Memory

I. IntroductionII. Stage Model of MemoryIII. Process Model of MemoryIV. Problems in MemoryV. The Biology of Memory

II. Stage Model of Memory

• A.k.a. Atkinson-Shiffrin Memory Model

Sensory Memory

Two Examples of Sensory Memory

• Iconic: – brief memory for things we have seen

• Echoic: – brief memory for things we have heard

Working/Short-Term Memory

Memory Tests

S U A B N A R S M I B O U I

U S A N B A I R S I B M I O U

Long-Term Memory

The Serial Position Effect

III. Process Model of Memory

Encoding Storage

III. Memory Processes

Retrieval

Getting information into

memory

Retaining information in

memory

Recalling or using previously

encoded and stored

information

Encoding

• The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored and later retrieved.

Types of Encoding

• Automatic: encoding that happens without having to try

• Effortful: encoding that only happens when the proper effort is made

Memory Tests

• List 1: How positive or negative is the word (on a scale from 1-9)?

• List 2: Is there an “e” in the word (Y or N)?

List 1

• coin, skate, church, fork, trunk, pocket, trail, flower, clock, bank, paint, time, deep, bird, sample, move, rain, pipe

List 2

• shade, desk, money, pitch, garden, hammer, dress, horse, month, door, belt, train, count, fire, song, bureau, foot, magic

Depth of Processing

• “Deeper” encoding results in easier recall• Deep encoding focuses on things such as

meaning, comprehension, or understanding

Craik & Tulving (1975)

Storage

Retrieval

General Memory Principle

• If the conditions of encoding are similar to the conditions of retrieval, then recall is better.

Perc

enta

ge o

fw

ords

reca

lled

Different contextsfor hearingand recall

Same contextsfor hearingand recall

40%

30

20

10

0Water/land Land/waterWater/water Land/land

Words heard under water are better recalled

when under water.

Words heard on land are better recalled

when on land.Recall was poorer

when the learning and

testing contexts did not match.

If the environment of encoding is similar to the environment of retrieval, then recall is better.

Context-Dependent Memory

State-Dependent Memory

• If your internal state during encoding is similar to your internal state during retrieval, then recall is better.

Mood-Congruent Recall

• We have better recall for events that match our current mood.

IV. Problems in Memory

Forgetting

Flashbulb Memories

Flashbulb Memories

• Vivid memories of emotionally significant events.

• Research suggests that they can be surprisingly inaccurate for some people

• Vivid recall doesn’t always translate to increased accuracy

Memory Test (the last one!)

False Memories

Interference

V. The Biology of Memory

LTP

Intelligent Thought & Behavior

I. Problem SolvingII. Obstacles to Thinking & ReasoningIII. Intelligence & Intelligence Testing

I. Problem Solving

• Problem Solving Steps1. Frame/interpret the problem

The Crow & the Trains Problem

I. Problem Solving

• Problem Solving Steps1. Frame/interpret the problem2. Generate many possible solutions/brainstorm3. Test a solution (algorithms, heuristics, trial &

error, insight, etc…)4. Evaluate results5. Repeat steps 1-3 if necessary

II. Obstacles to Thinking & Reasoning

“Would you like to buy a magazine subscription?”

(from Dan Ariely’s book Predictably Irrational)

Electronic Subscription Only: $60

Print Subscription Only: $125

Electronic & Print Subscription: $125

16%0%84%

68%X32%

Parole Decisions of Judges(Danziger, 2011)

Confirmation Bias

• The tendency to:1. search for information that supports our beliefs

and…2. ignore or distort contradictory evidence.

• The death penalty study.

Fixation

• The inability to see a problem from a new perspective

• Examples:– Mental Set: The tendency to persist in solving

problems with solutions that have worked in the past.

– Functional Fixedness: The tendency to view objects as functioning only in their usual, customary, or traditional ways.

Duncker Candle Problem

Representativeness Heuristic

• Estimating the likelihood of an event by comparing how similar it is to a prototype, stereotype, or ideal

• If an event is very similar to an ideal, we assume that it must be likely

The Linda Problem(Tversky & Kahneman, 1982)

The Chris Problem

• Which is more likely? That Chris is a librarian or that Chris is a student?

Doing the math…

• Assume there are 5 librarians and 10,000 students• If 80% of librarians fit the description, we’re talking

about 4 people (80% of 5 is 4)• If 1% of students fit the description, we’re talking

about 100 people (1% of 10,000 is 100)• By this math, Chris is 25 times more likely to be a

student.

Availability Heuristic

• Estimating the likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall in memory.

• If an event is easy to recall, we assume that it must be likely

Which is more likely?

• Death by suicide or death by murder?• Death by botulism or death by lightning• Death by asthma or death by tornado• Answers:• Death by suicide is 25% more likely• Death by lightning is 53 times more likely• Death by asthma is 21 times more likely

Is the following logical?

All living things need water.Roses need water.

Therefore, roses are living things.

Is the following logical?

All things smoked are good for one’s health.Cigarettes are smoked.

Therefore, cigarettes are good for one’s health.

Belief Bias

• The tendency to distort or abandon logic when it contradicts our beliefs.

Overconfidence

• We tend to be much more confident than accurate in our predictions.

How many socks?

• Imagine that you have a sock drawer with 27 individual black socks and 19 individual brown socks. How many individual socks do you have to pull out of the drawer to guarantee that you have a matching pair of socks.

Andrew's father is a king who lives in seclusion deep in a pine forest. The king has called his children together for a sumptuous meal; he is delighted to see them for the first time in years.The king has five children. The oldest is named Quartz. The second oldest is named Calcite. The third oldest is named Diamond, and the fourth oldest is named Amethyst. What is the name of the youngest child?

How Much Dirt?

• How many cubic yards of dirt are there in a hole that is 3 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 6 feet deep?

Distraction by Irrelevant Information

III. Intelligence & Intelligence Testing

You can't build a hut, you don't know how to find edible roots, and you know nothing about predicting the weather . In other words, you would do terribly on our IQ test.

A: Intelligence Defined

The ability to…• acquire knowledge• think and reason effectively• deal adaptively with the environment

B: History of Measuring Intelligence

1. Francis Galton2. Alfred Binet3. William Stern4. Lewis Terman5. David Wechsler

Selected WAIS-III Subscales

• Information (V): On what continent is Italy?• Comprehension (V): Why are children required to go

to school?• Vocabulary (V): What does “formidable” mean?• Picture Completion (P): Identify what is missing on a

picture.• Block Design (P): Arrange blocks to make figure.• Object Assembly (P): Assemble pieces of a puzzle.

Block Design

Object Assembly

Picture Completion

C: Types of Tests and Testing Formats

• Individually Administered Tests– WAIS-III– WISC-III– Stanford-Binet

• Group Tests– Lorge-Thorndike Intelligence Test– Otis-Lennon School Ability Test

Achievement versus Aptitude Tests

• Achievement Tests– What have you mastered?– What have you learned?

• Aptitude Tests– What is your potential for future learning?– What are you capable of?

D: Qualities of a Good Test

1. Reliability– Consistency

2. Validity– Accuracy

3. Standardization– Uniform administration and norms

E. Theories of Intelligence

• Charles Spearman: g-factor (general intelligence)

• Louis Thurstone: primary mental abilities

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

• Linguistic• Logical-mathematical• Musical• Spatial• Bodily-kinesthetic• Intrapersonal (self)• Interpersonal (other people)• Naturalist• Existential* (meaning of existence, life, death)

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

• Creative Intelligence– ability to deal adaptively with novel problems– use skills/experiences in new and unusual ways

• Analytic Intelligence– academically oriented problem-solving skills – assessed by traditional IQ tests

• Practical Intelligence– Skills needed to deal with everyday demands of life– Includes “street smarts” & “emotional intelligence”

F: Impact of Genetic and Environment on IQ

1. Twin Studies2. Heritability Estimates3. Stereotype Threat

Heritability

• The proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes.– Heritability estimates assume that individuals

share a common environment. Thus, they explain within group differences.

– Heritability estimates cannot be used to compare individuals from different environments. Thus, they cannot be used to explain between group differences.

Reducing Stereotype Threat(Johns, Schmader & Martens (2005)

Reducing Stereotype Threat(Miyake et al., 2010, Science)