Memory and Cognition PSY 324 Topic: Long-term Memory- Structure Dr. Ellen Campana Arizona State University

Memory and Memory and CognitionCognition

PSY 324PSY 324

Topic: Long-term Memory- StructureTopic: Long-term Memory- Structure

Dr. Ellen CampanaDr. Ellen Campana

Arizona State UniversityArizona State University

STM/WM vs. LTMSTM/WM vs. LTM

Working MemoryWorking MemoryBaddeley (2000)Baddeley (2000)

Sensory Memory

Long-term

Memory

Input

CentralExecutive

Phonologal LoopVisuospatial Sketchpad

Episodic Buffer

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

Sensory Memory

Long-term

Memory

Input

CentralExecutive

Phonologal LoopVisuospatial Sketchpad

Episodic Buffer

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory

Long-term memory is memory for Long-term memory is memory for everything except what “just” happenedeverything except what “just” happened Not all long-term-memories are equalNot all long-term-memories are equal

Memories fade over timeMemories fade over time Memories can get consolidated Memories can get consolidated

Long-term memory is also involved in short-Long-term memory is also involved in short-term memory (as we’ve discussed a little)term memory (as we’ve discussed a little) Understanding / interpreting what’s happening Understanding / interpreting what’s happening

nownow Not always conscious of using long-term Not always conscious of using long-term

memorymemory

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory WATCH OUT! WATCH OUT!

The word “long-term” tends to really mess people The word “long-term” tends to really mess people up in this class. We’re using a special definition of up in this class. We’re using a special definition of “long-term” here (not everyday meaning)!“long-term” here (not everyday meaning)!

Long-term?Long-term? When I was little I went fishing with my dadWhen I was little I went fishing with my dad

YESYES I’m working on long multiplication – I carried the 2I’m working on long multiplication – I carried the 2

NONO I got a text from Jessie 5 minutes agoI got a text from Jessie 5 minutes ago

YES – It’s considered LONG-TERMYES – It’s considered LONG-TERM

Long-term vs. Long-term vs. Short-term/WorkingShort-term/Working

Murdoch (1962) – Serial PositionMurdoch (1962) – Serial Position Experiment shows that Long-term Experiment shows that Long-term

Memory and Short-term / Working Memory and Short-term / Working memory are differentmemory are different Same task, can see bothSame task, can see both Affected by different experimental Affected by different experimental

manipulationsmanipulations Next: DemoNext: Demo

You can do this one or the the one at You can do this one or the the one at Coglab. Extra credit for the one at Coglab.Coglab. Extra credit for the one at Coglab.

Serial Position Curve Serial Position Curve DemoDemo

1) Make sure you are in “presentation 1) Make sure you are in “presentation mode”mode”

2) On the next slide you will see words 2) On the next slide you will see words appear, one at a time. Try to remember appear, one at a time. Try to remember them.them.

grasspenfloatbirdtreatwristfirstbendchairchangechopsmockarchwindrust


1) Make sure you are in “presentation 1) Make sure you are in “presentation mode”mode”

2) On the next slide you will see words 2) On the next slide you will see words appear, one at a time. Try to remember appear, one at a time. Try to remember them.them.

3) Now write down all that you can 3) Now write down all that you can rememberremember


1) Make sure you are in “presentation mode”1) Make sure you are in “presentation mode”

2) On the next slide you will see words appear, 2) On the next slide you will see words appear, one at a time. Try to remember them.one at a time. Try to remember them.

3) Now write down all that you can remember3) Now write down all that you can remember

4) How many did you get in each group?4) How many did you get in each group?

Group1: grass, pen, float, bird, treatGroup1: grass, pen, float, bird, treat Group2: wrist, first, bend, chair, changeGroup2: wrist, first, bend, chair, change Group3: chop, smock, arch, wind, rustGroup3: chop, smock, arch, wind, rust

Example Data PatternExample Data Pattern

# Remembered

1st 5 2nd 5 3rd 5



Primacy Effect

Recency Effect


Serial Position CurveSerial Position Curve When done as Murdoch did, always has a When done as Murdoch did, always has a

“U-shape”“U-shape” Primacy effect:Primacy effect: Increase at the start of the Increase at the start of the

listlist Recency effect:Recency effect: Increase at the end of the list Increase at the end of the list

The two effects are due to different The two effects are due to different types of memorytypes of memory Primacy effect = Long-term MemoryPrimacy effect = Long-term Memory Recency effect = Short-term MemoryRecency effect = Short-term Memory

Primacy & Long-term Primacy & Long-term MemoryMemory

Recency & Recency & Short-term/Working Short-term/Working

MemoryMemory

Sources of EvidenceSources of Evidence

You should know and understand the You should know and understand the evidence linking the primacy effect to evidence linking the primacy effect to LTM and the recency effect to STM LTM and the recency effect to STM evidence was in those graphs – can you evidence was in those graphs – can you

state it in words?state it in words? LTM = primacy effectLTM = primacy effect

Slowing down presentation increases Slowing down presentation increases memory for those first wordsmemory for those first words

Due to more time to rehearse, which means Due to more time to rehearse, which means higher likelihood of transfer to LTMhigher likelihood of transfer to LTM

Sources of EvidenceSources of Evidence

You should know and understand the You should know and understand the evidence linking the primacy effect to LTM evidence linking the primacy effect to LTM and the recency effect to STM and the recency effect to STM evidence was in those graphs – can you state it evidence was in those graphs – can you state it

in words?in words? STM = recency effectSTM = recency effect

Adding delay with articulation before recall Adding delay with articulation before recall reduces memory for later words (but not first reduces memory for later words (but not first words)words)

Saying something prevents rehearsal with STM Saying something prevents rehearsal with STM / phonological loop of WM/ phonological loop of WM

Coding in STM vs. LTMCoding in STM vs. LTM

STM/WMSTM/WM Auditory coding = sound of a wordAuditory coding = sound of a word Visual coding = appearance of a personVisual coding = appearance of a person

Long-term MemoryLong-term Memory Semantic coding = basic meaning (but Semantic coding = basic meaning (but

detail lost)detail lost)


Since STM and LTM use different types Since STM and LTM use different types of coding, we need different types of of coding, we need different types of teststests Recall test:Recall test: participants learn information participants learn information

and then, after delay, they list whatever and then, after delay, they list whatever they can rememberthey can remember

performance depends on a high degree of performance depends on a high degree of conscious awareness & memory for the details conscious awareness & memory for the details

Good for STM, but only some types of LTM Good for STM, but only some types of LTM (strong declarative – you’ll learn this term in the (strong declarative – you’ll learn this term in the next section)next section)


Since STM and LTM use different types Since STM and LTM use different types of coding, we need different types of testsof coding, we need different types of tests Recognition test:Recognition test: participants learn participants learn

information and then, after a delay, they are information and then, after a delay, they are shown a list that contains some items from shown a list that contains some items from the previous list and some new items. Their the previous list and some new items. Their task --say which ones they’ve seen.task --say which ones they’ve seen. Performance can be based on memories that are Performance can be based on memories that are

semantically codedsemantically coded Can even be used to show how things are codedCan even be used to show how things are coded

Recognition Tests of Recognition Tests of Semantic CodingSemantic Coding

Read this passage (you will be tested):Read this passage (you will be tested):

There is an interesting story about the telescope. In There is an interesting story about the telescope. In Holland, a man named Lippershey was an eyeglass Holland, a man named Lippershey was an eyeglass maker. One day his children were playing with some maker. One day his children were playing with some lenses. They discovered that things seemed very lenses. They discovered that things seemed very close if two lenses were held about a foot apart. close if two lenses were held about a foot apart. Lippershey began experimenting, and his “spyglass” Lippershey began experimenting, and his “spyglass” attracted much attention. He sent a letter about it to attracted much attention. He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once Galileo, the great Italian scientist. Galileo at once realized the importance of the the discovery and set realized the importance of the the discovery and set about building an instrument of his own.about building an instrument of his own.

Recognition Tests of Recognition Tests of Semantic CodingSemantic Coding

Which of the following sentences did you Which of the following sentences did you actually read in that passage?actually read in that passage?

Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.Galileo, the great Italian scientist, sent him a letter about it.

He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.He sent Galileo, the great Italian scientist, a letter about it.

A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian A letter about it was sent to Galileo, the great Italian scientistscientist

He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian He sent a letter about it to Galileo, the great Italian scientist.scientist. CORRECT

INCORRECT BUT SAME MEANING

AS CORRECT

INCORRECTDIFFERENT MEANING

Recognition Test Example Recognition Test Example ResultsResults

% Chosen

Correct Incorrect, Same

Meaning

Incorrect, Different Meaning

Conclusion: Information semantically coded!

STM vs. LTM and the STM vs. LTM and the BrainBrain

Double dissociation (=> independent Double dissociation (=> independent systems)systems) Some people with brain damage have intact Some people with brain damage have intact

(good) STM but impaired (bad) LTM(good) STM but impaired (bad) LTM Some people with different brain damage have Some people with different brain damage have

intact intact LTM but impaired STMLTM but impaired STM

fMRI study - different brain activity for fMRI study - different brain activity for reacall of early vs. late words in a list reacall of early vs. late words in a list

STM LTM

Clive Wearing and H. M.

OK Impaired

K. F. Impaired OK

Types of LTMTypes of LTM

Types of Long-Term Types of Long-Term MemoryMemory

Long-term Memory

Declarative(conscious)

Implicit(not conscious)

Episodic(personal events)

Semantic(facts)

PrimingProcedural

Memory

NOTE: This is a description of the categories, not a model…. For instance LTM can be divided into declarative and implicit types of knowledge. Declarative knowledge can be further divided into Episodic and Semantic memories, and so on.

Conditioning

Declarative vs. Implicit Declarative vs. Implicit MemoryMemory

Major distinction is whether or not the Major distinction is whether or not the person is consciously aware of the person is consciously aware of the knowledge / memoryknowledge / memory DeclarativeDeclarative – conscious (declare = speak) – conscious (declare = speak) ImplicitImplicit – unconscious, but can be seen in – unconscious, but can be seen in

behaviorbehavior We’ll discuss the sub-categories of each We’ll discuss the sub-categories of each

typetype Declarative = Declarative = episodicepisodic and and semanticsemantic Implicit = Implicit = primingpriming, , procedural memoryprocedural memory, and, and

conditioningconditioning

Declarative Declarative MemoryMemory

Episodic vs. SemanticEpisodic vs. Semantic

Different Different types of informationtypes of information that is that is storedstored EpisodicEpisodic = “episodes” of one’s own life = “episodes” of one’s own life

Visiting your grandfather’s house when you were 10Visiting your grandfather’s house when you were 10 SemanticSemantic = facts and knowledge = facts and knowledge

Skinner wrote the book Skinner wrote the book Verbal BehaviorVerbal Behavior

Different Different types of experiencetypes of experience for each for each (Tulving)(Tulving) Episodic = Episodic = rememberingremembering Semantic = Semantic = knowingknowing

Remembering vs. Remembering vs. KnowingKnowing

RememberingRemembering Mental time travelMental time travel, re-experiencing past , re-experiencing past

events events Also called Also called self-knowingself-knowing NOTE: memories of the past are not always NOTE: memories of the past are not always

truetrue KnowingKnowing

No mental time travel, memory is separate No mental time travel, memory is separate from specific personal experiencesfrom specific personal experiences Facts, vocabulary, numbers, concepts, etc.Facts, vocabulary, numbers, concepts, etc.

Episodic vs. SemanticEpisodic vs. Semantic

Neuropsychological Evidence (double Neuropsychological Evidence (double dissociation)dissociation) K.C. (damage to K.C. (damage to hippocampushippocampus))

Lost episodic memory but semantic memory is intactLost episodic memory but semantic memory is intact Italian woman (encephalitis)Italian woman (encephalitis)

Lost semantic memory but semantic memory is intactLost semantic memory but semantic memory is intact

Evidence from ImagingEvidence from Imaging Participants recorded descriptions of personal Participants recorded descriptions of personal

events and facts they new. These were played back events and facts they new. These were played back to them in a brain scanner. Hearing their own to them in a brain scanner. Hearing their own episodic vs. semantic memories activated different episodic vs. semantic memories activated different (but partially overlapping) areas. (but partially overlapping) areas.

Episodic SemanticEpisodic Semantic

Over time, episodic memories can become Over time, episodic memories can become semantic memoriessemantic memories Remember a fact, but forget when it was learnedRemember a fact, but forget when it was learned Personal events can actually “morph” into factsPersonal events can actually “morph” into facts

Semantic memory can be enhanced with Semantic memory can be enhanced with episodic memoryepisodic memory Personal semantic memoriesPersonal semantic memories remembered remembered

betterbetter Can you use this when you study for the exam???Can you use this when you study for the exam???

Episodic SemanticEpisodic Semantic

Semantic memory influences Semantic memory influences attention, which then influences attention, which then influences Episodic memoryEpisodic memory Textbook example: football game Textbook example: football game

One friend knows a lot about football and One friend knows a lot about football and the other knows very littlethe other knows very little

The one who knows a lot remembers The one who knows a lot remembers individual playsindividual plays

The one who knows little remembers only The one who knows little remembers only “a game”“a game”

Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory

Implicit MemoryImplicit Memory

Implicit memory (or Implicit memory (or nonknowingnonknowing) occurs ) occurs when when Prior experience influences performance, BUTPrior experience influences performance, BUT We do not consciously remember the experienceWe do not consciously remember the experience

Many different typesMany different types PrimingPriming

Repetition PrimingRepetition Priming Conceptual PrimingConceptual Priming

Procedural memoryProcedural memory Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

PrimingPriming Priming is when presentation of one stimulus (the Priming is when presentation of one stimulus (the

priming stimulus) affects the response to a priming stimulus) affects the response to a stimulus that comes afterward (the test stimulus)stimulus that comes afterward (the test stimulus) Different ways that priming can be seenDifferent ways that priming can be seen

Positive = priming improves speed / accuracy in testPositive = priming improves speed / accuracy in test Negative = priming reduces speed / accuracyNegative = priming reduces speed / accuracy

Different types of primingDifferent types of priming Repetition priming Repetition priming = priming stimulus is exactly the = priming stimulus is exactly the

same as test stimulussame as test stimulus Conceptual priming Conceptual priming = priming stimulus is related to = priming stimulus is related to

the test stimulus in terms of meaningthe test stimulus in terms of meaning

Repetition PrimingRepetition Priming

Tulving (1982)Tulving (1982) Show people 96 words (some are Show people 96 words (some are

priming stimulipriming stimuli)) People then quickly complete word People then quickly complete word

fragment puzzlesfragment puzzles C_ _ A R _T C_ _ A R _T

Compare performance on new words to Compare performance on new words to performance on words used as performance on words used as priming priming stimulistimuli


% of word fragment puzzles solved

Seen before

New


OK, so this effect happens…. But OK, so this effect happens…. But couldn’t it actually be declarative, not couldn’t it actually be declarative, not implicit, memory???implicit, memory??? Tulving tried to prevent people from using Tulving tried to prevent people from using

declarative memory in the experimentdeclarative memory in the experiment Speeded test (no time for conscious awareness)Speeded test (no time for conscious awareness) No memory test, instead people solved a problemNo memory test, instead people solved a problem

In another experiment, he looked at this In another experiment, he looked at this question in much more detailquestion in much more detail To understand that you’ll need to know a bit To understand that you’ll need to know a bit

more about memory tests in generalmore about memory tests in general


Tulving wanted to make sure that Tulving wanted to make sure that declarative memory (even very weak declarative memory (even very weak memory) was not causing repetition memory) was not causing repetition primingpriming Repeated the word-fragment study, and this Repeated the word-fragment study, and this

time gave people recognition tests, tootime gave people recognition tests, too both tests were given at 1 hour and 7 days of delayboth tests were given at 1 hour and 7 days of delay

Over time:Over time: Performance on the recognition task decreased Performance on the recognition task decreased Performance on the word-fragment task stayed the Performance on the word-fragment task stayed the

samesame


Performance

(good is up)

1 hour

7 days

Recognition Test

Word Fragment

Task


In Tulving’s study performance on the In Tulving’s study performance on the implicit memory task and the declarative implicit memory task and the declarative memory task followed different patterns, memory task followed different patterns, so they aren’t the sameso they aren’t the same

The neurobiological data is even more The neurobiological data is even more convincingconvincing Warrington & Weiskrantz (1968) tested Warrington & Weiskrantz (1968) tested

Korsakoff’s syndromeKorsakoff’s syndrome patients on a patients on a recognition taskrecognition task

Patients are unable to form new declarative Patients are unable to form new declarative memoriesmemories


Pictures were used instead of wordsPictures were used instead of words Patients were shown more and more complete Patients were shown more and more complete

versions until they could recognize the objectversions until they could recognize the object Patients tested on the same stimuli for 3 Patients tested on the same stimuli for 3

daysdays Due to impairment they had no conscious Due to impairment they had no conscious

recollection of previous training sessionsrecollection of previous training sessions Previous days’ tests were the Previous days’ tests were the priming stimulipriming stimuli

Performance improved with repetitionPerformance improved with repetition


Performance

(good is down)

Day 1 Day 2 Day 3


What’s the point of these repetition What’s the point of these repetition priming studies?priming studies? To demonstrate that repetition can lead To demonstrate that repetition can lead

to the formation of memories that are to the formation of memories that are implicitimplicit In other words, these memories can affect In other words, these memories can affect

behavior, even though we are not behavior, even though we are not consciously aware of themconsciously aware of them

Repetition Priming in the Repetition Priming in the Real WorldReal World

Repetition underlies the Repetition underlies the propaganda propaganda effecteffect Being exposed to advertising (even if we aren’t Being exposed to advertising (even if we aren’t

aware of it or attempt to ignore it) affects aware of it or attempt to ignore it) affects behaviorbehavior

If people have heard a statement before, they are If people have heard a statement before, they are more likely to say that it’s truemore likely to say that it’s true

This happens even if they are explicitly told that the This happens even if they are explicitly told that the statement is false when they hear itstatement is false when they hear it

““I can’t say that using anti-viral kleenex will I can’t say that using anti-viral kleenex will prevent your kids from getting the flu, prevent your kids from getting the flu, but…”but…”


Repetition underlies the Repetition underlies the propaganda propaganda effecteffect Being exposed to advertising (even if we aren’t Being exposed to advertising (even if we aren’t

aware of it or attempt to ignore it) affects aware of it or attempt to ignore it) affects behaviorbehavior

If people have heard a statement before, they are If people have heard a statement before, they are more likely to say that it’s truemore likely to say that it’s true

This happens even if they are explicitly told that the This happens even if they are explicitly told that the statement is false when they hear itstatement is false when they hear it

““I can’t say that I can’t say that using anti-viral kleenex will using anti-viral kleenex will prevent your kids from getting the fluprevent your kids from getting the flu, , but…”but…”


The propaganda effect is true for The propaganda effect is true for pictures, toopictures, too Perfect & Askew (1994)Perfect & Askew (1994)

Participants read magazine articles Participants read magazine articles Each page had an ad, but these were not Each page had an ad, but these were not

mentionedmentioned After the reading task there was a surprise After the reading task there was a surprise

test on the adstest on the ads Participants rated those ads they’d seen as Participants rated those ads they’d seen as

more memorable, eye-catching, appealing, more memorable, eye-catching, appealing, and distinctive and distinctive

Participants actually recognized very few Participants actually recognized very few (2.8/25)(2.8/25)


Repetition priming affects real life!Repetition priming affects real life! Creating misunderstandings Creating misunderstandings

I thought you said you wanted to go to the game! I thought you said you wanted to go to the game! No. I said “I’m not like ‘I want to go to the game’”.No. I said “I’m not like ‘I want to go to the game’”.

Affecting your studiesAffecting your studies Multiple Choice: Which of these is true? (the others Multiple Choice: Which of these is true? (the others

are NOT true but you read them anyway….)are NOT true but you read them anyway….) Interfering with the legal process (Chapter 8)Interfering with the legal process (Chapter 8)

Leading questionsLeading questions Confusing juries (lawyer can ask something that is Confusing juries (lawyer can ask something that is

false, but jury members may remember it as true false, but jury members may remember it as true later)later)

Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory Procedural memory is memory for “how to do Procedural memory is memory for “how to do

things” when you don’t consciously know how you things” when you don’t consciously know how you do them (and can’t describe them to others)do them (and can’t describe them to others) Physical activities (tying shoes, riding a bike, writing)Physical activities (tying shoes, riding a bike, writing) Cognitive tasks (reading, reasoning, decision-making)Cognitive tasks (reading, reasoning, decision-making) Combinations (driving, playing soccer)Combinations (driving, playing soccer)

Try learning to do something newTry learning to do something new Dancing, juggling, knitting, ping-pong, air hockey, DDRDancing, juggling, knitting, ping-pong, air hockey, DDR As you learn it will mysteriously get easier but you won’t As you learn it will mysteriously get easier but you won’t

be able to say exactly what you are doing differentlybe able to say exactly what you are doing differently

Procedural MemoryProcedural Memory

People who can’t form new explicit People who can’t form new explicit memories often can form new procedural memories often can form new procedural memoriesmemories H. M. learned how to do mirror drawing but H. M. learned how to do mirror drawing but

couldn’t remember having done it beforecouldn’t remember having done it before K. C. learned how to stack books in the library K. C. learned how to stack books in the library

after the accident, and his performance after the accident, and his performance improved with practiceimproved with practice

Jimmy G. could tie his shoesJimmy G. could tie his shoes Clive Wearing could play the pianoClive Wearing could play the piano

Classical ConditioningClassical Conditioning

We learned about this in Chapter 2 (review it We learned about this in Chapter 2 (review it if you don’t remember it)if you don’t remember it) Point here is that classical conditioning still Point here is that classical conditioning still

exists… it is now seen as a form of implicit exists… it is now seen as a form of implicit memorymemory

Pairing of Conditioned & Unconditioned Pairing of Conditioned & Unconditioned Simuli creates implicit memory => new Simuli creates implicit memory => new behaviorbehavior Rat associated with sound for little Albert => fearRat associated with sound for little Albert => fear Tone associated with food => salivationTone associated with food => salivation Tone associated with air puff => blinkTone associated with air puff => blink

The EndThe End

But be sure to read about the But be sure to read about the movies in your book!movies in your book!

Documents

Memory and Cognition PSY 324 Topic: Long-term Memory- Structure Dr. Ellen Campana Arizona State University