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Memory732-928-8735
The Phenomenon of Memory Memory is learning that takes place over time – it
is information that can be stored and retrieved
Memory is like a computer – information must be encoded, stored and then retrieved Encoding is the processing of information into the
memory system Storage is the retention of memory over time Retrieval is the process of getting information out of
storage
How well information is encoded is really important when it comes to storing and retrieving the memory later
The Cycle of Memory
Information comes in as Sensory Memory
It becomes a short term memory – and is either encoded
through rehearsal or lost
Working Memory involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial
information, mixed with retrieved
information from long-term memory
Encoded and rehearsed
information becomes long-term memory and is available for
retrieval
Encoding
With little to no effort – we absorb an enormous amount of information
Without conscious effort – we automatically process information about: Space – like when you’re reading and you know where to go back and
look for something on a page Time – like how you unintentionally notice the sequence of your day:
forgot your coat in a classroom? It’s easy to retrace your steps from the day
Frequency – how effortless it is to realize how often something happens “It’s the fourth time I’ve heard that song today”
Since our brain is so amazing at multitasking – all of this unconscious processing takes place while your brain is also consciously controlling your walking, talking, driving, getting dressed – or unconsciously monitoring your breathing, digesting, balance
EncodingAutomatic processing is so effortless, that
it’s difficult to turn it off If you see a word in your native language (on a
truck, billboard, or building) it is almost impossible not to automatically (and without any effort) register the meaning
When you first learned to read – the processing was not automatic – but like many skills and activities – the learning over time (memory) makes the ability automatic
Encoding When we give attention and conscious effort to
learn a new concept, skill, or person’s name – we are using effortful processing
Oftentimes, the most successful way to effortfully process new information is through rehearsal, or conscious repetition
Germany (1850-1909) Ebbinghaus wants to scientifically assess the effects of rehearsal on memory
Forms a list of non-sense words, randomly selects a sample, and practices them before testing himself (via recall)
JIH, BAZ, FUB, YOX,
SUJ, XIR, DAX, LEQ,
VUM, PID, KEL, WAV,
TUV, ZOF, GEK, HIW
MALES STUDY THE NON-SENSE WORDS (BUT DON’T
REHEARSE THEM) FEMALES REHEARSE FOR ONE
MINUTE
WRITE DOWN AS MANY OF THE NON-SENSE
WORDS AS YOU CAN WITHOUT
TALKING!!!! YOU HAVE 30 SECONDS
WHAT OTHER FACTORS (VARIABLES) COULD HAVE AFFECTED THE ACCURACY OF OUR EXPERIMENT?
Our control group and experimental group were not equal (one all male, one all female)
We didn’t control for: Sleep Food Intelligence Age Native languages Other?
Encoding
What Ebbinghaus found out was that the amount of time spent learning increased the amount of information learned
What kind of correlation is this???
He also found that the minute he stopped using the information he memorized… he was unable to recall it!
This happens with math facts, foreign languages, and many other skills, too. Can you name any?
EncodingAnother effective way to encode information is to utilize
the spacing effect
Information practiced over time is more likely to make its way to make its way into your long term memory
If we only talked about Correlation and Causation in chapter one – you would not remember it in June – but we consistently bring our material back to that concept
Think about how you memorize peoples names when you are new… can you support the idea of the spacing effect helping long term memory?
Remember this list 1. Eggs
2. Milk
3. Bread
4. Basil
5. Cheese
6. Potatoes
7. Apple juice
8. Pears
9. Onions
10. Pizza
11. Pasta
12. Lettuce
13. Plates
14. Napkins
15. Shampoo
16. Thyme
17. Razors
18. Water
19. Lemons
20. Cereal
21. Cookies
22. Pretzels
23. Flour
24. Sugar
25. Vegetable oil
26. Dog food
27. Cumin
28. Cat liter
29. Soap
30. French Fries
What items did you remember?
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
EncodingResearchers also notice the serial positioning effect in
memory tests
Given a list of items to remember – subjects are most likely to remember what is at the beginning and the end of the list
Why do you think that is?
The beginning of the list gets repeated the most – the end of the list is freshest in your memory
AnalyzeWhat do you think affected what people remembered and
misremembered about the shopping list?Remembered items they liked (meaning) Added items that weren’t there because of similar items
(shampoo was there, did you add conditioner?) (grouping, meaning)
Remembered items that go together (milk, eggs, cheese) but not dissimilar items (razors and flour) (grouping)
If you never go grocery shopping or cook – these words might not mean anything to you: Basil, cumin, thyme (familiarity)
Read and remember the following paragraph. You have 3 minutes. The procedure is really quite simple. First, you
arrange things into different groups. Of course, one pile may be sufficient depending on how much there is to do. After the procedure is completed one arranges the materials into different groups again. Then they can be put in their appropriate places. Eventually they will be used once more and the whole process will then have to be repeated. However, that is a part of life.
Write down everything you remember. You have 3 minutes.
Encoding for meaning
In 1972, Bransford and Johnson read the preceding paragraph to a group of college students – who when asked to recall did so with very little success.
They also read the same paragraph to a different group of college students, only this time they told the students they were going to listen to a paragraph about washing clothes.
The group that encoding with meaning (semantic encoding) displayed a drastically improved recall than the group who encoded only with sound (acoustic encoding) and a third group who read the paragraph to themselves (visual encoding)
What was the independent variable? What was the dependent variable? Which was the control group? Which was the experimental group?
Encoding for meaning
Ebbinghaus’ research suggested that even with rehearsal, the effort needed to remember meaningful material compared with nonsense (or meaningless material) only took 1/10th of the effort
For someone who knows what “slope” is… y=mx+b is an easy formula to remember
If you gave that same formula to a 1st grader who did not have the meaning behind the formula… it would be more easily misremembered or forgotten
Visual Encoding - Study the following words. You have
45 seconds.
Typewriter
Void
Cigarette
Inherent
Fire
Process
Flower
Disease
Deceit
Skill
Staples
Ring
Skis
Volume
Heat
Visual Encoding Our earliest memories (Usually something that happened
around the age of 3 or 4) are often visual and involve imagery – or mental pictures
We more easily remember concrete words (which lend themselves to imagery) than we do abstract (low imagery) words
Memory for concrete is superior because they become semantic (meaningful) and remain visual
Two types of encoding are better than one!
Visual Encoding Visual images are so powerful – that they often override more mundane
memories
This leads to the phenomenon of “rosy retrospect”
Use inference to explain what you think rosy retrospect is and give an example
People tend to remember things better than they thought they were at the time… Examples
Disney was great (because you forget how hot you were and how long the lines were)
Having a baby didn’t hurt that bad (because the visual of seeing your child for the first time overpowered just how bad those contractions hurt)
Visual Encoding
Mnemonic devices (memory aids that use visual imagery and organization) are another powerful memory tool rooted in imagery
ROY G. BIV, the devious little leprechaun at the end of the rainbow is really just the colors of the rainbow
a rat in the house might eat all the ice cream is the only way Mrs. Summers could get us to spell correctly in math class
Visual Encoding One study from the late 60s had subjects remember a song
using word association to remember numbers 1 through 9 (one; bun – two; shoe – three; tree and so on)
Subjects soon and without much effort could count by the peg words (bun, shoe, tree) with no effort
Subjects were then challenged to remember a grocery list by visually associating them with the peg words (Carrots – stick them in a bun; Milk – fill the shoe with it; Paper towels – drape them over a tree)
The visual encoding was so strong for the subjects that most scored with complete accuracy with minimal rehearsal time
Now Write down all of the words listed a few slides back. You have 45 seconds.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Which words did you remember?Concrete Abstract
Typewriter Void
Cigarette Inherent
Fire Process
Flower Disease
Staples Deceit
Ring Skill
Skis Volume
Ring
Organizing Information for EncodingChunking – we can more easily recall
information when it is presented in familiar, manageable chunks
Chunking occurs so naturally that we take it for granted
When you give someone your phone number or credit card information – you usually only do so a few numbers at a time
If too much is presented at one – the short term memory is over whelmed and little to no information makes it to long term.
Organizing Information for EncodingWe also organize information into hierarchies
– which chunk and narrow information
Hierarchies start of broad and narrow down into more specific information
When given an outline or hierarchy – students (and people in general) are able to more accurately recall important information
Check Yo Self!!!! (before you wreck yo self)
1. Jot down the psychological names for taking information in, retaining it, and getting it back out
2. Explain what rehearsal is and how it works with memory
3. When people are tested on a list of words, they tend to best remember the first and last words. What is this called?
4. Explain why this phenomena happens.
5. What is a mnemonic device?
Storage: Retaining Information Iconic Memory – a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
Echoic memory – a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
George Sterling in the 1960s tested iconic memory by flashing 3 rows of 3 letters for 1/20th of a second to participants
When asked to recall what they saw, they got less than half correct. Why do you think that is?
Sperling then added a tone to correspond to each row – and with this variable, participants were able to accurately recall all nine letter
Our brains register things we do not know they register… but storing them and retrieving them is often too difficult without some help!
What are the limits of short term memory
With out rehearsal – your short term memory is pretty stinky
To prove this – In 1959 Margaret Paterson asked people to remember groups of 3 consonants:(KLJ, MPQ)
She then asked them to count backwards from 100 by 3s – in order to prevent rehearsal of the consonant groups.
After 3 seconds, only about half of the consonants could be recalled
After 12 seconds, most people couldn’t remember any
What does this tell you about your studying techniques???
Do Nowhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
oSQJP40PcGI
Count how many passes the team in white makes. Pay attention!
Short –Term MemoryYour short term memory is limited not only in
length of time (as demonstrated by our earlier experiments) but also in its capacity
The magical number 7 (plus or minus two) was determined to be the average of what people can remember at any given time without rehearsal
Long-Term Memory Our potential for long-term memory storage is limitless
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6vsYCSmBcM0
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FbjJo6gs274
People with “Amazing Meomory” say it’s all in the strategy and anyone can learn to have a great memory
What techniques about memory did you see the people using? Explain the theory behind why they work .
Storing Memories in the Brain For year, psychologists tried to figure out
WHERE memories are stored in the brain
In 1950, Karl Lashey train mice to solve a maze, then systematically cut out different regions of their brains
No matter what cortical area was removed, the mice always knew, in at least part, how to solve the maze
What does this tell you about memory storage?
Synaptic ChangesMemories begin as neural impulses – charges that pass
between the synapses
By studying sea slugs (remember their brains are similar to ours), neuroscientists saw that during a familiar experience, there was an increased amount of serotonin in the synapses between connecting neurons
Those synapses then became ore effective at transmitting signals
Relate this to what we learned about Alzheimer's and the plaques. How do plaques get in the way of memory?
Synaptic Changes The more serotonin releases between neurons, the less
prompting is needed to inspire recall of long-term memories
Because of this finding more research is being done into developing drugs that help with serotonin intake and and production to help with memory loss
What type of research found the finding?
What type of research is using this information?
Basic Research discovered the information. Applied Research uses it to help develop drugs.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IAKYzuhk-LY
Stress Hormones and Memory If there were a drug (doctor prescribed medicine) you could
take to dull upsetting or traumatic memories, would you take it? Why or why not?
Would you give it to your child or younger sibling to spare them the pain of such memories?
Stress Hormones and Memories When we are stressed or excited, our body releases stress
hormones that make our brains more active
The hormones induce glucose production, to fuel the brain and signal that something important has happened
The amygdala (part of which system?) helps regulate emotion-processing and can boost the encoding of highly-emotional memories AND reduce the encoding of neutral ones
Stress Hormones and Memory According to most research, stronger emotions
make for stronger memories
What kind of correlation is this?
As emotion goes up, the strength of the memory goes up. As emotion lessens, the strength of the memory lessens.
This is a positive correlation.
http://www.cbsnews.com/news/face-blindness-when-everyone-is-a-stranger-20-03-2012/
Storing Implicit and Explicit Memories A memory-to-be comes into the brain through
the senses
Where it travels to next depends on the type of information it is
Some people suffer from a special type of amnesia, or memory loss, in which they are unable to form new memories
JimmyWas injured in the war in 1945 – and lost the ability to form
new memories
In 1975, psychologists Oliver Sacks asked him to name the president – he replied confidently, “FDR is dead, Truman’s at the helm”
Sacks asked Jimmy his age, and he reported that he was 19. Sacks then showed him his reflection in the mirror – Jimmy lost it
Sacks then distracted him and he forgot all about it
Jimmy The strange thing about Jimmy (and others like him) was that he could
LEARN new things
They could learn to solve puzzles, read mirror writing, learn complicated new skills on the computer – but none of them REMEMBERED that they learned how to do these things
One test showed amnesia patients pictures of familiar people’s faces – although they could not identify the faces explicitly, their physiological (body) reactions to familiar faces revealed that their brains did indeed recognized the faces
Explicit Memories – you are aware that you have them – memories of facts that you can know and declare
Implicit Memories – memories that you are not conscious of having
Types of long-term memories
ExplicitProcessed in the
hippocampus
Facts – General Knowledge
Personally experienced events (prior to the amnesia)
ImplicitProcessed in other brain areas,
including the cerebellum
Classical conditioning
Skills- motor and cognitive
Implicit or Explicit???(Number your paper from 1-10)
1. Driving a car
2. Doing a cartwheel
3. Solving a math problem
4. Recalling the names of your siblings
5. Recalling the names of three people you just met
6. Telling someone the last song you heard
7. Remembering if you turned off the stove (or not)
8. How to use utensils
9. How to write your name
10. What your name is
Answers1. Implicit
2. Implicit
3. Implicit
4. Explicit
5. Explicit
6. Explicit
7. Explicit
8. Implicit
9. Implicit
10. Explicit
Group B Close Your Eyes
Group A Close Your Eyes
Fill in the missing letters for the words below.
1.PE_K
2._ID
3.S_Y
4.F_N
5._OG
6._INE
7._AT
8.CA_E
9._AM
10.SA_D
Choices1. PEAK-PECK
2. AID-KID
3. SAY-SPY
4. FAN-FUN
5. DOG·HOG
6. NINE-PINE
7. MAT·OAT
8. CAKE-CAVE
9. JAM-RAM
10. SAID-SAND
Retrieval – Getting Information Out
To most people – memory is recall – the ability to retrieve information not in your conscious awareness (like what you ate for dinner)
To a psychologist – memory is ANY SIGN that something learned has been retained.
Recognizing (a measure of memory in which a person must identify learned information – like a multiple choice exam)and relearning (a measure of memory in which a person takes less time to relearn a task) also indicate memory
Retrieval Cues
Imagine a spider suspended in the middle of her web – held up by many strands extending outward in all different directions to all different points
The process of retrieving memory is like tracing a spider from its web - memories are “stored” in a “web” of associations – each piece of information is interconnected with another
The more associations you have to any piece of information, the more likely you are to remember it
Each bit of information acts like a hint – we call these retrieval cues
If you can’t remember where you left something, you usually close your eyes (or roll them up and to the right) and try to picture the last time you had it… you are looking for retrieval cues to help you remember where it might be
Priminghttp://gizmodo.com/5980749/this-is-how-your-b
rain-works
Priming – the usually unconscious activation of particular associations in memory
Priming helps us to remember things in a certain way
Context EffectsPutting yourself in a certain context can also help you remember
things HAVE YOU EVER…
Been sitting on the couch and realized you needed chips… Walked into the kitchen and forgot why you were there… Sat back down on the couch and remembered that you wanted chips?
When you walked into the kitchen, you were out of the context of being a chip eating couch potato… but as soon as you were back – you remembered how potato-ish you were
Context can also alter your mood – sometimes you walk into a room and are automatically in a bad mood – because you associate that room with something
Context Effects Sometimes, being in a familiar context leads us
to experience déjà vu – (French for “already seen”) the eerie feeling that “I’ve experienced this before”
Really, the situation is likely filled with similar retrieval cues to another event, that lead you to misremember it as that exact event
Moods and MemoriesWe also have state-dependent memories,
ones we can only remember when we feel a certain way
You are mad at your boyfriend and suddenly remember every annoying thing he ever did
You are feeling lovey-dovey and your boyfriend suddenly does sweet, romantic things all the time
ForgettingThe Seven Sins of Memory
FORGETTING
1. Absent Mindedness – inattention to details which leads to encoding failure (your mind is elsewhere as you lay down the car keys)
2. Transience – storage decay over time (unused information, like you locker combination from freshman year, fades as it becomes non-essential)
3. Blocking – inaccessibility of stored information (tip of your tongue syndrome)
DISTORTION
4. Misattribution – confusing the source of the information (putting words in someone else’s mouth, remembering a dream as if it were real)
5. Suggestibility – the lingering effects of misinformation (like a leading question that becomes a false memory… Did Ms. Appleby throw out your paper?)
6. Bias – belief-colored recollections (current feelings towards your bf or gf might change the way you felt about them when you first met. Was it really love at first sight or did you think he dressed like a total dork?)
INTRUSTION
7. Persistence – unwanted memories that seem to haunt you
Encoding FailureWhat numbers accompany 5 on your phone
(without looking?)
Much of what we sense never gets encoded because it is not important to our survival
The parts of our brain that are active for encoding also slow down with age – which explains some age related memory loss (totally normal)
Storage DecayAccording to research, our memories fade rapidly
with non-use at first, but then level out
This is called the forgetting curve
Three years after high-school, you may only remember 30% of the Spanish or French you learned… but 25 years later, you will still have approximately that 30%
Retrieval FailureSometimes the information is in there – but we struggle to get it
out (very frustrating)
This is where retrieval cues help. The more you have, the better your chances of figuring it out
Interference – sometimes new information gets in the way of retrieving old information
A new phone number might block your recall of an old one Proactive interference occurs when something you learned earlier
disrupts your recall of something you learned later Retroactive interference occurs when new information makes it
harder to recall older information
Which is it? Retroactive or Proactive?
1. You are fluent in English, and so you have a really hard time learning German.
2. You drove one way to work for six months, and so you can’t remember the short cut a co-worker just showed you.
3. You changed your password on your computer, and now you can’t remember what your password used to be.
4. You have a new girlfriend. But you keep calling her by your old girlfriend’s name. Yikes.
5. You learned to drive automatic. Now, learning to drive stick is really tricky.
Answers
1. Proactive
2. Proactive
3. Retroactive
4. Proactive
5. Proactive