Chapter 7: Memory Processes Cognitive Views & Processing

Cognitive Views of Memory

Shayne, Olivia, Dustin, Kery Fall 2014

Information processing is comparing the mind to a computer in that information is encoded in sensory memory where perception and attention determine what will be held in working memory.

Sensory Memory is used to process incoming stimuli into information how we can make sense of them. Capacity of sensory memory is very large, but very fragile in duration by only lasting between 1 and 3 seconds.

Perception is interpretation of sensory information to make meaning. This is done by:

1. Feature Analysis (bottom-up processing) – stimuli must be analyzed into features or patterns and assembled into a meaningful pattern

2. Top-down processing – based on prior knowledge and expectation.

Role of Attention – Attention is selective, but if we focus on the stimuli and ignore others, we will be able to perceive and process the given stimuli. Teachers must be aware that the first step in learning is paying attention and teachers need eye-catching visuals in order to gain students’ interest and their attention.

Prototype

Best example or best representative of a category to perceive patterns quickly

Teachers: Gain and maintain attention by using signals, clear assignments for students, incorporate variety, and ask questions

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Working Memory Working memory is the workbench of the memory system, where new information is held temporarily and combined with knowledge from long-term memory in order to solve problems.

Short-term memory is not exactly the same as working memory. Short term is storage, holds immediate information for 15 – 20 seconds.

Working memory is composed of three elements: Central executive (controls attention, makes plans, retrieves & integrates info), phonological loop (holds verbal and acoustical information), and visuospatial sketchpad (visual and spatial information is manipulated here).

To keep information activated in the working memory for longer than 20 seconds, people use maintenance rehearsal (mentally repeating) and elaborative rehearsal (making connections with knowledge from long-term memory and help move information to long-term memory).

Cognitive load is a term for the amount of mental resources it takes to perform a task. Cognitive load is dependent on the knowledge known about the task & the resources available. If cognitive load is high, it can decrease or inhibit one’s ability to perform a task. There are three types of cognitive loads (KSA #1,7):

1. Intrinsic – is unavoidable, amount of cognitive processing required to figure out material

a. Good instruction can help manage intrinsic load 2. Extraneous – dealing with problems not related to the learning task, like dealing with

loud noises a. Instruction can help by providing supports, focusing attention to main ideas, and

supplying scaffolding 3. Germane – organizing and integrating the material with what you already know and

forming new understandings. Most valuable of all three. a. Can ask students to explain material to others or themselves, draw a chart, take

useful notes

Chunking

Grouping individual bits of data into meaningful larger units

Teachers need to provide students with brain breaks or other mental breaks in order for the students to want to learn. Keep a learning environment free from negative distractions to allow for retention of material (KSA #8)

Most valuable of all three

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Long Term Memory Long-term memory is the ability to hold information that is well learned, such as the names of the people you know. Long-term memory is built upon the learning from the working memory (processing) that allows for long-term memory (storage) to hold.

Contents of Long-term memory:

1. Declarative Knowledge: Knowledge that can be declared, usually in words or symbols. “Knowing that” something is the case.

2. Procedural Knowledge: “Knowing how” to do something; must be demonstrated

3. Self-regulatory Knowledge: “Knowing when and why” to apply Declarative and procedural knowledge

Two categories of long-term memory is Explicit (knowledge recalled and considered) or Implicit (unconsciously recalling information but influences behavior).

Teaching Application

That memory is a process, and some students have the ability to use all memory processes, while some may only be proficient in one process (KSA #9)

Semantic memory is very important in schools. This memory is memory for meaning, which includes declarative knowledge such as words, facts, theories, and concepts.

Along with semantic memory, we use images to try to recreate the physical attributes and spatial structure of information. When combining words with images, this is the easiest way for an individual to learn.

Memories may be explicit or implicit, but in long-term memory, information may be stored in networks, images, concepts, and personal schemas.

In order to organize propositions, images, or concepts, schemas allow us to represent large amounts of complex information, make inferences, and understand new information.

The way you learn information when presented affects its recall later. We need to integrate new material with previous knowledge stored in long-term memory using elaboration (link to prior knowledge), organization, and context (place/time in which it was learned).

Information lost from working memory disappears, but information from long-term memory may be available. Information lost can be from time decay and interference from memories.

Important! Access to information here requires time and effort!

2  Categories  of  Long-­‐Term  Memory

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Some Basic Principles Development of Declarative Knowledge

Developed schemas and previous experiences will help guide new information to be processed.

Teachers need to help students learn best by:

1. Making it meaningful – well organized, clear connections, make use of old information 2. Visual images and illustrations – build understandings through visuals for retention 3. Mnemonics – memorization aids that uses the loci method, acronyms, chain

mnemonics, and keyword method 4. Rote memorization – supported by part learning and distributed practice

Loci Method

Technique of associating items with specific places

Chain Mnemonics

Memory strategies that associate one element in a series with the next element

Keyword Method

Associating new words or concepts with similar sounding cue words and images

Development of Procedural Knowledge

Knowledge will develop to become automatic and “proceduralized” without making demands on working memory.

Two types of procedural knowledge can be learned in different ways (KSA #15):

1. Automated Basic Skills: Skills can be applied without conscious thought a. There are three stages in the development of an automated skill:

i. Cognitive – following steps or directions guided by declarative knowledge ii. Associative – Combining individual steps into larger units

iii. Autonomous – Completing task without paying much attention 2. Domain-specific Strategies: Consciously applied skills to reach goals in a particular

subject or problem area.

Previous knowledge and practice with feedback will help students move through stages.

Teachers!

Help students remember by:

KSA #9: Have the students’ attention, help focus on most important information, make connections of information, allow repetition and review, present in a clear and organized way, focus on meaning but not memorization.

KSA #5: Provide opportunities for practice and application in many different situations while understanding that there is a diversity of learning. Students may have developmental differences and individual differences for working memory. Also, long-term memory will vary amongst knowledge, cultural differences, and developmental differences in event memories.

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Works Cited

*All images and information were taken directly from the book cited.

Woolfolk, A., Winne, P., & Perry, N. (2012). Educational Psychology (5th ed.). 69-112.

Toronto: Pearson Education.