US Department of the InteriorUS Geological Survey

Open-File Report 2012ndash1021April 2012

Megaporosity and Permeability of Thalassinoides-Dominated Ichnofabrics in the Cretaceous Karst-Carbonate Edwards-Trinity Aquifer System Texas

Biscayne aquifer

TEXAS

OKLAHOMA ARKANSAS

GEORGIA

ALABAMA

SOUTHCAROLINA

NORTH CAROLINA

MIS

SISS

IPPI

TENNESSEE

FLORIDA

NEW MEXICO

LOUISIANA

MEXICO

N

Edwards-Trinityaquifer systemndashLight green where extent is buried

GULF OF MEXICO

ATLA

NTIC

OCE

AN

0 300 KILOMETERS

0 100

100

200

200

300 MILES

TravisCounty

study area

Real Countystudy area

Case Studies in Real and Travis Counties Central TexasResearch at two study areas in Real and Travis Counties central Texas (fig 1) demonstrates a relation between ichnofabrics

megaporosity (Choquette and Pray 1970) and permeability where Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabrics occur within the unsatu-rated part of the karst-carbonate Edwards-Trinity aquifer system (figs 2 and 3) The research centers on the influence of thalas-sinidean or thalassinid-like crustacean-produced ichnofabrics (Goldring and others 2007) on carbonate aquifer characteristics Results show evidence of concentrated paleogroundwater flow through stratiform touching-vug megapororous flow zones linked to secondary fabric-selective intraburrow and interburrow megaporosity within Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabrics At both sites (fig1) megaporous bioturbation is within Cretaceous carbonate strata representative of a restricted shallow-marine platform-interior

Current research has demonstrated that trace fossils and their related ichnofabrics can have a critical impact on the fluid-flow properties of hydrocarbon reservoirs and groundwater aquifers Most petroleum-associated research has used ichnofabrics to support the definition of depositional environments and reservoir quality and has concentrated on siliciclastic reservoir char-acterization and to a lesser degree carbonate reservoir characterization (for example Gerard and Bromley 2008 Knaust 2009) The use of ichnology in aquifer characterization has almost entirely been overlooked by the hydrologic community because the dynamic reservoir-characterization approach has not caught on with hydrologists and so hydrology is lagging behind reservoir engineering in this area (de Marsily and others 2005) The objective of this research is to show that (1) ichnofabric analysis can offer a productive methodology for purposes of carbonate aquifer characterization and (2) a clear relation can exist between ichnofabrics and groundwater flow in carbonate aquifers

Figure 1 Map showing two case study areas in central Texas Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

Figure 2 Roadcut in the Burrowed Member of the Fort Terrett Formation Real County Texas Sample LTX-4 (fig 4) was collected here (A) Photomap annotated with geology and hydrostratigraphy (B) Thalassinoides-related intraburrow megaporosity within high-frequency cycle D and (C) Thalssinoides-related intraburrow megaporosity along bedding plane in high-frequency cycle E Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

paleoenvironment Lattice Boltzmann calculated intrinsic permeabilities for intraburrow and interburrow megaporosity represented in whole-core-scale computer renderings made from X-ray computed tomography scans are 56 x 106 and 18 x 106 Darcies respectively (fig 4) The Cretaceous mega-porous maximum Thalassinoides ichnofabrics have similar intrinsic permeability values as compared to intraburrow and interburrow megaporosity related to Ophiomorpha-dominated

ichnofabrics in Pleistocene shallow-marine platform carbon-ates of the Biscayne aquifer in southern Florida (Cunningham and others 2009 Cunningham and Sukop 2011) (figs 1 and 2) Highly permeable Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabrics where present could play an important role in groundwater movement in saturated parts of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system as suggested by Barker and Ardis (1996) and thus improve the water supply for urban and agricultural areas

HFSA-TSTHF

SA-H

ST

CS-TST

HFSB-TST

(Backstepping)

Covered

MS

WS

MDP

GDP

GS FS-R

S

1 meter

10 centimeters 10 centimeters

A

CB

B

SW NE

Edw

ards

-Trin

ity A

quife

r Sys

tem

Low

er C

reta

ceou

sFo

rt Te

rret

t For

mat

ion

Bur

row

ed M

embe

rRe

stric

ted

Shal

low

Mar

ine

Open

Mar

ine

HU Epoc

hF

MPE

II51 2 3 4

Limestonerecrystallizedto microspar

amp dolomite

Maximum Flooding Surface

RSM

L SH

G

F

E

D

C

B

HUFM

PERSM

LSII

EXPLANATIONHydrological unit Fjormation member Palaeoenvironment Relative shoreline movement Landward Seaward Ichnofabric index ndash From Droser and Bjottjer (1986)

B

CSHFS

Composite sequence High-frequency sequence High-frequency cycle Top pulverulent bed Abrupt contact Top firmground

MSWS

MDPGDP

GSFS-RS

Mudstone Wackstone Mud-dominated packstone Grain-dominated packstone Grainstone Floatstone-rudstone

In the Cretaceous examples fabric-selective dissolution in and around carbonate ichnofabrics related to Thalassinoides-dominated Cruziana ichnofacies are shown to have a marked impact on karst development of (1) highly permeable strati-form megaporosity (2) caves which commonly conform to upper and lower stratal boundaries in high-frequency cycles and (3) solution collapse structures The stratiform networks of extremely permeable megaporosity can be mapped and as such represented in groundwater flow and transport computer simulations Comparative analyses between Cretaceous and Pleistocene carbonate aquifers emphasize that the past (Meso-zoic) can be the key to the Pleistocene The two studies provide corroborating illustrations of the impact that ichnofabrics can have on groundwater flow in shallow-marine carbonate platform aquifers These analogues offer excellent examples for refining conceptualization of groundwater flow in the Pleisto-cene carbonates of the Biscayne aquifer for use in assessing and predicting change associated with implementation of restoration plans for the Greater Everglades in southern Florida

AcknowledgmentsThe US Geological Survey Priority Ecosystems Sci-

ence Program provided major funding for comparisons of the Biscayne aquifer and Edward-Trinity aquifer system Bill Ward (deceased) Rene Barker (Texas State University) Nico Hau-wert (Austin Watershed Protection Department) Scott Hiers (Austin Watershed Protection Department) and Al Broun (Hays Trinity Groundwater Conservation District) provided insight into Texas geology X-ray CT scans were conducted at High-Resolution X-Ray CT Facility at the University of Texas

References Cited

Barker RA and Ardis AF 1996 Hydrogeologic framework of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system west-central Texas US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1421-B 61 p

Choquette PW and Pray LC 1970 Geologic nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin v 54 p 207-250

Figure 3 Kainer Formation Travis County Texas (A) Hydrostratigraphy lithostratigraphy and carbonate textures of an abandoned quarry wall (B) close-up of inset (blue rectangle) showing beds that have collapsed into stratiform megaporosity related to a Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabric developed in unit 2 (C) Thalassinoides tunnel casts near the base of unit 2 and (D) sample (TXEA-1) of Thalassinoides casts and interburrow megaporosity from unit 2 (fig 4) Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

Edw

ards

Aqu

ifer

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s

Kain

er F

orm

atio

n

Dolo

miti

c M

embe

r

HU Epo

ch

FM

MS

WS

MDP

FS-R

SDo

lom

iteDo

lom

itic

FP MC

Th

MBR

HFS A

D

B

East West

C

2

EXPLANATION

HUFM

MBRHFS

Hydrogeological unit Formation Member High-frequency sequence

MSWS

MDPFS-RS

Mudstone Wackstone Mud-dominated packstone Floatstone-rudstone

ThFP

MC

Thalassinoides Flat pebbles Mud cracks Lithologic unit2

5 m

eter

s

1

23

4

5

6

Capr

inid

Mou

nd

10 centimeters10 centimeters

Cunningham KJ and Sukop MC 2011 Multiple technolo-gies applied to characterization of porosity and permeability of the Biscayne aquifer Florida US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1037 8 p

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC and Curran HA (in press) Carbonate aquifers in Knaust D and Bromley RG (eds) Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments Amsterdam Elsevier

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC Huang H Alvarez PF Curran HA Renken RA and Dixon JF 2009 Promi-nence of ichnologically influenced macroporosity in the karst Biscayne aquifer Stratiform ldquosuper-Krdquo zones Geological Society of America Bulletin v 121 p 164-180

de Marsily Gh Delay F Gonccedilalvegraves J Renard Ph Teles V and Violette S 2005 Dealing with spatial heterogeneity Hydrogeology Journal v 13 p 161-183

Droser MLand Bottjer DJ 1986 A semiquantitative field classification of ichnofabric Journal of Sedimentary Petrology v 56 p 558-559

Gerard JRF and Bromley RG 2008 Ichnofabrics in clastic sediments Applications to sedimentological core studies a practical guide Ibergraphi Madrid 100 p

Goldring R Cadeacutee GC and Pollard JE 2007 Climatic control of marine trace fossil distribution in Miller W III (ed) Trace Fossils Concepts Problems Prospects Amsterdam Elsevier p 159-171

Knaust D 2009 Ichnology as a tool in carbonate reservoir characterization A case study from the Permian Triassic Khuff Formation in the Middle East GeoArabia v 14 p 17-38

By Kevin J Cunningham and Michael C Sukop

Figure 4 Permeability and megaporosity values derived from carbonate samples with networks of ichnofabric-related megaporosity Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

For further information contact

Kevin J CunninghamUS Geological Survey7500 SW 36th StreetDavie FL 33314E-mail kcunningusgsgov

Michael C SukopDepartment of Earth amp EnvironmentFlorida International UniversityMiami FL 33199E-mail sukopmfiuedu

Any use of trade product or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government

For more information on the USGSmdashthe Federal source for science about the Earth its natural and living resources natural hazards and the environment World Wide Web httpwwwusgsgov Telephone 1-888-ASK-USGS

1 x 108

S H R - 1L T X - 4

TXEA-1CretaceousThalassinoidesIchnofabric

ML - 1 C 1 0 0 - Q 5 e - 1Pleistocene Ophiomorpha IchnofabricG - 3 8 3 7 - 1 8

G - 3 8 3 7 - 2 2

1 x 107

1 x 106

1 x 105

1 x 104

1 x 103

1 x 102

1 x 101

1 x 100

HH

VV

V

V

VV

UUU

H

H

HH

H2775 4589

4431 Perm

eabi

lity

in d

arci

es

EXPLANATIONUnoriented permeability Horizontal permeabilityVertical permeabilityLattice Boltzmann methods

UHVLBM

Megaporosity in percentSample volume in cubic centimetersLBM calculated intrinsic permeabilityMeasured air permeability

319

20

29

29

5064

783127

2123 2014

780759

731

319

319

Figure 2 Roadcut in the Burrowed Member of the Fort Terrett Formation Real County Texas Sample LTX-4 (fig 4) was collected here (A) Photomap annotated with geology and hydrostratigraphy (B) Thalassinoides-related intraburrow megaporosity within high-frequency cycle D and (C) Thalssinoides-related intraburrow megaporosity along bedding plane in high-frequency cycle E Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

paleoenvironment Lattice Boltzmann calculated intrinsic permeabilities for intraburrow and interburrow megaporosity represented in whole-core-scale computer renderings made from X-ray computed tomography scans are 56 x 106 and 18 x 106 Darcies respectively (fig 4) The Cretaceous mega-porous maximum Thalassinoides ichnofabrics have similar intrinsic permeability values as compared to intraburrow and interburrow megaporosity related to Ophiomorpha-dominated

ichnofabrics in Pleistocene shallow-marine platform carbon-ates of the Biscayne aquifer in southern Florida (Cunningham and others 2009 Cunningham and Sukop 2011) (figs 1 and 2) Highly permeable Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabrics where present could play an important role in groundwater movement in saturated parts of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system as suggested by Barker and Ardis (1996) and thus improve the water supply for urban and agricultural areas

HFSA-TSTHF

SA-H

ST

CS-TST

HFSB-TST

(Backstepping)

Covered

MS

WS

MDP

GDP

GS FS-R

S

1 meter

10 centimeters 10 centimeters

A

CB

B

SW NE

Edw

ards

-Trin

ity A

quife

r Sys

tem

Low

er C

reta

ceou

sFo

rt Te

rret

t For

mat

ion

Bur

row

ed M

embe

rRe

stric

ted

Shal

low

Mar

ine

Open

Mar

ine

HU Epoc

hF

MPE

II51 2 3 4

Limestonerecrystallizedto microspar

amp dolomite

Maximum Flooding Surface

RSM

L SH

G

F

E

D

C

B

HUFM

PERSM

LSII

EXPLANATIONHydrological unit Fjormation member Palaeoenvironment Relative shoreline movement Landward Seaward Ichnofabric index ndash From Droser and Bjottjer (1986)

B

CSHFS

Composite sequence High-frequency sequence High-frequency cycle Top pulverulent bed Abrupt contact Top firmground

MSWS

MDPGDP

GSFS-RS

Mudstone Wackstone Mud-dominated packstone Grain-dominated packstone Grainstone Floatstone-rudstone

In the Cretaceous examples fabric-selective dissolution in and around carbonate ichnofabrics related to Thalassinoides-dominated Cruziana ichnofacies are shown to have a marked impact on karst development of (1) highly permeable strati-form megaporosity (2) caves which commonly conform to upper and lower stratal boundaries in high-frequency cycles and (3) solution collapse structures The stratiform networks of extremely permeable megaporosity can be mapped and as such represented in groundwater flow and transport computer simulations Comparative analyses between Cretaceous and Pleistocene carbonate aquifers emphasize that the past (Meso-zoic) can be the key to the Pleistocene The two studies provide corroborating illustrations of the impact that ichnofabrics can have on groundwater flow in shallow-marine carbonate platform aquifers These analogues offer excellent examples for refining conceptualization of groundwater flow in the Pleisto-cene carbonates of the Biscayne aquifer for use in assessing and predicting change associated with implementation of restoration plans for the Greater Everglades in southern Florida

AcknowledgmentsThe US Geological Survey Priority Ecosystems Sci-

ence Program provided major funding for comparisons of the Biscayne aquifer and Edward-Trinity aquifer system Bill Ward (deceased) Rene Barker (Texas State University) Nico Hau-wert (Austin Watershed Protection Department) Scott Hiers (Austin Watershed Protection Department) and Al Broun (Hays Trinity Groundwater Conservation District) provided insight into Texas geology X-ray CT scans were conducted at High-Resolution X-Ray CT Facility at the University of Texas

References Cited

Barker RA and Ardis AF 1996 Hydrogeologic framework of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system west-central Texas US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1421-B 61 p

Choquette PW and Pray LC 1970 Geologic nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin v 54 p 207-250

Figure 3 Kainer Formation Travis County Texas (A) Hydrostratigraphy lithostratigraphy and carbonate textures of an abandoned quarry wall (B) close-up of inset (blue rectangle) showing beds that have collapsed into stratiform megaporosity related to a Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabric developed in unit 2 (C) Thalassinoides tunnel casts near the base of unit 2 and (D) sample (TXEA-1) of Thalassinoides casts and interburrow megaporosity from unit 2 (fig 4) Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

Edw

ards

Aqu

ifer

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s

Kain

er F

orm

atio

n

Dolo

miti

c M

embe

r

HU Epo

ch

FM

MS

WS

MDP

FS-R

SDo

lom

iteDo

lom

itic

FP MC

Th

MBR

HFS A

D

B

East West

C

2

EXPLANATION

HUFM

MBRHFS

Hydrogeological unit Formation Member High-frequency sequence

MSWS

MDPFS-RS

Mudstone Wackstone Mud-dominated packstone Floatstone-rudstone

ThFP

MC

Thalassinoides Flat pebbles Mud cracks Lithologic unit2

5 m

eter

s

1

23

4

5

6

Capr

inid

Mou

nd

10 centimeters10 centimeters

Cunningham KJ and Sukop MC 2011 Multiple technolo-gies applied to characterization of porosity and permeability of the Biscayne aquifer Florida US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1037 8 p

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC and Curran HA (in press) Carbonate aquifers in Knaust D and Bromley RG (eds) Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments Amsterdam Elsevier

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC Huang H Alvarez PF Curran HA Renken RA and Dixon JF 2009 Promi-nence of ichnologically influenced macroporosity in the karst Biscayne aquifer Stratiform ldquosuper-Krdquo zones Geological Society of America Bulletin v 121 p 164-180

de Marsily Gh Delay F Gonccedilalvegraves J Renard Ph Teles V and Violette S 2005 Dealing with spatial heterogeneity Hydrogeology Journal v 13 p 161-183

Droser MLand Bottjer DJ 1986 A semiquantitative field classification of ichnofabric Journal of Sedimentary Petrology v 56 p 558-559

Gerard JRF and Bromley RG 2008 Ichnofabrics in clastic sediments Applications to sedimentological core studies a practical guide Ibergraphi Madrid 100 p

Goldring R Cadeacutee GC and Pollard JE 2007 Climatic control of marine trace fossil distribution in Miller W III (ed) Trace Fossils Concepts Problems Prospects Amsterdam Elsevier p 159-171

Knaust D 2009 Ichnology as a tool in carbonate reservoir characterization A case study from the Permian Triassic Khuff Formation in the Middle East GeoArabia v 14 p 17-38

By Kevin J Cunningham and Michael C Sukop

Figure 4 Permeability and megaporosity values derived from carbonate samples with networks of ichnofabric-related megaporosity Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

For further information contact

Kevin J CunninghamUS Geological Survey7500 SW 36th StreetDavie FL 33314E-mail kcunningusgsgov

Michael C SukopDepartment of Earth amp EnvironmentFlorida International UniversityMiami FL 33199E-mail sukopmfiuedu

Any use of trade product or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government

For more information on the USGSmdashthe Federal source for science about the Earth its natural and living resources natural hazards and the environment World Wide Web httpwwwusgsgov Telephone 1-888-ASK-USGS

1 x 108

S H R - 1L T X - 4

TXEA-1CretaceousThalassinoidesIchnofabric

ML - 1 C 1 0 0 - Q 5 e - 1Pleistocene Ophiomorpha IchnofabricG - 3 8 3 7 - 1 8

G - 3 8 3 7 - 2 2

1 x 107

1 x 106

1 x 105

1 x 104

1 x 103

1 x 102

1 x 101

1 x 100

HH

VV

V

V

VV

UUU

H

H

HH

H2775 4589

4431 Perm

eabi

lity

in d

arci

es

EXPLANATIONUnoriented permeability Horizontal permeabilityVertical permeabilityLattice Boltzmann methods

UHVLBM

Megaporosity in percentSample volume in cubic centimetersLBM calculated intrinsic permeabilityMeasured air permeability

319

20

29

29

5064

783127

2123 2014

780759

731

319

319

In the Cretaceous examples fabric-selective dissolution in and around carbonate ichnofabrics related to Thalassinoides-dominated Cruziana ichnofacies are shown to have a marked impact on karst development of (1) highly permeable strati-form megaporosity (2) caves which commonly conform to upper and lower stratal boundaries in high-frequency cycles and (3) solution collapse structures The stratiform networks of extremely permeable megaporosity can be mapped and as such represented in groundwater flow and transport computer simulations Comparative analyses between Cretaceous and Pleistocene carbonate aquifers emphasize that the past (Meso-zoic) can be the key to the Pleistocene The two studies provide corroborating illustrations of the impact that ichnofabrics can have on groundwater flow in shallow-marine carbonate platform aquifers These analogues offer excellent examples for refining conceptualization of groundwater flow in the Pleisto-cene carbonates of the Biscayne aquifer for use in assessing and predicting change associated with implementation of restoration plans for the Greater Everglades in southern Florida

AcknowledgmentsThe US Geological Survey Priority Ecosystems Sci-

ence Program provided major funding for comparisons of the Biscayne aquifer and Edward-Trinity aquifer system Bill Ward (deceased) Rene Barker (Texas State University) Nico Hau-wert (Austin Watershed Protection Department) Scott Hiers (Austin Watershed Protection Department) and Al Broun (Hays Trinity Groundwater Conservation District) provided insight into Texas geology X-ray CT scans were conducted at High-Resolution X-Ray CT Facility at the University of Texas

References Cited

Barker RA and Ardis AF 1996 Hydrogeologic framework of the Edwards-Trinity aquifer system west-central Texas US Geological Survey Professional Paper 1421-B 61 p

Choquette PW and Pray LC 1970 Geologic nomenclature and classification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin v 54 p 207-250

Figure 3 Kainer Formation Travis County Texas (A) Hydrostratigraphy lithostratigraphy and carbonate textures of an abandoned quarry wall (B) close-up of inset (blue rectangle) showing beds that have collapsed into stratiform megaporosity related to a Thalassinoides-dominated ichnofabric developed in unit 2 (C) Thalassinoides tunnel casts near the base of unit 2 and (D) sample (TXEA-1) of Thalassinoides casts and interburrow megaporosity from unit 2 (fig 4) Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

Edw

ards

Aqu

ifer

Low

er C

reta

ceou

s

Kain

er F

orm

atio

n

Dolo

miti

c M

embe

r

HU Epo

ch

FM

MS

WS

MDP

FS-R

SDo

lom

iteDo

lom

itic

FP MC

Th

MBR

HFS A

D

B

East West

C

2

EXPLANATION

HUFM

MBRHFS

Hydrogeological unit Formation Member High-frequency sequence

MSWS

MDPFS-RS

Mudstone Wackstone Mud-dominated packstone Floatstone-rudstone

ThFP

MC

Thalassinoides Flat pebbles Mud cracks Lithologic unit2

5 m

eter

s

1

23

4

5

6

Capr

inid

Mou

nd

10 centimeters10 centimeters

Cunningham KJ and Sukop MC 2011 Multiple technolo-gies applied to characterization of porosity and permeability of the Biscayne aquifer Florida US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1037 8 p

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC and Curran HA (in press) Carbonate aquifers in Knaust D and Bromley RG (eds) Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments Amsterdam Elsevier

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC Huang H Alvarez PF Curran HA Renken RA and Dixon JF 2009 Promi-nence of ichnologically influenced macroporosity in the karst Biscayne aquifer Stratiform ldquosuper-Krdquo zones Geological Society of America Bulletin v 121 p 164-180

de Marsily Gh Delay F Gonccedilalvegraves J Renard Ph Teles V and Violette S 2005 Dealing with spatial heterogeneity Hydrogeology Journal v 13 p 161-183

Droser MLand Bottjer DJ 1986 A semiquantitative field classification of ichnofabric Journal of Sedimentary Petrology v 56 p 558-559

Gerard JRF and Bromley RG 2008 Ichnofabrics in clastic sediments Applications to sedimentological core studies a practical guide Ibergraphi Madrid 100 p

Goldring R Cadeacutee GC and Pollard JE 2007 Climatic control of marine trace fossil distribution in Miller W III (ed) Trace Fossils Concepts Problems Prospects Amsterdam Elsevier p 159-171

Knaust D 2009 Ichnology as a tool in carbonate reservoir characterization A case study from the Permian Triassic Khuff Formation in the Middle East GeoArabia v 14 p 17-38

By Kevin J Cunningham and Michael C Sukop

Figure 4 Permeability and megaporosity values derived from carbonate samples with networks of ichnofabric-related megaporosity Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

For further information contact

Kevin J CunninghamUS Geological Survey7500 SW 36th StreetDavie FL 33314E-mail kcunningusgsgov

Michael C SukopDepartment of Earth amp EnvironmentFlorida International UniversityMiami FL 33199E-mail sukopmfiuedu

Any use of trade product or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government

For more information on the USGSmdashthe Federal source for science about the Earth its natural and living resources natural hazards and the environment World Wide Web httpwwwusgsgov Telephone 1-888-ASK-USGS

1 x 108

S H R - 1L T X - 4

TXEA-1CretaceousThalassinoidesIchnofabric

ML - 1 C 1 0 0 - Q 5 e - 1Pleistocene Ophiomorpha IchnofabricG - 3 8 3 7 - 1 8

G - 3 8 3 7 - 2 2

1 x 107

1 x 106

1 x 105

1 x 104

1 x 103

1 x 102

1 x 101

1 x 100

HH

VV

V

V

VV

UUU

H

H

HH

H2775 4589

4431 Perm

eabi

lity

in d

arci

es

EXPLANATIONUnoriented permeability Horizontal permeabilityVertical permeabilityLattice Boltzmann methods

UHVLBM

Megaporosity in percentSample volume in cubic centimetersLBM calculated intrinsic permeabilityMeasured air permeability

319

20

29

29

5064

783127

2123 2014

780759

731

319

319

Cunningham KJ and Sukop MC 2011 Multiple technolo-gies applied to characterization of porosity and permeability of the Biscayne aquifer Florida US Geological Survey Open-File Report 2011-1037 8 p

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC and Curran HA (in press) Carbonate aquifers in Knaust D and Bromley RG (eds) Trace Fossils as Indicators of Sedimentary Environments Amsterdam Elsevier

Cunningham KJ Sukop MC Huang H Alvarez PF Curran HA Renken RA and Dixon JF 2009 Promi-nence of ichnologically influenced macroporosity in the karst Biscayne aquifer Stratiform ldquosuper-Krdquo zones Geological Society of America Bulletin v 121 p 164-180

de Marsily Gh Delay F Gonccedilalvegraves J Renard Ph Teles V and Violette S 2005 Dealing with spatial heterogeneity Hydrogeology Journal v 13 p 161-183

Droser MLand Bottjer DJ 1986 A semiquantitative field classification of ichnofabric Journal of Sedimentary Petrology v 56 p 558-559

Gerard JRF and Bromley RG 2008 Ichnofabrics in clastic sediments Applications to sedimentological core studies a practical guide Ibergraphi Madrid 100 p

Goldring R Cadeacutee GC and Pollard JE 2007 Climatic control of marine trace fossil distribution in Miller W III (ed) Trace Fossils Concepts Problems Prospects Amsterdam Elsevier p 159-171

Knaust D 2009 Ichnology as a tool in carbonate reservoir characterization A case study from the Permian Triassic Khuff Formation in the Middle East GeoArabia v 14 p 17-38

By Kevin J Cunningham and Michael C Sukop

Figure 4 Permeability and megaporosity values derived from carbonate samples with networks of ichnofabric-related megaporosity Modified from Cunningham and others (in press)

For further information contact

Kevin J CunninghamUS Geological Survey7500 SW 36th StreetDavie FL 33314E-mail kcunningusgsgov

Michael C SukopDepartment of Earth amp EnvironmentFlorida International UniversityMiami FL 33199E-mail sukopmfiuedu

Any use of trade product or firm names is for descriptive purposes only and does not imply endorsement by the US Government

For more information on the USGSmdashthe Federal source for science about the Earth its natural and living resources natural hazards and the environment World Wide Web httpwwwusgsgov Telephone 1-888-ASK-USGS

1 x 108

S H R - 1L T X - 4

TXEA-1CretaceousThalassinoidesIchnofabric

ML - 1 C 1 0 0 - Q 5 e - 1Pleistocene Ophiomorpha IchnofabricG - 3 8 3 7 - 1 8

G - 3 8 3 7 - 2 2

1 x 107

1 x 106

1 x 105

1 x 104

1 x 103

1 x 102

1 x 101

1 x 100

HH

VV

V

V

VV

UUU

H

H

HH

H2775 4589

4431 Perm

eabi

lity

in d

arci

es

EXPLANATIONUnoriented permeability Horizontal permeabilityVertical permeabilityLattice Boltzmann methods

UHVLBM

Megaporosity in percentSample volume in cubic centimetersLBM calculated intrinsic permeabilityMeasured air permeability

319

20

29

29

5064

783127

2123 2014

780759

731

319

319