showing estrus later in

the day should be served the next morning. The work of Hailmariam et al. (1994) indicated that

the calving interval of Boran cows served by Boran bulls were shorter compared to those cows

served by AI.

3.9.3. Artificial inseminationAI is an essential technique in breeding programs with progeny testing. According to Wittiaux

(1998), AI provides the opportunity to choose sires that are proven to transmit desirable traits to

the next generation and minimizes the risk of spreading sexually diseases and genetic defects. So

far artificial insemination using frozen semen has played an important role in increasing genetic

progress by upgrading the reproductive rate of the male. It increases the selection intensity since

less bulls are needed and this is the basis for selection progress (Mukasa-Mugerwa et al. 1991a).

Despite the wide application and success of AI throughout the developed world, the success rate

in our country is still low owing to a number of technical, system related, financial and

managerial problems (Azage et al, 1995). Among the technical constraints are poor heat

detection skills, communication and transport problems that hamper timely insemination, poor

semen collection and storage technology and handling procedures that affect semen quality, and

inefficiency of AI technicians. Other system related problems include small herds; disperse

locations, limited production intensity and affordable cost. Due to the poor financial capabilities

of the countries means of communication and infrastructure are insufficient. It would also be

difficult for the countries to bear costs for the production of liquid nitrogen and purchase of

necessary equipments. The financial problem is further aggravated by the poor management of

AI operations (FAO 2000).

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2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. The study area

2.1.1. Location

This study was carried out in the highland of Arsi Zone at Lemu-Bilbilo Woreda around Bekoji

town which is found at about 232 km south east of Addis Ababa. Arsi Zone is one of 14 zones of

Oromia National Regional State. (Addisu, 2008). The study area is located in the high potential

cereal-livestock belt of Ethiopian highlands. The altitudinal ranges from 1500 to 4460 meters

above sea level.

2.1.2. Climate, soil type and vegetation

The rainfall of the area is bimodal with short rainy season in spring and the long (main) rainy

season occurring in summer. The maximum rainfall occurs in August (KARC, 2001). The study

area receives mean annual rainfall of 1100 mm with the minimum and maximum being 800 and

1400 mm, respectively. The mean, minimum and maximum temperature is 13, 6 and 210C,

respectively (KARC, 2001). This area is categorized under Dega topographic classification.

The soil types of the Woreda are clay, vertisol, and nitisol (LBWARDO, 2005). The natural

vegetation types commonly observed in the study area are, highland trees, which included afro-

montane forests and trees on agricultural lands and afro-alpine mountain vegetation (Ahmed,

2002), forage grasses like fodder beet and oat in the higher altitudes (4460 masl), elephant grass

and alfalfa in the middle altitudes (2980 masl) and vetch, lablab and cowpea in the low altitude

(1500 masl) (LBWARDO 2006)

2.1.3. Population, farming systems and livestock population

The Study Woreda has a total landmass of 100,600 ha, which is divided into 25 peasant

associations, and has 197, 700 people (49% male and 51% female) out of which 88.54% live in

rural areas and 11.46% live in urban settings. Of the total land mass, 69,649 ha is agricultural

cropland, 1,118 ha is irrigable land, 2,973 ha is forest land and 6,746 ha is pastureland. The area

encompasses traditional park land, agro-forestry system and monoculture cropping system. The

major crops grown in the area are barley, wheat, linseed, teff, field pea, faba bean, rapeseed and

lentil mainly with one harvest per year and have popular fertilizer utilization which is Di

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ammonium Phosphate. The livestock population in the study area includes 286,518 cattle, 64,347

goats, 301,917 sheep, 66,373 horses, 52,743 donkeys, 4232 mules, 70744 poultry and 16991 bee

colonies (OBPED,2001).

2.1.4. Study animals and their management

The selected animal group included different classes of animals, pregnant, heifer, lactating cows,

non lactating cows and bulls. All selected animal have ear tag, for identification. The group of

animal is composed of exotic (Holstein Friesian) breed, local breed or zebu cattle (Arsi zebu) and

their crosses. There were two bulls in the animals (one teaser bull and one mating bull). The

selected bull was Holstein Friesian (75% blood level). The animals were extensively or loosely

managed. There was no much control on animal, feeding, mating, housing and estrus detection.

Their feed was mostly natural pasture, but sometimes the animals were feeding on concentrate

feeds like wheat bran, crop residue and agricultural industrial by products.

2.1.5. Sources and methods of data collection

The data were collected from both primary and secondary data sources. The primary data

collection was mainly through regular observation on field from March to May, 2012 in Bekoji

district and a questionnaire made on randomly selected 15 farmers. In addition, the secondary

data were collected from written literatures and documents, mostly from farm animal record

keeping of the Bekoji Agricultural Office.

2.1.6. Method of data analysis

Generally, the collected data were analyzed using basic descriptive statistical methods. The

calving interval, service per conception, age at first calving and age at puberty were analyzed

using basic quantitative statistical, mean and percentage.

2.1.7. Significance of the study

This study provides the communities with the breed type that is the most productive in their

respected area and provides appropriate way of mating method. It also enables the community to

know the major factors affecting reproductive performance of dairy cattle and the way to

overcome them. It gives opportunity for people to look at the reproductive status of their breed.

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1. Household characteristics and herd management

Table 1. The age and sex structure of household members Age of households Number of households Percentage (%)

Male blow 18 years 1 7%

Male between 18 and 40 5 33%

Male above 40 4 27%

Female below 18 2 13%

Female between 18and 40 3 20%

Female above 40 - -

Total 15 100%

There were 15 household members from whom 27% of male was above 40 years old, while 33%

was between 18 and 40 years male and 20% female was between 18 and 40 years , 13% of

female was below 18 years and 7% of male was below 18 years old. The most of community’s

age was below 40 years. This indicates that these households were in productive age.

3.1.1. Educational level of the households

As cited in the table below, the educational level of the households, almost half of the

households were below grade 4. According to the data gathered about 33% of household was

between 1 and 4 grade and about 33% of the house hold was between grade 5 and 8. 13% of the

household was illiterate. About 40% of the household was above grade 9. More than half of the

households were below grade 8. The educational level of the most of household was below grade

8. This indicates that the literacy of the household is very low.

Table 2. Educational level of the households

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Educational level Number of respondents Percentage (%)

Illiterate 2 13%

Grade 1-4 5 33%

Grade 5-8 5 33%

Grade 9-10 2 13%

Grade 11-12 1 7%

Above grade 12 - -

Total 15 100%

3.1.2 Breed typesThe dairy breed types that mostly found in the study area were Arsi zebu, Holstein Friesian and their crossbreeds.

Table 3. Breed types that owned by the households

Breed types Number of respondents Percentage (%) Rank

Arsi breed 9 60% 1

Holstein Friesian 2 13% 3

Crossbreed 4 27% 2

Total 15 100%

Most of the community owned Arsi zebu and crossbreeds. Some of the dairy owners said that, it

was difficult to rear Holstein Friesian, because they needed high management system in terms

feed, health and house. They were too susceptible to tropical diseases. So, they crossed Arsi

cattle with Holstein Friesian (75% blood level) to get F1 generation with better productivity. The

Holsteins breeds they kept have blood level of 75%. As we see from the table above 60% of the

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household had Arsi breed, about 27% had crossbreed and less than 13% owned Holstein

Friesian. More than half of the community had Arsi breed. The community preferred local breed

to exotic because of the reasons cited above.

3.1.3. Management of dairy cattleThe main dairy cattle managements were feeding the animals, housing, health care and detecting

estrus. The selected farmers had different managements on different classes of their animals

(heifer, cow, and breeding bull).

Table 4. Management of dairy cattle’s

Dairy cattle Management Number of respondents

Percentage (%)

Rank

Cows Feed, housing, Heat detection and health 6 40% 1

Breeding bulls Feed, health and Housing 4 27% 3

Heifers Feed, housing, Heat detection and health 5 33% 2

Total 15 100%

The household response indicated 40% from the total managements and showed that majority of

the people gave great attention to dairy cows than heifers and breeding bulls by providing the

necessary management in terms of feed, housing, health and detecting heat, because dairy cows

serve as the generator of immediate cash (milk, butter, yoghurt and cheese) for farmers. The

major feeds provided for their cattle were crop residue such as hay, stable and straw, natural

pasture oilseed cake, etc. Most of the house found in the district was loose type. The cattle can

move freely and search for their feed. The heifer was the second dairy cattle that the community

gave better management succeeding dairy cows, because they were the replacement for older

cows. The response from the household, 33% showed that the management supplied to heifers

was good even if it was not as such good as cows in terms feed, house, health and any other

things. Only 27% respondents were involved in the management of breeding bulls in terms of

feed, housing and health system.

3.2. Mating systems of dairy cattle

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Speaking broadly, there are two types of mating method of dairy cattle, namely Artificial

insemination (AI) and natural mating (NM). The mating/breeding methods performed in Bekoji

district were not different from these. The preference of mating method was depend on economic

standard, individual perception, availability of equipments, skilled man power and institutions,

and accessibility of the services.

Table 5.Mating systems dairy cattle’s owners used

Mating systems Number of respondents Percentage (%) Rank

Natural mating 10 67% 1

Artificial insemination 5 33% 2

Total 15 100%

About 67% of the community’s householder uses natural mating and only 33% of the household

uses Artificial insemination. Most of the households preferred natural mating to Artificial

insemination, because some people may think that AI something unnatural. Moreover, the

application of Artificial insemination was not well developed in Bekoji district. There was no

suitable storage for semen (the price of semen storage is very high). There was also less

extension work in the community to increase societal awareness about Artificial insemination.

Besides, there was less institution for Artificial insemination in the district. The people easily

managed natural mating, because they used their own bull for mating and they didn’t go long

distance to mate their cattle.

3.2.1. Selection of bull for natural mating

The main measurements during the bull selection for natural mating were the followings:

Bull’s pedigree: The selected bull was from Holstein Friesian breed (75% blood level), the most

outstanding milk producing dairy breed in the world. It had no pronounced genetic defect. It was

free from genetic disorder which could be transmitted to offspring and causes unexpected loss of

cattle population.

Libido: It was considered as one of the criterion for reproductive performance of the selected

bull. The bull had high libido, it showed high and long sexual desire for mating.

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Ability to Copulate: There were many factors that were considered to measure the

reproductively of the bull. Failure to mount, failure to achieve intromission, and failure to thrust

and ejaculate were very important factors that were considered during investigation of bull

fertility. Scrotal circumference of the selected bull was 32 cm. This was one of the indication of

the bull's ability for reproduction. The measurement was taken at the largest diameter of the

scrotum. Both testicles were positioned next to each other, descended into the scrotum and of the

same size and shape. However, there was no special treatment/management, housing, feeding

and health care given for the bull.

3.2.2. Eostrus detectionIt was the most critical factor affecting the reproductivity of dairy cattle in the area. Poor estrus

(heat) detection can be considered as the biggest and most common problem in reproductive

management in the dairy herd. It was resulted in reduction of fertility, which was clearly seen in

an extended open period and in extended inter-calving periods. There was one teaser bull in the

herd to detect whether the cow/heifer is at heat period or not. Estrus detection was performed

twice daily (morning and afternoon) for 1 hr with the aid of a teaser bull. Only those animals

were selected and recorded in heat which stood still while being mounted/ ridden by other female

cows or teaser bulls. The animals were also observed for behavioral symptoms like frequent

urination, bellowing, raised tail, restlessness and licking of external genitalia. Different visible

external changes like vulvular edema, vaginal hyperemia, wetness and mucus discharge were

also observed. Animals showing signs of true heat were mated using the selected breeding bull.

The estrous cycle of the cow was generally about 21 days long, but it can range from 17 to 24

days in duration. The estrus cycle of the cattle was varied according to the breed of dairy cattle.

The estrus cycle of the cattle was also upset by other non genetic factors weather condition,

disease, feeding, presence of opposite sex in the herd and other management practices. Detecting

estrus signs of cattle was very important because it largely affected the time for the application of

natural mating. However, it was very difficult to observe pronounced heat signs on Arsi breeds

sometimes, especially when they were stressed. There were several factors that affected the

manifestation of estrus signs on cattle. For instance, when the cattle were fed poorly, diseased,

and absence of opposite sex in the herd, the cow/heifer didn’t show a pronounced heat sign,

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silent estrus. This condition highly affected accurate time of mating and resulted in increased

calving interval.

3.2.3. The appropriate period of mating

The natural mating service was conducted using traditional a.m-p.m rule. The cows/heifers those

showed estrus behavior in the morning were mated afternoon, while those showed estrus in

afternoon were mated at the morning, because ovulation occurs 26-32 hours after estrus starts

(background). The influences of the environment and managerial practices on behavioral estrus

were recognized, so that failure or misdiagnosis of estrus was minimized. Failure to know the

exact time of mating limited the number of cows that become pregnant.

3.2.4. Advantage and disadvantage of natural service

Natural mating had a plenty of advantages over AI. For instance, the bull did all the work,

breeder lost fewer hours in heat detecting each day. There was no facilities needed (for semen

storage, artificial vagina, etc) and cows got bred right out in the pasture. Unfortunately, natural

mating had also some disadvantages. For example, it was difficult to match a single bull for all

cows and heifers, so multiple bulls were needed to be used. Bull was needed to be fed and cared,

even when it wasn’t out breeding. The price of the bull was higher as compared to the cost to

purchase semen of AI.

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3.3. Reproductive performance of dairy cattle

Reproductive performance of a cow was measured by several factors such as age at first calving,

calving interval, number of services per consumption, age at puberty, etc. The reproductive

performance was influenced more by genotype and environmental factors such as nutrition,

management and climate.

3.2.2. Age at puberty and first calving

Age at puberty and age at first calving determined the beginning of the cow’s reproductive life and influence her lifetime productivity.

Table 7. AFC and AP of Arsi, HF and their cross breeds

Breeds Age at first calving (months)

Age at puberty (months)

AverageAFC AP

Arsi zebu 43 - 48 22 - 24 45.5 23

Holstein Friesian 29 - 32 14 - 16 30.5 15

Zebu x Friesian 31 - 35 17 - 19 33 18

As cited on the above table, the zebu reached at puberty 12 months later than Holstein Friesian

cattle. HF had the shortest age at first calving and puberty than both breeds (32 and 14

respectively). The crossbreed of both cattle had the medium age at puberty and first calving (17

and 35 respectively). So, both ages at first calving and at puberty were influenced by genetic

makeup or genome of the cattle breed. The local/ indigenous breeds attained maturity very

slowly and this affected the number of calf that could the cow born during its reproductive life

which could increase lifetime productivity of cow. Age at puberty and age at first calving

amazingly decreased as blood level of the cattle increased. These traits (AFC and AP) can be

also affected by other various factors, such as management, environmental condition, nutrition

and disease. (Nigussie, al et 1998). For instance, age at puberty and first calving increase if the

cattle are exposed to extreme weather, poor nutrition and management (Haile-mariam et al 1993;

Kiwuwa et al 1983).

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3.3.3. Number of service per conception and calving interval

The number of services per conception (NSC) depended largely on the breeding system used. It

was higher under uncontrolled natural breeding.

Table 8. SPC and CI of Arsi, HF and their cross breeds

Breeds Service per conception

Calving interval (months)

Average

SPC CI(months)

Arsi breed 2.4 - 2.6 12.9 - 15.1 2.5 14

Holstein Friesian 1.6 - 1.7 10 - 12 1.65 11

Arsi × HF 1.8 - 2.0 11 - 13 1.9 12

Source: Anderson J. 1944

Arsi breed has the highest calving interval and service per conception as compared to others two

breeds (14 and 2.5 respectively). This indicates that Arsi breed has low reproductive

performance, low number of calf per reproductive life of cow. However, Holstein Friesian has

the lowest service preconception and calving interval (1.65 and 11 respectively). This enables the

cattle to have large number of calves during their reproductive life. Service preconception and

calving interval are also affected by other factors, environmental condition, nutrition, age,

disease, degree of management and other factors (Masama et al 2003; Shiferaw et al 2003;

Lyimo et al 2004). The cattle those poorly managed poorly fed and diseased had higher service

preconception rate and calving interval than those which were managed well. In zebu cattle,

calving interval was longest in first-calf heifers and older cows, and shortest in cows of

intermediate age.

3.3.5. Major dairy cattle problems in the area

The major problems of dairy cattle in the area were lack of nutritious feed, diseases like Brucella

abortus, poor animal performance and insufficient knowledge on the dynamics of the different

types of dairy cattle owners in the area. There was low improved animal forage in the area, so

animals feed was mostly natural pasture which had low nutritive value. The community’s

awareness about cattle breeding was not improved yet. There was no clear strategy on animal

breeding program in the area and as a country as a whole.

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4. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMONDATION

The local breeds of the country are well adapted to different harsh condition, such as shortage of

feed, water, poor management, disease problems and extreme temperature. However, their

productivity is extremely low as compared to exotic or tropical breeds. Whereas the exotic

breeds cannot tolerate these harsh conditions. Around 60% of the community in the study area

owned Arsi zebu and only 27% of the reared HF even though HF is number one milk producing

dairy breed in the world. The crossbreeding is so important to produce hybrid vigor breed by

crossing two breeds. In the study area, the crossing was mainly between Holstein Friesian and

Arsi zebu. The mating was mostly carried out by natural mating of exotic breeding bull, because

the communities were poorly aware of AI and there was no institutional and technical facility to

perform AI. As we see from above results, Arsi cows/heifers have higher age at puberty, age at

first calving and calving interval than HF. The reproductive performance of dairy cattle was

affected by many factors such as, poor heat detection, disease, poor management, feed and

genetic makeup of the breed. The crossbreed cattle have better productivity and reproductive

performance than indigenous Arsi zebu.

Unfortunately, there is poor policy on genetic improvement of dairy cattle in the country. There

are low institutional and technical facilities to carryout cross breeding program. Rural

communities are not well informed about the importance of crossbreeding. So, all these

constraints must be alleviated to improve the reproductivity and productivity of local dairy cattle.

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Alberro M 1983, Comparative Performance of F1 Friesian x Zebu Heifers in Ethiopia. Animal Production 37: 247-252

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Anderson J. 1944, The periodicity and duration of estrus in zebu and grade cattle. Journal of Agricultural Science 34: 57-68.

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Hailemariam M. and Mekonnen G. 1996, Reproductive performance of zebu, Friesian and Friesian-zebu crosses. Tropical Agriculture, 73: (2) 142-147.

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Shiferaw Y, Tenhagn BA, Bekana M and Kassa T 2003, Reproductive performance of crossbred Dairy cows in different production systems in the central Highlands of Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production 25: 551-561

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