S.N.King/sultanDynastyDynasty PeriodCapital

1. Mahmud of ghazniGhazni997 - 1030Ghazni

2. Muizzuddin Muhammad aka Muhammad Ghori1192-Ghazni

3. Qutbuddin AibakSlave /MamlukQutubi(1206 - 1290)1206 - 1210Indraprasta, Delhi/Lahore

4. IltutmishSlave /Mamluk-First Ilbari (1211-1266)1211- 1236Lahore to Delhi

5. RaziaSlave /Mamluk - First Ilbari1236 - 1240Delhi

6. Ghiyasuddin Balbanaka Ulugh KhanSlave /Mamluk- Second Ilbari(1266 - 1290)1266- 1287Delhi

7. Jalaluddin KhaljiKhalji(1290-1320)1290-1296Delhi

8. Alauddin KhaljiKhalji1296-1316Delhi

9. Ghazi Malik aka Ghiyasuddin TughlaqTughlaq(1320- 1414)1320-1325Delhi

10. Muhammad bin Tughlaq aka Ulugh KhanTughlaq1325-1351Delhi

11. Firoz TughlaqTughlaq1351- 1388Delhi

12. Naseer ud din Mahmud1394-1412

13. Khizr KhanSayyid(1414 1451)1414 1421Delhi

14. Mubarak Shah

15. Muhammad Shah -1445

16. Alam Shah1445-1451

17. Buhlul LodiLodi(1451-1526)1451-1489Delhi

18. Sikandar LodiLodi1489-1517Delhi

19. Ibrahim LodiLodi1517-1526Delhi

20. BaburMughal(1526 -1857)1526-1530Delhi

21. HumayunMughal1530-1540Delhi

22. Farid Aka Sher Shah Sur1540 -1555Delhi

23. AkbarMughal1556 -1605Agra

24. JahangirMughal1605 -1627Agra

25. Shah JahaMughal1627 -1658Agra

26. AurangjebMughal1658 -1707Delhi

27. Bahdurshah IMughal1707-1712Delhi

28. Jahandar Shah(Julfiqar Khan)Mughal1712-1713Delhi

29. Farrukh Siyar (nephew) (Saiyid Brothers)Mughal1713-1719Delhi

30. Muhammad Shah(Saiyid Brothers)Mughal1719-1748Delhi

31. Ahmad ShahMughal1748-1754Delhi

32. Alamgir IIMughal1754 -1759Delhi

33. Shah Alam IIMughal1759 -1806Delhi

34. AkbarII, aka AkbarShah IIMughal1806-1837Delhi

35. BahadurShahZafarMughal1837-1858Delhi

S.NDepartmentIntroduction ByPurposeOfficer

1. Diwan-i- WizaratFinanceWazir

2. Diwan-i-ArizBalwanmilitaryAriz-i-mumalik

3. Diwan-i- RasalatReligious affairschief Sadr

4. Diwan-i- MustakhrajAlauddin KhaljiDept of Revenue,Arrears ( Check corruption in Revenue)

5. Diwan-i- RiyasatAlauddin KhaljiDay to Day AdminNaib-i-Riyasat(Most powerful after Sultan)

6. Diwan-i-KohiMuhammad bin TughlaqAgricultural

7. Diwan-i- InshaCorrespondence between the ruler and the officials

8. Diwan-i-KhairatFiroz TughlaqTo care Orphan and Widow

9. Diwan-i-BandganFiroz TughlaqAffairs of slaves

10. JudicialChief Qazi

SNSultanate DivisionOfficerVijaynagar Empire DivisionOfficerMughalEmpireOfficer

1. SultanateSultan

2. IqtaMuqtis or WalisnoblesMandalamMandaleswara or NayakSuba

3. ShiqShiqdarNaduCirkarFauzdar

4. ParganaAmilSthalaParganaOr Mahal

5. VillageMuqaddam or ChaudhariGrama

S.NBookWriterDescription

1. Kitab-ul-Yamini & Tareekh-i-YaminiUtbiHe was court historian of Mamhud Gajnavi.

2. Kitab-ul-HindAlberunis It is written in Arabic.

3. Shah NamaFirdausiIts about Mahmud Gajnavi.

4. Sangeet mimansa, Sangeet Raj, Sangeet RatnakarRana Kumbha

5. Man KautuhalRaja Man Singh of Gwaliora great musical work

6. Tabaqat-i-NasariMinhaj-us-SirajIt is written in persian, a general history of Muslim dynasties up to 1260.It is devoted to sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of Iltutmish.

7. Tareekh-i-DilliAmir Khusro

8. Khazain-ul-FutuhAmir KhusroIt is about Alauddins conquests.

9. Tughlaq NamaAmir KhusroIt deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq

10. Fatwa-i-JahandariBarani

11. Kitab-ul-RehlaIbn- BatutaIt talked about postal department.

12. Tarikh-i-FirozShahiBaraniIt contains the history of Tughlaq dynasty.

13. Futuhat-i-Firoz ShahiFeroz Shah TughlaqAutobiography

14. Tarikh-i-MubarakshahiYahiya-bin-AhemadIt is single source to know about sayid dynasty.

15. RajataranginiKalhanaIt belongs to the period of Zain-ul-Abidin( 1420-1470), the ruler of Kashmir.

16. Premvatika,Sujan RskhanRaskhanIt is in pure Brajbhasha. It is about Krishna.

17. Jawahir-e-Khamsa, Piran-e-PirHAZRAT SHAH MOHAMMAD GHOUSE

18. BijakKabirIt comprise of Ad-mangal, Sakhi, Sabads, and Ramaini. Amar Mul contains his dialogue with Dharamdas.

19. AmukthamalyadhaKrishna Deva RayaTelgu

20. Jambavati Kalyanam and UshaparinayamKrishna Deva RayaSanskrit

21. MaduravijayamGangadevi

22. Manucharitam,HarikathasaramAllasani Peddanna

23. Kavi Priya, Ram Chandrika, Rasik PriyaKeshavdas(1555-1617)

24. Tareekh-e-FarishtaMohammad QasimFarishta

25. Kitab-e-NavrasIbrahim Adil Shah IIBook of Nine Rasas

26. Tuzuk-i-BaburiBaburAutobiography written Turkey language

27. HumayunnamaGulbadan BegumShe was daughter of Humayun.

28. Tabaqat-i-AkbariNizammudin AhmadIt is written in Farsi.

29. Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar NamaAbul Fazal

30. RamznamaAbul FaiziTranslation of mahabaharta to Persian

31. Anwar-I-SuhailiAbul FazalTranslation of panctantra to Persian

32. Tuzuk-i-JahangiriJahangirAutobiography

33. Padshah NamaAbdul Hamid LahoriHe was shah Jahans court historian.

34. Shah Jahan NamaInayat Khan

35. Sirr-e-AkbarDara ShikohTranslation of upnishad in Farsi.

36. Majma-ul-BahrainDara ShikohIt was his original work.

SNName of ForeignerTimeKing /EmperorDescription

1. AlberuniMahmud Gaznavi

2. Ibne BatutaMuhammad Bin TughlaqHe was morrocon traveler.He made Kazi of delhi and ambassador to china.

3. Nicolo de ContiVenetian traveler

4. Abdur RazzakDeva RayaPersian traveler

5. Domingo PaesKrishna Deva RayaPortuguese traveler

6. Ralph Finch1583-1591AkbarHe was first English merchant to reach Agra and Fatehpur Sikri.

7. FranciscoPelsaertJahangirHe was a Dutch. He wrote a book Remonstrance about Jahangir reign.

8. PeterMundyShah JahanItalian Traveler

9. Jean-Baptiste Tavernier

1638-1663Shah JahanHe was a 17th-century French gem merchant and traveler. He wrote Travels-In-India.

10. Franois BernierShah JahanHe was a frenchphysicianand traveler. He was briefly personal physician to Prince Dara Shikoh and after him attached to the court of the Emperor Aurangzeb for around 12 years during his stay in India.

11. Niccolao Manucci(16391708)Shah Jahan.He was an Italian writer and traveller. He worked in theMughalcourtin the service ofDara Shikoh as topachi. Manucci is famous for his work "Storia do Mogor", an account of Mughal history and life.

S.N.SultanateFounderDescription

1. Nizamshahi of AhmednagarMalik AhmedShah Jahan annexed it and Nizam Shahi ruler Hussain Shah, sent as a prisoner to the fort of Gwalior.

2. Qutubshahi of Golconda (Hyderabad)Quli Qutub ShahMughal emperor Aurangzeb's army conquered Golkonda in 1687.

3. Baridshahi of Bidar

4. Imadshahi of Berar

5. Adilshahi of BijapurYusuf Adil ShahThe Sultanate was conquered byAurangzebin 1686 with the fall of Bijapur, bringing the dynasty to an end.

S.N.NameIndian KingTimeWar

1. Genghis KhanIltutmish1211-1236

2. TimurNaeeruddin Mahmud1398

3. Nadir shahMuhammad Shah1739

4. Ahmad Shah Abdali1748-17613rd war of Panipat

S.n.Name of BattleDescription

1. GhagraBetween Babur and Mahmud Lodi in 5may, 1529. It was the last battle of Babur.

2.

3.

Rajput KingdomsThe Gurjara-Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers. Its first great leader was Harischandra with his capital at Bhinmal.Gurjaras were in different branches. One branch ruled Gujarat and another at Avanthi. The Pratiharas involved themselves in a three-cornered contest with the Palas of Bengal and the Rashtrakutas of Deccan.Later the Pratiharas became weak.The Chauhans, the most valiant of the Rajput races, ruled Ajmir. Vigraharaj was their most important king, who occupied Delhi. The Paramaras were also important Rajput rulers of this period. The most important king was Bhoja. Prophet Muhammad (570 -632)The religion Islam was born at Mecca in Saudi Arabia in 570 AD. Its founder was Prophet Muhammad. He migrated to Medina in 622 A.D., which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar and the Muslim era called Hijra. After eight years he returned to Mecca with his followers. He died in 632 A.D. The followers of Muhammad set up an empire called the Caliphate. The Umayyads and the Abbasids were called the caliphs.In 712 A.D., Muhammad bin Qasim invaded Sind. He was an Arab. He was the commander of the Umayyad kingdoms Al Hazzaj . Qasim defeated Dahir, the ruler of Sind. His capital Aror was captured. The people of Sind were given the status of zimmis (protected subjects).

Mahmud of Ghazni (A.D. 997-1030)The Turkish governors established independent kingdom. One among them was Alptigin whose capital was Ghazni. He was succeeded by his son-in-law Sabuktigin who succeeded in capturing Peshawar from Jayapala. He was succeeded by his son, Mahmud.Mahmud is said to have made 17 raids into India. The initial raids were against the Hindu Shahi kingdom in which its king Jayapala was defeated in 1001. His successor Anandapala fought against Mahmud but he was also defeated in the Battle of Waihind, the Hind Shahi capital near Peshawar in 1008. In 1011, he raided Nagarkot in the Punjab hills and Thaneshwar near Delhi. In 1018, Mahmud plundered the holy city of Mathura and also attacked Kannauj. In 1024, Mahmud marched from Multan across Rajaputana, defeated the Solanki King Bhimadeva I, plundered Anhilwad and sacked the famous temple of Somanatha.Mahmud died in 1030 A.D. He built a wide empire from the Punjab in the east to the Caspian sea on the west and from Samarkand in the north to Gujarat in the south. The Ghaznavid empire roughly included Persia, Trans-oxyana, Afghanistan and Punjab.He issued silver coin with Sanskrit inscription on one side and Arabic on other side.Firdausi was the poet-laureate in the court of Mahmud. He was the author of Shah Namah. Alberuni stayed in Mahmuds court and wrote the famous Kitab-i-Hind, an account on India. He was the first Muslim who studied purana. Al-Utbi was his court Historian.Muhammad GhoriMuizzuddin Muhammad popularly known as Muhammad Ghori brought Ghazni under his control. Unlike Mahmud of Ghazni, he wanted to conquer India and extend his empire in this direction.In 1175, Muhammad Ghori captured Multan and occupied whole of Sind in his subsequent expeditions. In 1186 he attacked Punjab, captured it from Khusru Malik and annexed it to his dominions.The annexation of Punjab carried his dominion eastward to the Sutlej and led his invasion of the Chauhan kingdom.He attacked on on Gujarat on 1178 but got defeated by Mulraj II or Bhim II. It was his first defeat in india.The Battle of Tarain (1191-1192)The Hindu princes of north India formed a confederacy under the command of Prithiviraj Chauhan. Prithviraj defeated Ghori in the battle of Tarain near Delhi in 1191 A.D. To avenge this defeat he gathered an army of 1,20,000 men. Prithviraj gathered a large force consisting of 3,00,000 horses, 3000 elephants and a large body of foot soldiers. Many Hindu rajas and chieftains also joined him. In the ensuing Second Battle of Tarain in 1192, Muhammad Ghori thoroughly routed the army of Prithiviraj, who was captured and killed.The first Muslim kingdom was thus firmly established in India at Ajmer. Muhammad Ghori returned to Ghazni leaving behind his favourite general Qutb-ud-din Aibak to make further conquests in India. Aibak consolidated his position in India by occupying places like Delhi and Meerut. In 1193 he prepared the ground for another invasion by Muhammad Ghori against the Gahadavala ruler Jayachandra.Kanauj was occupied by the Muslims after the battle of Chandawar(at the Yamuna bank near firozabad).The Battles of Tarain and Chandawar contributed to the establishment of Turkish rule in India.The causes for the downfall of Hindu states have to be analysed historically. The most important cause was that they lacked unity. Secondly, many Hindu states were declining in power. Their military methods were out of date and far inferior to those of Muslims. Indians continued to rely on elephants while the Muslims possessed quick-moving cavalry. The Muslims soldiers had better organization and able leaders.Their religious zeal and their greed for the greater wealth of India provided stimulus to them. Among the Hindus, the duty of fighting was confined to a particular class, the Kshatriyas. Ghori issued coin which contained goddess Lakshmi on one side and kalma in Arabic on other side.MuhammadBakhtiyarKhilji (- 1206) was a Turkicmilitary general/slave ofQutb-ud-din Aibak. The biggest credit in his record is the conquest of Bengal and Bihar. He destroyed Nalanda and vikramshila university in 1202.He defeated Bengali king Lakshman Sen in 1204-05.Delhi SultanateThe Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526.Five different dynasties the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis ruled under the Delhi Sultanate.Slave DynastyThe Slave dynasty was also called Mamluk dynasty. Mamluk was the Quranic term for slave. The Slave dynasty ruled Delhi from A.D. 1206 to 1290. In fact, three dynasties were established during this period. 1. Qutbi dynasty (1206-1211) founded by Qutbuddin Aibak.2. First Ilbari dynasty (1211- 1266) founded by Iltutmish.3. Second Ilbari dynasty (1266-1290) founded by Balban.

Qutbuddin Aibak (1206-1210)Qutbuddin Aibak was a slave of Muhammad Ghori, who made him the Governor of his Indian possessions. After the death of Ghori in 1206, Aibak founded the Slave dynasty as well as the Delhi Sultanate.Muslim writers call Aibak Lakh Bakshor i.e. giver of lakhs because he gave liberal donations to them. Aibak patronized the great scholar Hasan Nizami.Aibak died suddenly while playing chaugan (horse polo) in 1210.He was succeeded by his son Aram Baksh, who was replaced by Iltutmish after eight months.Iltutmish (1211-1236)ltutmish belonged to the Ilbari tribe and hence his dynasty was named as Ilbari dynasty.Iltutmish was a slave to Aibak, who made him his-son-in law by giving his daughter in marriage to him. In 1211 Iltutmish defeated Aram Baksh and became Sultan.He shifted his capital from Lahore to Delhi.Temujin popularly known as Chengiz Khan, the leader of the Mongols, started invading Central Asia. He defeated Jalaluddin Mangabarni, the ruler of Kwarizam. Mangabarni crossed the river Indus and sought asylum from Iltutmish. Iltutmish refused to give him shelter in order to save his empire from the onslaught of the Mongols.He also annexed Sind and Multan into the Delhi Sultanate. He received the mansur, the letter of recognition, from the Abbasid Caliph in 1229 by which he became the legal sovereign ruler of India. In this way Iltutmish was first free Muslim king of Delhi.Later he nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor. Hence hereditary succession to Delhi Sultanate was initiated by Iltutmish. Minhaj-us-Siraj, Taj-ud-din, Nizam-ul-mulk ,Muhammad Janaidi, Malik Qutb-ud-din Hasan and Fakhrul-Mulk Isami were his contemporary scholars.He built a magnificent mosque at Ajmir.Iltutmish had also created a new class of ruling elite of forty powerful military leaders, the Forty- Turkan iChahalganior Chalisa.Raziya (1236-1240)Although Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor, the Qazi of Delhi and Wazir put Ruknuddin Feroz on the throne. When the governor of Multan revolted, Ruknuddin marched to suppress that revolt. Using this opportunity, Raziya with the support of Amirs of Delhi , seized the throne of Delhi Sultanate. She appointed an Abyssinian slave Yakuth as Master of the Royal Horses.In 1240, Altunia, the governor of Bhatinda revolted against her. She went in person to suppress the revolt but Altunia killed Yakuth and took Raziya prisoner.In the meantime, the Turkish nobles put Bahram, another son of Iltutmish on the throne. However, Raziya won over her captor, Altunia, and after marrying him proceeded to Delhi. But she was defeated and killed.In 1246 Ghiyasuddin Balban, who was also known as Ulugh Khan succeeded in putting Nasiruddin Mahmud, a younger son of Iltutmish, as Sultan and served as Naib or regent to Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud.

Balban (1266 - 1287)In 1266 Nasiruddin Mahmud died without issues and Balban ascended the throne. He knew that the real threat to the monarchy was from the nobles called the Forty. He removed this system. He adopted blood and iron policy.According to Balban the Sultan was Gods shadow on earth and the recipient of divine grace. He took the title of Zil-e-Illahi meaning mirror image of God. Balban introduced rigorous court discipline and new customs such as prostration(Sijda) and kissing the Sultans feet to prove his superiority over the nobles.He also introduced the Persian festival of Nauroz to impress the nobles and people with his wealth and power. He stood forth as the champion of Turkish nobility. Indian Muslims were not given important post in the government. He spared only the most obedient nobles and eliminated all others by fair or foul means.Balban established a separate military department ,Diwan-i-Arz to counter Mongols and reorganized the army.He enhanced the power of the monarchy. However, he could not fully safeguard India from the Mongol invasions. Robbers were mercilessly pursued and put to death. As a result, the roads became safe for travel.Balban died in 1287. He was undoubtedly one of the main architects of the Delhi Sultanate.When Balban died, one of his grandson Kaiqubad was made the Sultan of Delhi. After four years of incompetent rule, Jalaluddin Khalji captured the throne of Delhi in 1290.Khalji Dynasty(1290-1320)The founder of the Khalji dynasty was Jalaluddin Khalji. Alauddin Khalji treacherously murdered his father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji and usurped the throne of Delhi.Alauddin Khalji (1296-1316)He created a kingdom which was free from sharia. He wanted to start a new religion and conquer the world. He took the title Sikander e-Sani.He was convinced that the general prosperity of the nobles, inter-marriages between noble families, inefficient spy-system and drinking liquor were the basic reasons for the rebellions.He confiscated the properties of the nobles. The intelligence system was reorganized and all the secret activities of the nobles were immediately reported to the Sultan. The public sale of liquor and drugs was totally stopped. Social gatherings and festivities without the permission of Sultan were forbidden.Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of dagh(branding of horses) and prepared huliya(descriptive list of soldiers).Alauddin Khalji introduced the system of paying salaries in cash to the soldiers led to price regulations popularly called as Market Reforms. Alauddin Khalji established four separate markets in Delhi, one for grain; another for cloth, sugar, dried fruits, butter and oil; a third for horses, slaves and cattle; and a fourth for miscellaneous commodities.Each market was under the control of a high officer called Shahna-i-Mandi. There were secret agents called munhiyans who sent reports to the Sultan regarding the functioning of these markets. He started PDS.A separate department called Diwan-i- Riyasat was created under an officer called Naib-i-Riyasat.Alauddin Khalji was the first Sultan of Delhi who ordered for the measurement of land. He took back milk and wakf land which resulted in increase of khalis land. He took land revenue tax upto 50%. He started collection of two new tax.1.Ghari(House) Tax2.Charai Tax

Alauddin Khalji sent his army six times against the Mongols. The first two was successful. But the third Mongol invader Khwaja came up to Delhi but they were prevented from entering into the capital city.The next three Mongol invasions were also dealt with severely. The north western frontier was fortified and Gazi Malik was appointed to as the Warden of Marches to protect the frontier. Sindhu river acted as boundary between mongols and khalzi.He sent Nusrat Khan and Ulugh Khan to capture Gujarat in 1299. Kafur, an eunuch, was taken to Delhi and later he was made the Malik Naib military commander.Then in 1301, Alauddin marched against Ranthampur and after a three months siege it fell. In 1303 Alauddin stormed the Chittor fort. Raja RatanSingh and his soldiers fought valiantly but submitted. The Rajput women including Rani Padmini performed jauhar. This Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavath written by Jayasi.Alauddin Khaljis greatest achievement was the conquest of Deccan and the far souths Four important dynasties Yadavas of Devagiri, Kakatiyas of Warangal, Hoysalas of Dwarasamudra and the Pandyas of Madurai.In Alauddin sent Malik Kafur against the ruler of Devagiri, Ramachandra Deva, who submitted. In 1309 Malik Kafur launched his campaign against Warangal. Its ruler Pratabarudra Deva was defeated. Malik Kafurs next target was the Hoysala ruler Vira Ballala III. Vira Pandya fled the capital Madurai.Alauddin Khalji died in 1316.Mubarak Shah and Khusru Shah were the successors of Alauddin Khalji. Ghazi Malik, the governor of Dipalpur, killed the Sultan Khusru Shah and ascended the throne of Delhi under the title of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq in 1320.

The Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1414)The founder of the Tughlaq dynasty was Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq or Ghazi Malik. Ghiyasuddin laid the foundation for Tughlaqabad near Delhi. Tughlaq Dynasty ruled longest in Delhi sultanate.Ulugh Khan was said to have treacherously killed his father and ascended the throne with the title Muhammad bin Tughlaq in 1325.Muhammad bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)Contemporary writers like Isami, Barani and Ibn Battutah were unable to give a correct picture about his personality.Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the only Delhi Sultan who had received a comprehensive literary, religious and philosophical education.Muhammad bin Tughlaq Blunders1. Muhammad bin Tughlaq wanted to make Devagiri his second capital so that he might be able to control South India better2. Token Currency3. Taxation in DoabAgricultural Reformsa. He launched a scheme by which takkavi loans (loans forcultivation) were given to the farmers to buy seed and to extend cultivation.b. Separate department for agriculture, Diwan- i- Kohi was established. He encouraged agriculture according to crop pattern for maximum produce.He introduced new gold coin which were called Dinar by Ibn Battutah. Ibn Battutah was Moroccan traveler. He was appointed Kazi of Delhi by Muhammad bin-Tughlaq. He wrote a book Kitab-Ul-Rehla.He used to participate in Hindu festival specially Holi. He appointed Indian Muslims to govt. posts.Mohammad bin Tughlaq died in 1351. According to Baduani, the Sultan was freed from his people and the people were freed from the Sultan.Firoz Tughlaq (1351 - 1388)After the death of Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq in 1351 ,his cousin Firoz Tughlaq, had the unique distinction of being chosen as sultan by the nobles.He appointed Khan-i-Jahan Maqbal, a Telugu Brahmin convert as wazir (prime minister).The reign of Firoz Tughlaq was more notable for his administration. He pleased the nobles and assured hereditary succession to their properties.Thus the iqta system was not only revived but also it was made hereditary.

Feroz Shah Tughlaq following dictum of Quran. He levied only 4 taxes named 1. Kharaj(taxonagriculturalland),2. Khums-one-fifth of spoils of war, booty collected from non-believers after a military campaign. This tax was paid to the Caliph or Sultan, representing the state of Islam.3. Zazia Tax on Non Believer4. Zakat-is the practice of taxation and redistribution, including benefits paid to poor Muslims, imposed upon Muslims based on accumulated wealth.

Firoz established first time in India an employment office and PWD.

He was the first Sultan to impose irrigation tax or Haqq-i-Sharab. It was 1/10 of produce. But at the same time he dug irrigation canals and wells.

He also developed royal factories called karkhanas in which thousands of slaves were employed.

New department called Diwan-i-Khairat was created to take care of poor Muslims, orphan women and widows. He established a charity hospital Dar-ul-Shafa. He arranged Haz yatra at the cost of state treasury.

Firoz patronized scholars like Barani and Afif.

As he was guided by the ulemas, he was intolerant towards Shia Muslims and Sufis. He treated Hindus as second grade citizens and imposed Jiziya first time on Brahmins also. Diwan-i-Wizarat reached to its glory in Firoz Tughlaq time.Naseer ud din Mahmud (1394-1412) was last in tughlaq dynasty. Famous mongol warrior Timur attacke india in his time (1398).Sayyids (1414-1451)The invasion of Timur in 1398 in the reign of had worsened the situation. He withdrew from India in 1399 and his invasion in fact delivered a death blow to the Tughlaq dynasty.Before his departure from India, Timur appointed Khizr Khan as governor of Multan. He captured Delhi and founded the Sayyid dynasty in 1414. He died in 1421 and was succeeded by his son, Mubarak Shah. Mubarak Shah was succeeded by his son Muhammad Shah. Muhammad Shah died in 1445 and was succeeded by his son Alam Shah (1445-1451) the weakest of the Sayyid princes. He handed over the throne to Buhlul Lodi and retired to Badaun.Lodi Dynasty (1451-1526)The Lodis, who succeeded Sayyids, were Afghans. Buhlul Lodi was the first Afghan ruler while his predecessors were all Turks. He died in 1489 and was succeeded by his son, Sikandar Lodi.Sikandar Lodi (1489-1517) He was the greatest of the three Lodi sovereigns. Despite certain laudable qualities, he was a bigot. He destroyed many Hindu temples and imposed many restrictions on the Hindus.Sikander Lodi laid the foundation of Agra in 1504 at the bank of Yamuna to see greater control over Rajput kings.Sikander Lodi introduced Gaz-i-sikandari for uniform measurement of land. He withdrawn zakat(grain tax).Sikandar Lodi was succeeded by his eldest son Ibrahim Lodi. He was arrogant and used to insult courtier. Greatly displeased by the arrogance of Ibrahim Lodi, Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of the Punjab, invited Babur to invade India. Babur marched against Delhi and defeated and killed Ibrahim Lodi in the first battle of Panipat (1526).INDIA UNDER THE DELHI SULTANATAdministrationThe Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam. Though Barni saw this not as Islamic state as most of the people didnt follow Islam.The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph. They included the name of the Caliph in the khutba( prayer ) and inscribed it on their coins.Iltutmish, Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained Mansur or letter of permission from the Caliph.There was no clear law of succession during this period. All the sons had equal claim to the throne.Central GovernmentThe post of Naib was the most powerful one. The Naib practically enjoyed all the powers of the Sultan and exercised general control over all the departments. Next to him was the Wazir who was heading the finance department called Diwan-i- Wizarat.The military department was called Diwan-i-Ariz. It was introduced by Balwan. It was headed by Ariz-i-mumalik. He was responsible for recruiting the soldiers and administering the military department. He was not the commander-in-chief of the army. The Sultan himself was the commander-in-chief of the army. Under Alauddin Khalji the strength of the army crossed three lakh soldiers.Diwan-i- Rasalat was the department of religious affairs. It was headed by chief Sadr. Grants were made by this department for the construction and maintenance of mosques, tombs and madrasas.The head of the judicial department was the chief Qazi. Muslim personal law or sharia was followed in civil court. The Hindus were governed by their own personal law and their cases were dispensed by the village panchayats.The criminal law was based on the rules and regulations made by the Sultans.Javabit implied law of land in sultanate period.The department of correspondence was called Diwan-i- Insha. All the correspondence between the ruler and the officials was dealt with by this department.Local AdministrationThe provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas. They were initially under the control of the nobles. The governors of the provinces were called the muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and order and collect the land revenue.Fawazil in the Sultanate period meansexcess amount paid to the exchequer by the iqtadars.The provinces were divided into shiq and the next division was pargana.The shiqwas under the control of shiqdar. The pargana comprising a number of villages was headed by amil.The village remained the basic unit of the administration.The village headman was known as muqaddam or chaudhri. The village accountant was called patwari.EconomyThe lands were classified into three categories:Iqta land lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services. Khalisa land land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household. Inamland land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions. The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one half of the produce.Muhammad bin Tughlaq created a separate agricultural department, Diwan-i -Kohi.Sultans like Muhammad bi Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq took efforts to enhance agricultural production by providing irrigational facilities and by providing takkavi loans.A number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach, Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them. Delhi remained the largest city in the East. Overseas trade was under the control of Multanis and Afghan Muslim. Inland trade was dominated by the Gujarati Marwari merchants and Muslim Bohra merchants. Sarais or rest houses on the highways were maintained for the convenience of the travelers.Cotton textile and silk industry flourished in this period. Sericulture was introduced on a large scale which made India less dependent on other countries for the import of raw silk.The system of coinage had also developed during the Delhi Sultanate. Ltutmish introduced the Arabic coinage into India. Iltutmish issued several types of coins as silver tankas and Jitals (Copper).The silver tanka weighing 175 grams became a standard coin in medieval India. Alauddin Masud shah put name of last caliph in his coin.Shasgani was also a silver coin. It was introduced by Firoz Tughlaq.One silver tanka was divided into 48 jitals during the Khalji rule and 50 jitals during the Tughlaq rule. Gold coins or dinars became popular during the reign of Alauddin Khalji after his South Indian conquests.Muhammad bin Tughlaq issued several types of gold and silver coins. They were minted at eight different places. At least twenty five varieties of gold coins were issued by him. Copper coins were less in number and dateless.Social LifeTraditional caste system with the Brahmins on the upper strata of the society was prevalent. The subservient position of women also continued and the practice of sati was widely prevalent. The seclusion of women:-The Arabs and Turks brought the purdah system into India and it became widespread among the Hindu women in the upper classes of north India.During the Sultanate period, the Muslim society remained divided into several ethnic and racial groups. The Turks, Iranians, Afghans and Indian Muslims developed exclusively and there were no intermarriages between these groups.Hindu converts from lower castes were also not given equal respect. The Muslim nobleso ccupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were given high position in the government.The Hindus were considered zimmi or protected people for which they were forced to pay a tax called jiziya. In the beginning jiziya was collected as part of land tax. Firoz Tughlaq separated it from the land revenue and collected jiziya as a separate tax. Sometimes Brahmins were exempted from paying jiziya.Firoz Tughlaq established translation department so that Hindu and Muslim religious text can be translated. Its aim was to develop communal harmony.Art and ArchitectureThe art and architecture of the Delhi Sultanate period was distinct from the Indian style. The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and decorations using the Arabic script. In the beginning, they converted temples and other structures demolished to make mosques. For example, the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque near Qutub Minar in Delhi and Adhai Din Ka Jhopra in Ajmer was built by Aibek using the materials obtained from destroying many Hindu and Jain temples.The most magnificent building of the 13 th century was the Qutub Minar which was founded by Aibek and completed by Iltutmish. This seventy one metre tower, the tallest stone tower in India (238 ft.), was dedicated to the Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki. Firoz Tuglaq added two more story to it when 4th story was struck by lightning.Alauddin Khalj also built a famous gateway to Qutub Minar known as Alai Darwaza and constructed a new capital at Siri.The palace complex called Tughlaqabad with its beautiful lake was built during the period of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq. Muhammad bin Tughlaq built the tomb of Ghyasuddin on a high platform. About 300 new towns were built during Firoz Tughlaq reign. He established Indias first PWD dept. He planted 1200 fruit garden near Delhi due to his fondness for gardening. The famous among them was Firozabad near Red Fort in Delhi, now called Firoz Shah Kotla.Feroz Shah brought the two Asokan pillars from Khijrabad or Topara and Meerut to Delhi.Feroz Shah also laid foundation of Jaunpur in memory of his cousin Jaun Khan(Muhamd Bin Tughlaq). Jaunpur became independent kingdom in the reign of sultan Muhammad shah II in 1394. Its founder was Malik Sarvar who was wazir of sultan Muhammad shah II. The dynasty founded by him was named Sharqi because of his title Malik-us-Sharq (the ruler of the east). The most acclaimed ruler of this dynasty was Ibrahim Shah Sharqi. He is known as shiraz-i-hind. Jaunpur was called Shiraj of India in this time. The last ruler Hussain Shah was overthrown by Bahlul Lodi, and Jaunpur sultanate was permanently annexed to Delhi sultanate by Sikandar Lodi.The Lodi garden in Delhi was the example for the architecture of the Lodis.Jamia Masjid is a mosque in Srinagar. An important mosque was built by Sultan Sikandar in 1400 AD. The son of Sultan Sikandar, Zain-ul-Abidin got the mosque extended It has burj, Persian architecture and similarity with buddha pagoda.Zain-ul-Abidin (1418-1419,1420-1470) is called Akbar of Kashmir. Zain-ul-Abidin earned a name for himself for his policy of religious toleration and public welfare activities. He abolished Jaziya on the Hindu majority of Kashmir, banned the slaughter of cows and extended liberal patronage to Sanskrit language and literature.Keerti Stambha in Chittor later served as a model for the Jaya Stambha, constructed during 1458-68 by Rana Kumbha to commemorate his victory over Mahmud Khilji.KirtiStambh Prashasti throws light on it. Its Prasahtikar were Abhikavi and Mahes bhatta.MusicFew musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this period. The invention of Sitar(fusion of Veena and Irani Tambura) and tabla was also attributed to Amir Khusrau. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian systems. The Indian classical work Ragadarpan was translated into Persian during the reign of Firoz Tughlaq.Pir Bhodan, a Sufi saint was one of the great musicians of this period. LiteratureSultan of Delhi sultanate accepted Farsi as court Language.The most famous historians of this period were Hasan Nizami, Minhaj-us-Siraj, Ziauddin Barani, and Shams-Siraj Afif. Alauddin Khalj patronized poets like Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan.Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He was born at Patiyali in Kasganj in UP. He called himself Tuti-I-Hind. He created a new style of Persian poetry called Sabaq-i-Hind or the Indian style. He put great effort in rise of Hindi (Khadi boli). He is considered main architect of khadi boli. He was disciple of sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya. He has seen tenure of 7 sultan Balban,Kaikubad,Jalaluddin khalzi, Alauudin khalzi,Mubarak shah,Giyasuddin Tughlaq and Muhmmad Bin Tughlaq. He was a poet ,musician and historian.The book Tutu Nama or Book of the Parrot became popular and translated into Turkish and later into many European languages.Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian.BHAKTI MOVEMENT IN MEDIEVAL INDIASNNameTimeKing/SultanDescription

1. Shankara788-820

2. Ramanuja1017-1137

3. Namdeva1270-1350He was a Tailor. He was founder of Varkari Sampradaya.

4. Kabira1398-1518

5. Nanka1469-1539Ibrahim Lodi & BaburHe was disciple of Kabir.

6. Chaitanya1486-1536

7. Meera1498-1557

8. Dadu Dayal1544-1603

9. Tukaram 1608-1649Jehangir,Sahjahan,Shiva Ji

10. Tyagaraja1767-1847

The rise of Bhakti cult in Tamil Nadu started during the seventh and eight centuries in direct influence to Shankaracharya. The Saivaite Nayanmars and Vashnavaite Alwars preached the Bhakti cult under the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas. Poyagai, Poodam and Tirumangai was Alwar saints.Chedi Kingdom edicts talk about Mattamayur which was a Shaiva cult.Medieval Bhakti movement revival in 15th&16th century was the direct result of the influence of the spread of Islam in India. Monotheism or belief in one God, equality and brotherhood of man and rejection of rituals and class divisions are the distinctive characteristics of Islam. SufismSufism was a liberal reform movement within Islam. It had its origin in Persia and spread into India in the eleventh century.Sufism stressed the elements of love and devotion as effective means of the realisation of God. Love of God meant love of humanity and so the Sufis believed service to humanity was tantamount to service to God. In Sufism, self discipline was considered an essential condition to gain knowledge of God by sense of perception. Muslims emphasize external conduct, the Sufis lay stress on inner purity. According to them one must have the guidance of a pir or guru, without which spiritual development is impossible.Sufism also inculcated a spirit of tolerance among its followers. Other ideas emphasized by Sufism are meditation, Pranayama, Hathayoga in seclusion, good actions, repentance for sins, performance of prayers for spiritual awakening in followers and pilgrimages, fasting, charity and suppression of passions by ascetic practice.Akbar, the Mughal emperor, appreciated Sufi doctrines which shaped his religious outlook and religious policies.The Chishti Order was the first of the four main Sufi orders (Chishti, Qadiriyya, Suhrawardiyya and Naqshbandi). It began in Chisht, a small town near Herat, Afghanistan about 930 CE. Abu Ishq Shami (First in chisti order) and his disciple Khwaza Abu Abdal Chisti were founders of the Chishti Order. The Chishti Order is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.Chishti considered Sama (music) as way to reach God. Naqshbandi order was against sila (music).It was most conservative Sufi order. Aurangjeb was follower of this order.Moinuddin Chishti introduced the Chishti Order in Lahore (Punjab) and Ajmer (Rajasthan), sometime in the middle of the 12th century CE. He was eighth in the line of succession from the founder of the Chishti Order, Abu Ishq Shami. He became a disciple of theChishtisaint Usman Harooni. He was also known asGharb Nawz"Benefactor of the Poor". He came with Muhamad Ghori. His disciple was Sufi saint Qutbuddin Bakthiyar Kaki.Hazrat Baba Fariduddin Masood Ganjshakaraka aka Baba Farid was son-in-law of Balban. He was disciple of Kaki. His writings are included in Guru Granth Sahib.Another famous Sufi saint was Nizamuddin Auliya who belonged to the Chishti order and who was disciple of Baba Farid. Nizamuddin Auliya has seen reign of 7 Sultans. He denied to meet Alauddin Khalzi. He was famous as Mehboob-E-Elahi. He believed in advaitvad and sama(music). He died at Giyaspur (Dargah),Delhi in 1325.Another well known Sufi saint was Bahauddin Zakariya who came under the influence of another famous mystic Shihabuddin Suhrawardi. Amongst last in Sufi order was Salim Chisti. He was famous as Sheik Ul Hind. He used to live in Sikri.Shah Muhammad Ghaus Gwaliyari was a 16th-century Sufi master of the Shattari order and the author of Jawahir-i Khams (meaning the Five Jewels). Ghaus taught the Mughal Emperor Humayun and was also a tutor of the Tansen. He considered Krishna as Auliya(saint).Another Sufi saint was Haji Waris Ali Shah. Anurslocally known asDewa melais observed in OctoberNovember,Dargahof Haji Waris Ali Shah inDewa,Barabanki.The "Ulama" and the Religious Classes of Islam were collectively known asDastar-bandan, or turban-wearers, because they wore their official head dress, the turban.Bhakti MovementWhen the Sufi movement was becoming popular in India, about the same time the Bhakti cult was gaining strength among the Hindus.In the south, Alvars represented the emotional side of Tamilian Vaishnavism and the Acharyas, who were their successors, represented the intellectual and philosophical sides of Vaishnavism and made it popular. There prominence by Basava, the Prime Minister of the Kalachuri king Bijjala. Lingayats are followers of Saivaism. They laid stress on love and self surrender, truth and morality and cleanliness. They allowed widow remarriage. The bhakti movement led by Nayanars (Saiva saint) and Alvars (Vaishnav saint) spread all over the country. These saints went from place to place carrying their message of love and devotion. They disregarded the inequalities of caste. The path of bhakti advocated by these saints was open to all, irrespective of caste. This bhakti movement renewed emphasis on the Vedas and Vedic worship on the one hand and powerful literary and intellectual movement on the other hand. Trika,also calledPratyabhija is a form of Saivism, popularly known as Kashmir Saivism which is a kind of monism on non-dualism. The Saiva saints, the Nayanars made it more popular.Another popular movement which spread in south India was of Lingayats or Virasaivas, whose philosophy was influenced both, by Sankara and Ramanuja. SankaraAccording to the Shringeri matha tradition, Sankara took birth in Kerala around A.D. 788.The philosophy of Sankara is known as Advaita, meaning 'non-dual'.He believed that absolute reality, called Brahma is non-dual.The greatest achievement of Sankara is that he organised the ten branches of Advaita school of Saivism, known as Dashanamis.For the purpose of unity and integrity, and better interaction, he established four mathas in four corners of the country. He sent his four disciples to each one of these. I. Jyotirmatha at Badrinath in the north, II. Sharadapitha at Dvaravati (Dwaraka) in the west, III. Govardhanamatha at Puri in the east and IV. Shringerii matha,Mysore in the south The ten orders in which Sankara organised the ascetics are known as 'Giri (hills), Puri (city), Bharati (learning), Vana (wood), Aranya (forest), Parvata (mountain), Sagara (ocean), Tirtha (temple), Ashrama (hermitage) and Saraswati (true knowledge). Sankara died at the age of 32. He was an Acharya par excellence who took the Hindu faith to a new glory.In the ninth century Sankara started a Hindu revivalist movement giving a new orientation to Hinduism. He was born in Kaladi in Kerala. His doctrine of Advaita or Monism was too abstract to appeal to the common man.RamanujaRamanuja was a Tamil Brahman born at Tirupati around A.D. 1017. Ramanuja disagreed with Sankara that knowledge was the primary means of salvation. He argued that the grace of God was more important than knowledge.The system of education which had developed gradually in the earlier centuries continued during this period. The later smiritis introduced a new sacrament called vidyarambha (commencement of education) and aksharasvikriti or aksharabhyasa training in the alphabet. In the twelfth century, Ramanuja, who was born at Sriperumbudur near modern Chennai, preached Visishtadvaita. According to him God is Sagunabrahman.There was a reaction against the Advaita concept of Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes) with the emergence of the idea of Sagunabrahman (God with attributes).The creative process and all the objects in creation are real but not illusory as was held by Sankaracharya. Therefore, God, soul, matter are real. But God is inner substance and the rest are his attributes. He also advocated prabattimarga or path of self-surrender to God. He invited the downtrodden to his cult Vaishnavism. MadhavaIn the thirteenth century, Madhava from Kannada region propagated Dvaita or dualism of Jivatma and Paramatma.According to his philosophy, the world is not an illusion but a reality. God, soul, matter are unique in nature.NimbarkacharyaNimbarka is known for propagating the Vaishnava Theology of Dvaitadvaita, duality in unity. Telungana region. He belongs to Sanakadik or Nimbarka Sampradaya.Vallabhacharya (14791531 CE)Vallabhacharya accepted Vishnuswami Sampradaya (Rudra Sampradaya). Rudra Sampradaya is one out of the four Vaishnava Sampradaya. Vallabhacharya also propagated the Shuddha advaita (Pure Non-dualism)/Pushtimarga.Vallabhacharya was also other preachers of Vaishnavite Bhakti in the Telungana region. Surdas was the disciple of Vallabhacharya and he popularized Krishnacult in north India.Ramananda, Kabir and NanakIn the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Ramananda, Kabir and Nanak remained great apostles of the Bhakti cult.They helped the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation through Bhakti or pure devotion. Unlike the early reformers, they were not linked with any particular religious creed and did not believe in rituals and ceremonies. They condemned polytheism and believed in one god. They also denounced all forms of idolatry. They strongly believed in Bhakti as the only means of salvation. They also emphasised the fundamental unity of all religions.RamanandaRamananda was born at Allahabad. He was originally a follower of Ramanuja. He was a worshipper of Rama. He used Hindi for his preachings first amongst other Bhakti Saints.Simplification of worship and emancipation of people from the traditional caste rules were his two important contributions to the Bhakti movement. He opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society disregarding caste.He said Dont ask someone caste,religion/Sampradaya. His 12 famous disciples were: a) Kabir, a Muslim weaver b) Raidasa, a cobbler from Varanasic) Sena, a barber d) Sadhana, a butcher e) Dhanna, a Jat farmer f) Naraharai, a goldsmith and g) Pipa, a Rajput prince

KabirKabirs object was to reconcile Hindus and Muslims and establish harmony between the two sects. He denounced idolatry and rituals and laid great emphasis on the equality of man before God.He is regarded as the greatest of the mystic saints and his followers are called Kabirpanthis.Guru NanaK (1469 -1539 )Guru Nanak, founder of the Sikh religion in Sikander Lodis reign and a disciple of Kabir.He was born in Talwandi near Lahore. He denounced caste distinctions and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. He didnt believe in reincarnation of God. His conception of religion was highly practical and sternly ethical. He exhorted people to give up selfish-ness, falsehood and hypocrisy and to lead a life of truth, honesty. Abide pure amidst the impurities of the world was one of his famous sayings.His life was dedicated to establishing harmony between Hindus and Muslims. His followers were known as Sikhs. He died in 1539 in derababa.The AdiGranth/GuruGranthSahib, was first compiled by the fifth Sikhguru,GuruArjun (15631606), from hymns of the first five Sikhgurusand 15 other great saints, or bhagats, including some from both Hindu and Muslim faiths(Sufi Saint Baba Farid).Jahangir executed guru Arjun Dev.Guru Tegh Bahadur was executed by Aurangazeb. His son guru Govind singh converted Sikhs to Warrior Khalsa Panth. He was killed in Nanded by a Afghan sardar. ChaitanyaChaitanya was another well-known saint and reformer of Bengal who popularised the Krishna cult. He proclaimed the universal brotherhood of man and condemned all distinction based on religion and caste.TulsidasHe was born in Chitrakoot. His famous books are Ramcharitmanas and Vinay Patrika.MeeraBaiShe was contemporary of Tulsidas. She was daughter of Mewar raja Ratan Singh Rathore. She was married to eldest son of Rana Sanga Kunwar Bhojraj.Shankar DevaHe popularized Vaishnavite Bhakti cult in Kamrup. He founded eksharan Dharma. He believed in one god. He is famous as Chatanya of Assam.NamadevaNamadeva preached the gospel of love. He opposed idol worship and priestly domination. He also opposed the caste system. He was founder of Varkari Sampradaya of Vaishnavism.GnanadevaGnanadeva was the founder of the Bhakti Movement in Maharashtra in the thirteenth century. It was called Maharashtra dharma.He wrote a commentary of Bhagavat Gita called Gnaneswari.EkanathaIn the sixteenth century, Ekanatha opposed caste distinctions and sympathetic towards the lower castes. TukaramAnother Bhakti saint of Maharashtra was Tukaram, a contemporary of Jehangir and shah Jahan. He was responsible for creating a background for Maratha nationalism. He opposed all social distinctions.Importance of the Bhakti MovementBhakti movement provided an impetus for the development of regional languages such as Hindi, Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, etc. Through these languages they made direct appeal to the masses. The caste system was condemned by the Bhakti saints, the lower classes were raised to a position of great importance.The importance of women in society was also increased because the Bhakti movement gave equal importance to them. Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea in 4th century BC, to a virgin mother. Good Friday is celebrated primarily by Christians, commemorating the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. Ester is a festival celebrating the Resurrection of Jesus Christ from the dead, occurred three days after his crucifixion by Romans.

VIJAYANAGAR AND BAHMANI KINGDOMVIJAYANAGAR EMPIREFour dynasties Sangama (1336 - 1485), Saluva(1485 - 1505), Tuluva(1505 - 1570) and Aravidu(1570 -1650) ruled Vijayanagar from A.D. 1336 to 1672. It had capitals in Anegundi, Vijaynagar, Vinugonda and Chandragiri in chronological order.Political HistoryVijayanagar was founded as a new city on the south bank of the Tungabhadra river in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty. Their father name was Sangam. so this dynasty was called Sangam Dynasty.They were originally served under the Kakatiya rulers of Warangal. Then they went to Kampili where they were imprisoned and converted to Islam. Later, they returned to the Hindu fold at the initiative of the saint Vidyaranya and Syanawho was an important commentator on the Vedas.By 1346, they brought the whole of the Hoysala kingdom under their control. Hoysala Kingdom was Dwarasamudra. Its contemporary name is Halebidu. It is situated near Hassan in Karnataka. Famous Hoysaleswara templeis in Halebidu.The struggle between Vijayanagar and Sultanate of Madurai lasted for about four decades. Kumarakampanas (son of Bukka I) expedition to Madurai was described in the Maduravijayam. He destroyed the Madurai Sultans and as a result, the Vijayanagar Empire comprised the whole of South India up to Rameswaram.The conflict between Vijayanagar Empire and the Bahmani kingdom lasted for many years. The dispute over Raichur Doab, the region between the rivers Krishna and Tungabhadra and also over the fertile areas of Krishna-Godavari delta led to this long-lasting conflict.Harihar II took Belgaon and Goa from Behmani kingdom.The greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya II. But he could not win any clear victory over the Bahmani Sultans. After his death, Sangama dynasty became weak. Persian traveler Abdur Razzak visited India in his time. Last tuler of this dynasty was Virupaksha II.Saluva dynastyThe next dynasty, Saluva dynasty founded by Saluva Narasimha reigned only for a brief period (1486- 1509).ImmadiNarasimhaRaya was last ruler. He was son of Saluva Narasimha

Tuluva dynastyThe Tuluva dynasty was founded by Vira Narasimha. The greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers, Krishna Deva Raya (1509 1530) belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. Krishna Deva Raya was brother of Vira NarasimhaThe Muslim armies were decisively defeated in the battle of Diwani by Krishna Deva Raya. Then he invaded Raichur Doab which had resulted in the confrontation with the Sultan of Bijapur, Ismail Adil Shah. But, Krishna Deva Raya defeated him and captured the city of Raichur in 1520. From there he marched on Bidar and captured it.Krishna Deva Rayas Orissa campaign was also successful. He defeated the Gajapathi ruler Prataparudra and conquered the whole of Telungana. Krishna Deva Raya defeated Golkunda sultan Quli Qutubshah. Quli Qutubshah laid foundation of Qutubshahi dynasty in Golkunda.He maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese. Though a Vaishnavaite, he respected all religions.He was a great patron of literature and art and Krishna Deva Raya was known as Andhra Bhoja.He also built a new city called Nagalapuram in memory of his queen Nagaladevi. Besides, he built a large number of Rayagopurams.After his death, Achutadeva and Venkata succeeded the throne. During the reign of Rama Raya, the combined forces of Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golkonda and Bidar(except Berar)defeated him at the Battle of Talaikotta in 1565. This battle is also known as Raksasa Thangadi(names of two nearby villages).Rama Raya was imprisoned and executed. The city of Vijayanagar was destroyed. This battle was generally considered to mark the end of the Vijayanagar Empire.Aravidu Dynasty (1570 - 1650)However, the Vijayanagar kingdom existed under the Aravidu dynasty for about another century. Thirumala laid foundation of this dynasty in 1570 after replacing last ruler Sadashiva of Taluva dynsaty. Thirumala, Sri Ranga and Venkata II were the important rulers of this dynasty.The last ruler of Vijayanagar kingdom was Sri Ranga III.Venkata II was contemporary of King Wodeyar who laid foundation of Mysore state in 1612.AdministrationThe king enjoyed absolute authority in executive, judicial and legislative matters. He was the highest court of appeal. The succession to the throne was on the principle of hereditary.The Empire was divided into different administrative units called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas and finally into gramas.The governor of Mandalam was called Mandaleswara or Nayak. Vijayanagar rulers gave full powers to the local authorities in the administration.Land revenue was fixed generally one sixth of the produce. Its administration was under a departmentcalledAthavane. In the matter of justice, harsh punishments such as mutilation and throwing to elephants were followed.The top-grade officers of the army were known as Nayaks or Poligars. They were granted land in lieu of their services. These lands were called amaram. Soldiers were usually paid in cash. Social Life Allasani Peddanna in his Manucharitam refers the existence of four castes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar society. Foreign travelers left vivid accounts on the splendor of buildings and luxurious social life in the city of Vijayanagar. Silk and cotton clothes were mainly used for dress. Perfumes, flowers and ornaments were used by the people. Paes mentions of the beautiful houses of the rich and the large number of their household servants. Nicolo de Conti refers to the prevalence of slavery. Dancing, music, wrestling, gambling and cock-fighting were some of the amusements.The Sangama rulers were chiefly Saivaites and Virupaksha was their family deity. But other dynasties were Vaishnavites.Gangadevi, wife of Kumarakampana authored the famous work Maduravijayam. Hannamma and Thirumalamma were famous poets of this period. The attachment of dancing girls to temples was in practice. Paes refers to the flourishing devadasi system. Polygamy was prevalent among the royal families. Sati was honoured and Nuniz gives a description of it. Economic ConditionVijayanagar Empire was one of the wealthiest parts of the world at that time. Agriculture continued to be the chief occupation of the people.Diamond mines were located in Kurnool and Anantapur district. The chief gold coin was the varaha but weights and measures varied from place to place.There were a number of seaports on the Malabar coast, the chief being Cannanore. Cultural ContributionThe chief characteristics of the Vijayanagara architecture were the construction of tall Raya Gopurams or gateways and the Kalyana mandapam with carved pillars in the temple premises.The horse was the most common animal found in these pillars.The most important temples of the Vijayanagar style were found in the Hampi ruins or the city of Vijayanagar.Krishna Deva Raya repaired most of the temples of south India. He also built the famous Vittalaswamy and Hazara Ramaswamy temples at Vijayanagar in this style. The Varadharaja and Ekamparanatha temples at Kanchipuram stand as examples for the magnificence of the Vijayanagara style of temple architecture.The Raya Gopurams at Thiruvannamalai and chidambaram speak the glorious epoch of Vijayanagar.Different languages such as Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada and Tamil flourished in the regions. Eight eminent scholars or poets known as Ashtadiggajas were at Krishana Deva Rayas royal court. Allasani Peddanna was the greatest and he was called Andhrakavita Pitamaga. His important works include Manucharitam and Harikathasaram. Pingali Suranna and Tenali Ramakrishna were other important scholars. Krishna Deva Raya himself authored a Telugu work, Amukthamalyadha and Sanskrit works, Jambavati Kalyanam and Usha parinayam. All were Telgu scholar.Translation of Mahabharat into Telgu started by Nanaya in 11 century.It was completed by Tikkan in 13th century and yerrayan in 14th century. They are famous as kavitriya.The Moroccan traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian traveler Nicolo de Conti, Persian traveler Abdur Razzak and the Portuguese traveler Domingo Paes left valuable accounts on the socio-economic conditions of the Vijayanagar Empire.The copper plate inscriptions such as the Srirangam copper plates of Devaraya II provide the genealogy and achievements of Vijayanagar rulers.Hoyasala kingdom had Dwarasamudra (Halebid) as its capital.Hoyaleswar temple is situated here. Bahmani KingdomThe founder of the Bahmani kingdom was Alauddin Hasan aka Bahman Shah aka Hasan Gangu in 1347. Bahmanid Sultanate was the first independent Islamic Kingdom in South India. The Bahmani capital wasAhsanabad(Gulbarga) between 1347 and 1425 when it was moved to Muhammadabad (Bidar) by Ahmad Wali Shah.The power of the Bahmani kingdom reached its peak under the rule of Muhammad Shah III and guidance of Mahmud Gawan. Mahmud Gawan was a Persian merchant. He waged successful wars against Vijayanagar, Orissa and the sea pirates on the Arabian sea. His conquests include Konkan, Goa and Krishna-Godavari delta. Thus he expanded the Bahmani Empire through his conquests.After 1518 the sultanate broke up into five states.They are collectively known as the "Deccan Sultanates".Ibrahim Adil Shah II is known in Indian history as Jagadguru Badshah for his religious tolerance. He founded a new township at Navraspur to give concrete shape to his idea of a musical city. . Ibrahim II wrote the book Kitab-e-Navras (Book of Nine Rasas) in Dakhani.Gol Gumbaz or Gol Gumbadh, is the mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah, Sultan of Bijapur. It is included in amongst largest gumbadh of world.Jama Masjid, Gulbarga, was constructed by Muhammad shah I.

THE MUGHAL EMPIREMughals were ChagataiTurks. TheChagataiTurksare people who descended from theChagatai Khanate. Chagatai Khan was the second son of Genghis Khan.Political HistoryBabur (1526-1530)Babur succeeded his father Umar Shaikh Mirza as the ruler of Farghana. Babur was the founder of the Mughal Empire in India. His original name was Zahiruddin Muhammad. He was related to Timur from his fathers side and to Chengiz Khan through his mother. He wrote his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Baburi in Turki language. A scholar of Persian and Turki, he is said to have invented a new style of verse in Persian known asMubaiyan.Military Conquest (1519 and 1523)In the eve of Baburs invasion of India, there were five prominent Muslim rulers the Sultans of Delhi, Gujarat, Malwa, Bengal and the Deccan and two prominent Hindu rulers Rana Sangha of Mewar and the Vijayanagar Empire.By the end of 1525, Babur started from Kabul to conquer India. He occupied Lahore easily by defeating its governor, Daulat Khan Lodi. Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur to instill Ibrahim Lodis Uncle Alam Khan on Delhis throne.In 21st April 1526 the first Battle of Panipat took place between Babur and Ibrahim Lodi, who was killed in the battle. Babur occupied Delhi and sent his son Humayun to seize Agra. Babur proclaimed himself as Emperor of Hindustan and took the title of Babur.New tactics introduced byBaburwere thetulghumaand thearaba.Tulghumameant dividing the whole army into various units, viz. the Left, the Right and the Centre. The Left and Right divisions were further subdivided into Forward and Rear divisions. Through this a small army could be used to surround the enemy from all the sides. The Centre Forward division was then provided with carts (araba) which were placed in rows facing the enemy and tied to each other with animal hide ropes. Behind them were placed cannons protected and supported by mantlets which could be used to easily maneuver the cannons. These two tactics madeBabur's artillery lethal.Rana Sangha marched against Babur and in the Battle of Khanua (near Agra) held in 1527, Babur won a decisive victory over him. Babur assumed the title Ghazi. Babur exhorted his muslim soldiers for Jehad against Hindus.In 1528, Babur captured Chanderi from another Rajput ruler Medini Rai. In the next year, Babur defeated the Afghans in the Battle of Gogra in Bihar. By these victories, Babur consolidated his power in India. Babur died at Agra in 1530 at the age of forty seven.People gave him title of Kalandar due to his kindness in distributing gift on the occasion of his victory.Humayun (1530-1540)Humayun was the eldest son of Babur. Humayun means fortune but he remained the most unfortunate ruler of the Mughal Empire.Humayun divided the empire among his brothers but this proved to be a great blunder on his part. Kamran was given Kabul and Kandahar. Sambhal and Alwar were given to Askari and Hindal.Humayun captured Gujarat from Bahadur Shah and appointed Askari as its governor. But soon Bahadur Shah recovered Gujarat from Askari who fled from there. Humayun defeated Afgans in Devra on the bank of Gomti in 1532.In the meantime Sher Khan became powerful in the east. Humayun marched against him and in the Battle of Chausa, held in 1539, Sher Khan destroyed the Mughal army and Humayun escaped from there. Humayun reached Agra to negotiate with his brothers. But as they were not cooperative, Humayun was forced to fight with Sher Khan alone in the Battle of Bilgram in 1540. This battle was also known as Battle of Kanauj. Humayun was thoroughly defeated by Sher Khan. After losing his kingdom, Humayun became an exile for the next fifteen years.Humayun defeated Sikander Suri in battle of Sirhind, in 1555 and reclaimed his lost empire.Humayundied in 1556 due to his fall from the staircase of his library. Sur Interregnum (1540-1555)The founder of the Sur dynasty was Sher Shah, whose original name was Farid. He was the son of Hasan Khan, a jagirdar of Sasaram in Bihar. He completed his formal education in Jaunpur.Sher Shah waged extensive wars with the Rajputs and expanded his empire. His empire consisted of the whole of North India except Assam, Nepal, Kashmir and Gujarat. He took title of Hazrat-e-Ala.Sher Shahs Administration The king was assisted by four important ministers: 1. Diwan i- Wizarat also called as Wazir- in charge of Revenue and Finance.2. Diwan-i-Ariz in charge of Army. 3. Diwan-i-Rasalat- Foreign Minister. 4. Diwan-i-Insha- Minister for Communications.

Sher Shahs empire was divided into forty seven sarkars(equivalent to modern district).Chief Shiqdar (law and order) and Chief Munsif(judge) were the two officers in charge of the administration in each sarkar. Each sarkar was divided into several parganas. Shiqdar(military officer), Amin(land revenue), Fotedar(treasurer) and Karkuns (accountants) were in charge of the administration of each pargana. There were also many administrative units called iqtas. All cultivable lands were classified into three classes good, middle and bad. The states share was one third of the average produce and it was paid in cash or crop. Sher Shah introduced new silver coins called Rupaya and copper coin Dam and they were in circulation till 1835.(1 Rupaya=64 Dam)Sher Shah had also improved the communications by laying four important highways:-1. Sonargaon to Sind 2. Agra to Burhampur 3. Jodhpur to Chittor 4. Lahore to Multan

Lahore Sonargaon ,Indias First highway is also known as Sadak-e-Azam or GT road.Sher Shah remained a pious Muslim and generally tolerant towards other religions. He employed Hindus in important offices.Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote the famous Hindi work Padmavat during his reign.After Sher Shahs death in 1545 in battle of Kalinjar his successors ruled till 1555 when Humayun reconquered India.Akbar (1556-1605)Delhi was seized by the Afghans. Their commander-in-Chief, Hemu, was in charge of it. In the second Battle of Panipat in 1556, Hemu was almost on the point of victory. But an arrow pierced his eye and he became unconscious. The Mughal victory was decisive.Relations with RajputsHe married the Rajput princess Harka Bai, the daughter of KachhwahaRajput Raja Bharamal. It was a turning point in the history of Mughals. Rajput served the Mughals for four generations. Raja Bhagawan Das and Raja Man Singh were given senior positions in the administration by Akbar. One by one, all Rajput states submitted to Akbar.Ranas of Mewar continued to defy despite several defeats. In the Battle of Haldighati, Rana Pratap Singh was severely defeated by the Mughal army led by Man Singh in 1576. Following the defeat of Mewar, most of the leading Rajput rulers had accepted Akbars suzerainty. Rana Amar Singh concluded treaty of chittore with Jahangir.In the year 1562,Akbarvanquished theMalwarulerBaz BahadurandannexedMalwaunderMughaldominion.RaniDurgavati was defeated by Akbar in 1564 in the battle of Garh and mandala.Religious PolicyAkbar's policy ofSulah-e-kul, the religious policy of accommodating all religious sects and giving them equal honour. His early contacts with the sufi saints, the teachings of his tutor Abdul Latif, his marriage with Rajput women, his association with intellectual giants like Shaikh Mubarak and his two illustrious sons Abul Faizi and Abul Fazl and his ambition to establish an empire in Hindustan shaped his religious policy.He abolished slavery in 1562, the pilgrim tax 1563 and later the jiziya in 1564. The Kazi ofJaunpur issuedFatwaagainstAkbarCharging him of Kufra in 1580.In 1575, he ordered for the construction of Ibadat Khana (House of worship) at his new capital Fatepur Sikri. Akbar invited learned scholars from all religions like Hinduism, Jainism etc. He disliked the interference of the Muslim Ulemas in political matters. In 1579, he issued the Infallibility Decree by which he asserted his religious powers.After that he took tilte of sultan-i-adil / Imam-i-adil.In 1582, he promulgated a new religion called Din Ilahi or Divine Faith. Its main purohit was Abul Fazal. It believes in one God. It contained good points of all religions. Its basis was rational. It upholds no dogma. It was aimed at bridging the gulf that separated different religions. Even during his life time, it had only fifteen followers including Birbal(only Hindu). Akbar did not compel anyone to his new faith.The tolerant view of Akbar is represented by the 'Ram-Siya' silver coin type while during the latter part of Akbar's reign, we also see coins portraying the concept of Akbar's newly promoted religion 'Din-e-ilahi' with the Ilahi type and Jalla Jalal-Hu type coins.Akbar donated 500 Bigha land to 4thsikh guru Ramdas.Finance and Land Revenue AdministrationThe growth of the diwan's department began with the appointment ofMuzaffarKhan Turbatiin the ninth year (1565). He was first full time Diwan.The land revenue system of Akbar was called Zabti or Bandobast system. Improved system by Raja Todar Mal was known as Ain-i-Dahsala(Ten Year System) which was completed in 1580.Todar Mal introduced a uniform system of land measurement. The revenue was fixed on the average yield of land assessed on the basis of past ten years. It was one third of average of last ten years. Payment of revenue was made generally in cash.Todar mal also worked for Sher shah Suri in land administration.The land was also divided into four categories 1. Polaj (cultivated every year), 2. Parauti(once in two years), 3. Chachar (once in three or four years) and 4. Banjar(once in five or more years).

Madad-imash was tax-free lands given to pious or otherwise worthy recipients as charity.Miliatary systemThe head of the military was called theMirbakshi, appointed from among the leading nobles of the court. He was not defacto commander though. Themirbakshiwas in charge of intelligence gathering, and also made recommendations to the emperor for military appointments and promotions.

Mansabdari SystemAkbar introduced the Mansabdari system in his administration. Under this system every officer was assigned a rank (mansab). The lowest rank was 10 and the highest was 5000 for the nobles. Princes of royal blood received even higher ranks. The ranks were divided into two zat and sawar. Zat means personal and it fixed the personal status of a person. Sawar rank indicated the number of cavalrymen of a person who was required to maintain. Sawar(No of horse) rank cant never be more than Zat(No of horse,no of elephants etc).Every sawar had to maintain at least two horses. The mansab rank was not hereditary. All appointments and promotions as well as dismissals were directly made by the emperor.Mansabdari System was borrwed from army of mongol Ghenghis Khan. The mansabdars were divided into 33 classes. The top three commanding ranks, ranging from 7000 to 10000 troops, were normally reserved for princes. Other ranks between 10 and 5000 were assigned to other members of the nobility.It means Mansabdar could be assigned to no military officers also. 10-500 - Umra500-2500 Amir2500-5000 Amir-i-Ajam

The empire's permanent standing army was quite small and the imperial forces mostly consisted of contingents maintained by the mansabdars. Persons were normally appointed to a low mansab and then promoted, based on their merit as well as the favour of the emperor. Each mansabdar was required to maintain a certain number of cavalrymen and twice that number of horses. The number of horses was greater because they had to be rested and rapidly replaced in times of war. Akbar employed strict measures to ensure that the quality of the armed forces was maintained at a high level; horses were regularly inspected and only Arabian horses were normally employed. Mansabdars were given Cash salaries as well as Jagirs.The institution of Do-Aspaand Si-Aspawas introduced in the reign of Jahangir. In Do-AspaMansabdarhad to maintain twice the no of horses assigned to his sawar post. In Si-Aspa Mansabdar had to maintain thrice the no of horses to his assigned to his sawar post.Ahdi were recruited by the emperor and they were from good families and were faithful soldiers and acts as personal bodyguard to him. They were attached to mansabdar though they were directly in control to king only.Akbar was contemporary of Queen Elizabeth I (1553-1603).(1 Rupaya=40 Dam)

Jahangir (1605-1627)Prince Salim succeeded with the title Jahangir (Conqueror of World) in 1605.His son Khusrau revolted in 1606 but was defeated and imprisoned. One of his supporters, Guru Arjun Singh, the fifth Sikh Guru, was beheaded.Nur JahanIn 1611, Jahangir married Mehrunnisa who was known as Nur Jahan (Light of World).English King James I sent William Hawkins(1608-1611) to Mughal darbar. Jahangir awarded him title of English Khan. Sir Thomas Row (1615-19) came later. He met to Jahangir in Ajmer.Veer Singh Deo killed Abul fazal with tacit order of Jahangir. Prince Khusro, Prince Khurram and Mahabat khan revolted against Jahangir.Shah Jahan (1627-1658)In 1612, Asaf Khans daughter, Arjum Banu Begum (later known as Mumtaj), married Jahangirs third son, prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan).Khandhar was lost to Persian king in the reign of Shah Jahan. It was important to Mughal for strategic reason as defence of north western frontier was weak without it.His Deccan policy was more successful. He defeated the forces of Ahmadnagar and annexed it. Both Bijapur and Golkonda signed a treaty with the emperor. Shah Jahan carved four Mughal provinces in the Deccan Khandesh, Berar, Telungana and Daulatabad. They were put under the control of his son Aurangazeb.Shahjahan, after his succession, abolished sajda which was introduced was Balban. Instead, he introducedchahartaslim(four salutations) the person while standing on his feet bowed double, touched his forehead with the palm of his hand and then lowered his hand so that the back of it touched the ground; this was done four times).Shah Jahan transferred his capital from Agra to Delhi.War of SuccessionThe last years of Shah Jahans reign were clouded by a bitter war of succession among his four sons Dara Shikoh (crown prince), Shuja (governor of Bengal), Aurangazeb (governor of Deccan) and Murad Baksh (governor of Malwa and Gujarat). Aurangazeb defeated Dara in theBattle ofDharmat near Ujjain in 1658.Shah Jahan was confined to the female apartments in the Agra fort and strictly put under vigil. But he was not ill-treated. Shah Jahan lived for eight long years lovingly nursed by his daughter Jahanara.Upon her death, Aurangzeb gave her the posthumous title:Sahibat-uz-Zamani(Mistress of the Age).Aurangazeb (1658-1707)Aurangazeb was one of the ablest of the Mughal kings. He assumed the title Alamgir, World Conqueror. Deccan PolicyThe Deccan policy of the Mughals started from the reign of Akbar, who conquered Khandesh and Berar. Jahangir fought against Malik Amber of Ahmadnagar. During the Shah Jahans reign, Aurangazeb, as governor of Deccan, followed an aggressive Deccan policy. When he became the Mughal emperor, for the first twenty five years, he concentrated on the northwest frontier. At that time, the Maratha ruler, Sivaji carved out an independent Maratha kingdom in the territories of north and south Konkan.To contain the spread of the Marathas, Aurangazeb decided to invade Bijapur and Golkonda. He defeated Sikandar Shah of Bijapur in 1686 and annexed his kingdom. Then, he proceeded against Golkonda1687 and eliminated the Kutb Shahi dynasty. It was also annexed by him. In fact, the destruction of the Deccan kingdoms was a political blunder on the part of Aurangazeb. The barrier between the Mughals and the Marathas was removed and there ensued a direct confrontation between them. Also, his Deccan campaigns exhausted the Mughal treasury. According to J.N. Sarkar, the Deccan ulcer ruined Aurangazeb.His son Muhammad Akabar rebelled against him due to his futile policy against rajputs.Religious PolicyThe celebrated temples at Mathura and Benares were reduced to ruins. In 1679, he reimposed jiziya and pilgrim tax. His invasions against the Deccan sultanates were partly due to his hatred of the Shia faith.The celebration of Muharram was stopped.He was also against the Sikhs and he executed the ninth Sikh Guru Tej Bahadur. This had resulted in the transformation of Sikhs into a warring community.He has maximum no of hindu commander i.e. 33 % in his army after Shah Jahan. He is called also Zinda Pir due to his simple lifestyle.Causes for the Downfall of the MughalThe weakness of the empire was exposed when Nadir Shah imprisoned the Mughal Emperor and looted Delhi in 1739.The neglect of the sea power by the Mughals was felt when the Europeans began to settle in India.Thus the decline and downfall of the Mughal Empire was due to the combination of political, social and economic factors.

INDIA UNDER THE MUGHALSAgricultureThe population of India at the beginning of the seventeenth century was about 125 million.During the seventeenth century two new crops, namely, tobacco and maize were added. Potato and red chillies came later in the eighteenth century. Jahangir banned tobacco due to its ill effects. Shershah introduced the system of granting KabuliyatandPattato each tenant, containing a record of the area of the landheld by himand the total amount of revenue(1/4) due from him.Tax on Land produce was main source of income in Mughal Administration.Growth of TradeSeth, bohra traders specialized in long distance trade while local traders were called banik. Another class of traders was known as banjaras, who specialized in carrying bulk goods. The trading community did not belong to one caste or religion. The Gujarathi merchants included the Hindus, Jains and Muslims. In Rajasthan, Oswals, Maheshwaris and Agarwals came to be called the Marwaris. Multanis, Afghanis and Khatris conducted trade with central Asia.In south India, the Chettis on the Coramandal coast and the Muslim merchants of Malabar were the most important trading communitiesBengal exported sugar, rice as well as delicate muslin and silk. The Coramandal coast became a centre of textile production. Gujarat was an entry point of foreign goods.

Cultural Development under the MughalsIndian traditions were blended with Turko-Iranian culture which was brought into India by the Mughals.Art and ArchitectureThe Mughals were fond of laying gardens with running water.Mughal gardens such as the Nishat Bagh in Kashmir, the Shalimar Bagh at Lahore and the Pinjore garden in the Punjab have survived even today.Babur Babur, the first Mughal ruler, kept the foundation stone of Sambhal's Jama masjid.HumayunHumyn ascended the throne in 1530 and in 1533 founded a new city,DinPanah,in Delhi on the bank of the Yamuna River.Sher ShahHe built a new city on the banks of the river Yamuna near Delhi. Now the old fort called Purana Qila and its single-domedQila-i-Kuhna mosque is alone surviving. He also built a Mausoleum at Sasaram, which is considered as one of the master pieces of Indian architecture. AkbarHe built many forts and the most famous one was the Agra Fort. It was built in red sandstone. His other forts are at Lahore and Allahabad. Akbar built Jahangir Mahal in it for crown prince Salim.Akbar also built a palace-cum-fort complex at Fatepur Sikri (City of Victory), 36 kilometres from Agra. Many buildings in Gujarathi and Bengali styles are found in this complex. Gujarathi style buildings were probably built for his Rajput wives. The most magnificent building in it is the Jama Masjid. The gateway to it called Buland Darwaza or the Lofty Gate. The height of the gateway is 176 feet. It was built to commemorate Akbars victory over Gujarat.Other important buildings at Fatepur Sikri are Diwan-i-Aam ,Diwan-i-Khas , Birbal house, Ibadat Khana ,Jodh Bais palace and Panch Mahal with five storeys. It has taken inspiration from Budha Vihara.During Akbars reign, the Humayunstomb was built at Delhi, in supervision of Humayun wife Hazi Begum and it had a massive dome of marble. It may be considered the precursor of the Taj Mahal. Maham Anga also built a mosque, 'Khairul Manazil' /madarsa -e -begum in 1561 CE inMughal architecture. It now stands opposite,Purana Qila, DelhionMathura Road, south east to Sher Shah Gate.JahangirAkbars tomb at Sikandara near Agra was completed by Jahangir. Nur Jahan built the tomb of Itimaddaulah at Agra. It was constructed wholly of white marble with floral designs made of semi-precious stones on the walls. This type of decoration was called pietra dura. It is used extensively in Taj Mahal.Jahangir Mausoleum is in Shahadara ,Lahore.Shah JahaThe Moti Masjid at Agra was built entirely in white marble. The Jama Masjid at Delhi was built in red stone.The famous Red Fort at Delhi with its Rang Mahal, Diwan-i-Am and Diwan-i-Khas was is of Shah Jahan creation. Red fort has two gate :-western gate is known Lahori Gate and southern gate is known as Delhi gate.MusammanBurjalso known as the SamanBurjor the Shah-burj, is an octagonal tower standing close to the Shah Jahan's private hall Diwan-e-Khas in Agra Fort.Shah Jahan established a new city in Delhi, Shahjahanabad.Sheesh Mahal , Nagina Masjid and Khas Mahal are other important creation of him.Many features of Mughal tradition can be seen in the Golden Temple at Amritsar. AurangjebMoti Masjid in Lal Quila in Delhi is of Aurangjebs creation. He also built Bibi ka Makbara in memory of his wife Rabia-ud-Daurani in Aurangabad. It is also called second Taj Mahal. Aurangjebs Makbara is also situated in Khuldabad(aurangabad).Paintings and MusicHumayunHumayun brought with him two painters Mir Sayyid Ali and Abdal Samad to India.AkabarBaswan, Miskina and Daswant attained great positions as Akabars court artists.Illustrations of Persian versions of Mahabharata and Ramayanawere produced in miniature form. Indian fables became the miniature paintings in the Art Studio established by Akbar.The most important work is Dastan-i-amir Hamza or Hamznama, which consisted 1200 paintings. Indian colours such as peacock blue, Indian red began to be used. It was completed by Abdal Samad.Historical works such as Akbar Nama also remained the main themes of Mughal paintings.Akbar patronized Tansen of Gwalior. Tansen composed many ragas.Tansen and Swami Haridas were prominent dhrupad singer in Akbar reign.JahangirMughal paintings reached its climax during the reign of Jahangir.He employed a number of painters like Abul Hasan (Nadir-ul-zama) ,Ustad Mansur (Nadir-ul-Asra), Bishan Das, Madhu, Anant, Manohar and Govardhan. Ustad Mansur(Mansoor-masoori-nature) has expertise in Bird painting while Abul Hasan has exptertise in person paintaing.Subject of paintings were natural scnery,birds ,animals,darbar and wars. Mughal painting didnt influence Kalighat art.AurangzebHe was proficient in playing Veena.Language and LiteratureBaburHumayunGulbadan Begum was the daughter of Humyaun. She wrote Humayunnama.AkbarPersian language became widespread in the Mughal Empire by the time of Akbars reign. Nastalq is one of the main calligraphic hands used in writing the Perso-Arabic script of Farsi language in Medival period.Abul Fazl was a great scholar and historian of his period. Abul Fazl wrote Ain-i-Akbari and Akbar Nama.Abul Fazal translated Panchtantra in Farsi asAnwar-I-Suhaili.The leading poet of that period was his brother Abul Faizi. The translation of Mahabharata Titled theRazmnama(Book of War) into the Persian language was done under his supervision. Utbi and Naziri were the two other leading Persian poets.Badayuni translated ramayan into farsi.Mukammal Khan was given the title of Jari Kalam by Akbar.

AbdulRahimKhan-e-Khana, also known as Rahimwas a poet who wrote Rahim Satsai. He was one amongst Navaratnas. He contributed most in development of hindi amongst muslim scholar. Akbar Reign is considered golden period of Hindi language development.. JahangirJahangirs autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri was famous for its style. It is written in Farsi.He also patronized many scholars like Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan and Niamatullah.Shah JahanShah Jahan also patronized many writers and historians like Abdul Hamid Lahori, author of Padshah Nama and Inayat Khan who wrote Shah Jahan Nama. Dara Shikoh translated the Bhagavat Gita and Upanishads into the Persian language. He translated the Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Yoga-Vasishta into Persian directly from Sanskrit and called itSirr-e-Akbar(The Great Mystery).Majma-ul-Bahrainis original text written by Dara Shikoh.