MEMORY - Warren County Public Schools...primacy and recency effects, respectively--when memory is immediately tested primacy effects reflect LTM recency effects due to STM Distinguishing

MEMORYChapter 7, 19 (Bernstein), pages 237-277, 770-773

THE NATURE OF MEMORY

ENCODING the process of putting information into memory

sensory info put into memory codes (mental representations of physical stimuli)

ACOUSTIC ENCODING information as sequences of sounds

VISUAL ENCODING information in picture form

SEMANTIC ENCODING general meaning of information

STORAGE holding information in memory over time

RETRIEVAL pulling info out of memory and into consciousness after stored

RECALL retrieving info without any cues

RECOGNITION retrieving info with aid of cues

Basic Memory Processes

Do Act

ivity 7.2

NOW!!!

1. EPISODIC MEMORY any memory of a specific event that happened while you were present

• e.g., your 13th birthday party, when you found out a close relative died, your first day of school at South Warren HS

2.SEMANTIC MEMORY memory which contains generalized knowledge of the world that does not involve memory of a specific event

• e.g., George W. Bush, the relative location of Canada, things to do in New York City

3.PROCEDURAL MEMORY memory of how to do things, of how to perform physical tasks (often difficult to explain in words; easier to demonstrate)

• e.g., tying shoes, working an algebraic equation, performing surgery

Types of Memory


EXPLICIT MEMORY used when you consciously and deliberately try to remember something

e.g., answering test questions, game shows, conversation

IMPLICIT MEMORY the unintentional recognition and influence of prior experiences

e.g., sports skills, reading, eating

Explicit and Implicit Memory


There are currently five models that attempt to explain memory.

1. INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

2. LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING MODEL

3. TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING MODEL

4. PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING MODELS

5.MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMS

Models of Memory


INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL

three stages of mental processing required before info firmly embedded in memory

1. SENSORY MEMORY

2. SHORT-TERM MEMORY

3. LONG-TERM MEMORY

Models of Memory


LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING MODEL

states that WHAT and HOW well we remember are a function of how deeply information is processed or encoded when first experienced

MAINTENANCE REHEARSAL repeating and item over and over

ELABORATIVE REHEARSAL building associations or linkages between new and old information; requires deeper level processing and results in stronger memories

Models of Memory


TRANSFER-APPROPRIATE PROCESSING MODEL

suggests most important memory determinant is how well processes involved during RETRIEVAL match how information was originally encoded

Models of Memory


PARALLEL DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING MODELS

suggests new facts are integrated with existing knowledge or memories

changes our overall knowledge base and alters our understanding of the world and how it operates

each unit of knowledge connected to every other unit of knowledge

allows us to quickly and efficiently draw inferences and generalizations about new and old info

Models of Memory


MULTIPLE MEMORY SYSTEMS

suggests the brain contains several separate memory systems

each system resides in a different area of the brain

each area serves different purposes

Models of Memory


SENSORY MEMORY holds information from all the senses

information held in SENSORY REGISTERS for fraction of a second (just long enough to be processed further, if desired)

allows us to experience a constant flow of information

SELECTIVE ATTENTION focuses mental processing on only part of stimulus field, controlling what information is processed further

e.g., (of sensory information) _________________________________________

Sensory MemorySTORING NEW MEMORIES

SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM) stores limited amounts of info for limited amount of time (around 18 seconds unless rehearsed according to the Brown-Peterson procedure)

STM is part of WORKING MEMORY--that part of memory which allows us to work with/manipulate information in STM

at least two components in working memory:

1. MAINTENANCE (holding information in STM)

2. MANIPULATION (working on that information)

e.g., (of using working memory) _______________________________________

Short-Term Memory and Working MemorySTORING NEW MEMORIES

Do Activity 7.5 NOW!!!

Encoding in Short-Term Memory

acoustic encoding (by sound) dominant form

visual codes usually decay faster than acoustic codes

evidence suggest also kinesthetic encoding (by physical movement)

e.g., (of each type of encoding)

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

__________________________________________

STORING NEW MEMORIESShort-Term Memory and Working Memory

Storage Capacity of Short-Term Memory

IMMEDIATE MEMORY SPAN number of times you can recall perfectly after one presentation of a stimulus; “magic number” usually seven +/- two (five to nine) items or groupings of info

groupings of information called CHUNKS

STM noticeably improved by chunking

e.g., (of “practical” chunking) ___________________________________

STORING NEW MEMORIESShort-Term Memory and Working Memory


LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM) storage capabilities produce memories lasting a lifetime

Encoding in LTM

some info encoded in LTM without conscious effort

most encoding result of elaborate, conscious processing

usually involves semantic encoding (can result in problems if recall of specifics important)

visual codes also used to encode long-term memories.

DUAL CODING THEORY information remembered better if both semantic and visual codes used

e.g., (of both types of encoding) ________________________________

Long-Term Memory

STORING NEW MEMORIES

LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM) storage capabilities produce memories lasting a lifetime

Storage Capacity of LTM

most theorists believe no limit to amount of info that can be stored in LTM

most theorists also realize memories can be quite distorted

distortion can even occur in flashbulb memories--vivid recollections of personally significant events

e.g., (of flashbulb memories) _________________________________

STORING NEW MEMORIESLong-Term Memory

IS THERE A DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM MEMORY?

psychologists disagree about differences between STM and LTM

Some believe they are the same; that what is referred to as STM is part of LTM being used at a particular moment in time

Other psychologists claim STM and LTM obey different laws

Distinguishing Between STM and LTM


EXPERIMENTS ON RECALL

Serial position curves show tendency to recall first AND last parts of a list-- primacy and recency effects, respectively--when memory is immediately tested

primacy effects reflect LTM

recency effects due to STM

Distinguishing Between STM and LTM



Retrieval the ability to bring a memory into consciousness

RETRIEVAL CUES stimuli that help people retrieve information from LTM

According to the encoding specificity principle, cues more efficient when related to meaning originally encoded information

e.g., (of efficient retrieval cues) ____________________________________

RETRIEVING MEMORIESRETRIEVAL CUES AND SPECIFICITY

CONTEXT AND STATE DEPENDENCE

CONTEXT DEPENDENT MEMORY when memory is helped or hindered by an environmentthe same or similar to the one where the material was originally learned

e.g., (of context dependent memory) _______________________________

STATE DEPENDENT MEMORY when a person’s internal state can aid or hamper retrieval

e.g., (of state dependent memory) _________________________________

In the mood congruency effect, recall is facilitated if a person’s emotional state is similar in tone to the information being recalled. People tend to remember more positive events when they are in a positive mood.

e.g., (of mood congruency effect) __________________________________

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

RETRIEVAL FROM SEMANTIC MEMORY

Semantic Network Theory

suggests semantic memories represented in a dense network of association

info retrieved through a spreading activation process (e.g., Thinking about concept X spreads neural activity to all other features, attributes,and concepts associated with concept X.)

stronger association more quickly retrieved

result of this network organization--we both retrieve facts we have learned AND also make conclusions about other facts

e.g., (of spreading activation) ________________________________________

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

RETRIEVAL FROM SEMANTIC MEMORY

Retrieving Incomplete Knowledge

when we retrieve some features and attributes of a concept but cannot access the entire concept

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon when people cannot recall a particular word but can recall many features of it--its first letter, number of syllables, etc.

Feeling-of-knowing experience when people cannot recall an answer but can retrieve enough info to determine whether the answer is actually stored in their memory and able to be correctly recognized

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

CONSTRUCTING MEMORIES

People construct memories by using their existing knowledge to organize new information and to fill in gaps in information that is being encoded or retrieved.

Relating Semantic and Episodic Memories (Parallel Distributed Processing Models): PDP models offer one explanation for how semantic and episodic info become integrated in constructive memories because they represent knowledge as LINKS in a network of associations.

PDP networks can produce spontaneous generalizations, unsubstantiated assumptions that are based on limited or biased information.

SCHEMAS are representations of categories of objects, events, and people.

According to PDP models, the generalized knowledge contained in schemas provides the basis for making inferences about incoming information during the encoding stage.

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

Factors influencing eyewitnesses’ ability to recall information during courtroom testimony

1) They can only remember what they perceive and perceive only what they pay attention to.

2) The semantic encoding typical of LTM can cause the loss of certain important details.

3) New info in questions AND how questions are asked can alter a witness’s memory.

4) Objects or events not witnessed but mentioned after the fact many be incorporated into memories (“misinformation effect”) and can occur for a number of reasons:

New info may make it harder to retrieve the original memory.

New info may be integrated into the original memory making it impossible to distinguish the new info from the original memory.

If a respected person says an object was there or an event occurred, witnesses might believe this must be true.

Linkages: Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

Jurors tend to judge a witness as believable based on how the witness presents evidence, not just on what the witness says.

1) Jurors are more likely to believe witnesses who give very detailed accounts, even if those accounts are inaccurate.

2) Jurors are more likely to believe witnesses who are very confident, but research suggests that, on average, more confident witnesses are not more accurate. (Inflated confidence may stem from repeated exposure and recall of misinformation.)

Eyewitness ID of criminals is more accurate when mug shots are viewed one at a time OR when witnesses are told the alleged perpetrator might not be included in the lineup.

Linkages: Memory, Perception, and Eyewitness Testimony

part 2

RETRIEVING MEMORIES

METHOD OF SAVING Hermann Ebbinghaus’s method which involves computing the difference between the number of trials needed to learn something and the number of trials needed to relearn it again after some time has passed.

This difference is called savings.

Savings decline and forgetting increases as time passes.

The most dramatic drop in what is retained in LTM occurs during the first nine hours, especially the first two.

The shape of the forgetting curve (depicting how much and when people forget) stays relatively constant regardless of the type of info learned. After the intial strong drop in memory, the decrease moderates over time.

Savings in LTM can be very long-lasting, retained often for decades.

FORGETTINGHow do we forget?

DECAY the gradual disappearance of the mental representation of a stimulus. Decay is prominent in forgetting in STM.

INTERFERENCE a process through which the stoage or retrieval of information is impaired by the presence of other information.

It may occur because one piece of information displaces other info or because one piece of info makes storing or recalling other info more difficult.

It occurs in both STM and LTM but is more directly tied to forgetting in LTM.

Retroactive interference learning new info interferes w/ recalling old info

Proactive interference older info interferes w/ learning or recalling new info

Some suggest all forgetting from LTM is due to some form of retrieval failure (interference) rather than decay. However, no one knows for sure why we forget.

FORGETTINGWhy do we forget?

Brain cells change as memories are formed and stored.

One early theory (Donald Hebb, 1949) suggested that each memory is represented by a group of interconnected neurons called a cell assembly. This is the basis for the expanded, modern understanding of the biochemistry of memory.

The formation and storage of new memories are associated with changes in synapses:

When new synapses are formed, communication at existing synapses is altered. Repeated signals across a synapse increase the number of spines on the receiving dendrite, which appears to enhance memory capabilities.

long-term potentiation synapses become “sensitized” to be more responsive to future stimulation (due to increased frequency of use)

long-term depression synaptic connections become weakened (lack of use)

The neurotransmitters glutamate and acetylcholine play important roles in memory.

The Biochemistry of MemoryBIOLOGICAL BASES OF MEMORY

Memory involves both specialized regions for various types of memory formation and widespread areas for storage.

The hippocampus, nearby parts of the cortex, and the thalamus are important in the formation of new memories.

Other aspects of memory (such as sights and sounds associated with certain events) are stored if different parts of the cerebral cortex.

A little more info on memory and brain structures...

The hippocampus deals with directions and the long term memory . The amygdala incorporates memories and emotions. The cerebral cortex (also known as the outer layer of the brain) stores the long term memory in many brain regions depending on the information types, namely the language, sensory input, problem solving, decision making, etc.

Brain Structures and MemoryBIOLOGICAL BASES OF MEMORY

The Impact of Brain Damage

anterograde amnesia damage to hippocampus; loss of memory of events occurring AFTER the injury; cannot transfer new info from STM to LTM; cannot form explicit memories; implicit, procedural, and working memory remain intact; THUS...hippocampus appears to be crucial in the formation of episodic memories while other types of memories are controlled by other brain areas

retrograde amnesialoss of memory of events that occurred BEFORE the injury; many patients regain most memories; may never remember last few seconds before injury; short-term memories never transferred to LTM; cases involving amnesia for hours or minutes before the trauma suggest that as memories move from STM to LTM, they are initially unstable and vulnerable to disruption; may take minutes, hours, or days before these transitioning memories are fully solidified, or consolidated

Brain Structures and Memory (cont.)BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MEMORY

Multiple Storage Areas

Memories are likely stored in/around the cortex. Certain areas store specific aspects of a remembered event, but many brain regions are involved in experiencing the whole event.

Memory problems observed due to damage to various brain areas are consistent with the view that STM and LTM are distinct systems.

Research on memory retrieval:

Imaging studies show the hippocampus and regions of the parietal cortex and prefrontal cortex are active during memory retrieval.

Retrieving memories of certain experiences may also activate sensory and motor regions of the brain that may have been involved during the event itself.

Research suggests that when memories are recalled, they may have to be stored again or reconsolidated. During this process the memory may be open to distortion.

Brain Structures and Memory (cont. again)BIOLOGICAL BASES OF MEMORY

The best strategies for improving memory are based on the elaboration of incoming information and linking new information to what is already known.

Mnemonics strategies for placing info into an organized context to remember it

Acronyms involve putting just the first letters of each of a list of things to be remembered into one easily recalled word or phrase.

e.g., ____________________________________________________

Verbal organization is the basis for many mnemonic devices such as stories or rhymes.

e.g., ____________________________________________________

The method of loci associates well-known locations with info to be remembered.

e.g., ____________________________________________________

Improving Your MemoryAPPLICATION OF MEMORY RESEARCH

Guidelines for More Effective Studying:

Create a context, such as an outline, for organizing info.

Use elaborate rehearsal with new info.

Use distributed practice rather than massed practice.

Practice retrieval of learned info by repeated self-testing (e.g., flashcards)



Reading a Textbook:

Successful students monitor their understanding of their reading, reread difficult sections, and review periodically.

Check for understanding before going on.

To increase depth of info processing, use the PQ4R method (preview, question, read, reflect, recite, review)

Lecture Notes:

Focus on expressing major ideas in relatively few words, draw connections with other material, and summarize main pts.

Review notes ASAP after lecture to fill in missing details and create flashcards for key terms

When studying for an exam, create a detailed outline of notes and think about how various points are related.


The scientific study of memory has influenced the design of electronic and mechanical devices that play important roles in our lives.

Common examples include:

placing the least-likely-to-be-remembered instructions on a device

using words for toll-free numbers to help people chunk information

Other examples: ________________________________________

Design for MemoryAPPLICATION OF MEMORY RESEARCH

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MEMORY - Warren County Public Schools...primacy and recency effects, respectively--when memory is immediately tested primacy effects reflect LTM recency effects due to STM Distinguishing