Medicinal trees in smallholder agroforestry systems: Assessing some factors influencing cultivation by farmers East of Mt. Kenya Jonathan Muriuki Kiura

Presentation summary The research problem Research concept and objectives Study area and methods Results and discussions Conclusions and recommendations 2

The problem IndicatorAustri a Ethio pia Keny a Mala wi Rwan da Tanz ania Uga nda Zam bia Population (2010 est.) mio 8.479.538.615.610.443.2 31.8 13.3 GDP (US$) trillions (2009) 3852930552216128 GDP per capita US$ (2009)38,7489361,5728591,0711,3581,2191,431 Infant mortality rate (IMR) per 1000 births (2009) 4.486.964.489.4112.472.676.992.7 Under five mortality rate per 1000 births (2009) 5.4145.3104.1131.8187.8118.4127.4157.0 Maternal mortality rate per 100,000 live births (1999) NA8705901100 530510650 Total fertility rate (2007/8)1.425.294.965.595.925.166.465.18 Literacy rate (2007/8) 99.035.973.671.864.972.373.670.6 Life expectancy - years (2007/8) 79.852.954.148.346.252.551.542.4 Contraceptive use (%) (1999) NA15(05)46(09)41(08)36(08)26(05)24(06)41(07) Majority of Africa population is poor and ravaged by treatable diseases but cant afford modern medicine

An example of malaria quick facts FactorStatistic Annual number of malaria cases globally247 million Annual number of malaria deaths globally881000 Number of malaria-endemic countries109 Number of people at risk for malaria3.3 billion Percent of global population at risk for malaria50% Percent of malaria deaths in Africa91% Percent of malaria deaths in children under 585% Percent of symptomatic children under 5 in Africa treated with ACTs 3% Percent of at-risk people in Africa protected by Insecticide-Treated Nets 26% Source: World Malaria Report 2008

Who offers treatment in Africa? CountryDoctor : patientTMP : patientReferences Eritrea Doctors estimated at 120 in 1995 Government of Eritrea, 1995 Ethiopia1:33,000World Bank, 1993 Kenya1:7,142 (overall) 1:987 (Urban - Mathare) World Bank, 1993 1:833 (Mathare)1:378 (Kilungu)Good. 1987: Malawi1:50,0001:138Msonthi and Seyani, 1986 Mozambique1:50,0001:200Green et al. 1994 Sudan1:11,000-W Bank, 1993 Swaziland1:10,0001: 100 Green, 1985 Hoff and Maseko,1986 Tanzania1:33,0001:350-450 DSMW Bank, 1993, Swantz, 1984 Uganda1:25,0001:708WBank, 1993, Amai, 1997 Zambia1:11,000-World Bank, 1993 Zimbabwe1:6,2501:234 (urban) 1:956 (rural) World bank, 1993 Gelfand et al. 1985

Medicine PlantKnowledge Phyto-medicines rely on two elements, plants (of which over 60% are perennial trees and shrubs) and the knowledge associated with their use. Either alone is useless. Traditional medicine, mainly herbal, has been substantially managing African health but is under threat 6

Herbal medicine relying on wild plants collection is not viable because biodiversity in Africa is threatened by agriculture, urbanization etc and forests lost to below 10% in many countries (e.g. 1.7% in Kenya at present) Country area (x1000 hectares) FRA 2005 categories Austria EthiopiaKenyaMalawi Rwan da Tanzani a Ugand a Zambi a Forest* 3862 130003522340248035257362742452 Forest and other wooded land 3980 5765038442340254140013477745613 Other land 4293 519811847260061926483461493328726 Total land area 8273 1096315691494082467883591971074339 Inland water bodies 113 7991123244016761504394922 Total area of country 8386 11043058037118482634945092410475261 % forest of total land area46.711.96.236.219.539.918.457.1 % forest of total area of country46.111.86.128.718.237.315.056.4 7 Extent of forest and other wooded land in Eastern Africa compared to Austria by 2005

With increasing trade and TM use, medicinal plant resource depletion is abundant and cultivation has been recommended as a possible solution But that is very easy for herbs (annuals) if appropriate germplasm and products markets are accessible. For trees and other long rotation woody perennials that poses a big challenge due to having to wait long and as long as wild resources are available and perceived to be a common good 8

9 Conservation through use under cultivation - What would be the ideal trend of growth in material supply as knowledge of use improves?

Research questions How do socio-economic factors influence the decisions by farmers to cultivate or conserve medicinal plants? How does ecology influence use and cultivation of medicinal tree species? 10 Main hypothesis The level of medicinal tree cultivation (Mc) is a factor of germplasm availability (g), species ecology (e climate, soil and competition), local disease burden perception with appropriate knowledge on use of medicinal trees (k), and availability of market for medicinal tree products (m). Mc = f(g, e, k, m, )

Conceptual framework 11 General Conceptual Frame on farmer adoption of an agricultural practice Adapted from FAO (2001)

Smallholder production sub-system Household Consumption Alternatives Sold to Markets Human Capital Production Technology Access to inputs Other Products Income Fig. Conceptual framework showing some factors expected to influence cultivation of medicinal trees by smallholder farmers Germplasm (g) Medicinal trees (C) Timber, food, ethno veterinary, etc Clinical Medicine Self treatment knowledge (k) Cultivation ecology (e) Motivation to plant (m) Niche defines quality and interaction with crops (opportunity cost to land and labour Seedling quality as well as access and cost may demotivate Motivates especially if not extractive harvesting If alternative perceived better then only this path taken Wild sources Demotivates depending on access and abundance 12

Objectives 13 1. To collate the perspectives of farmers and herbalists on the factors influencing their preference and cultivation of tree species with medicinal value 2. To assess the influence of local disease burden perception and knowledge of herbal treatment on the efforts by farmers and herbalists to cultivate medicinal trees 3. To explore the contribution of farm grown herbal material to medicinal tree product markets and its effect on medicinal tree cultivation 4. To explore how germplasm access by farmers and on-farm tree nurseries influence medicinal tree cultivation 5. To explore motivational drivers of cultivation and the scope for herbalists and traders utilization of farm produced medicinal tree products

The study area 14 3 districts (Embu, Mbeere and Meru central) Population density 100-500 persons / sq km Nine agroecological zones (LM5 to LH1) Rainfall 500 -2600mm; Altitude 500 -2500masl Soils varying from nitisols to ferrasols Mixed-crop and livestock agric systems Good tree planting culture

Data collection methods Farmer group meetings - cultural domain analysis - 13 groups Individual interviews - analysis with SPSS 200 farmers 60 herbalists 60 nursery operators 55 market players in 3 cities Species abundance surveys in farms, forests and herbalist gardens - analysis with BiodiversityR Personal observations Triangulations - interview responses tested with empirical measurements 15

Interview survey results Medicinal species present in farms and herbalist gardens Farms 295 total species (trees 45%, shrubs 27% and herbs 28%) Herbalists gardens 203 total species (trees 40%, shrubs 27% and herbs 33%) 60 species known as medicinal by farmers but not recorded in any farm (22 trees, 26 shrubs and 12 herbs) Do farmers know more species than herbalists????? 16

Factors influencing cultivation Herbalists knowledge issue was only a species treating many diseases 17

Species highly preferred for cultivation Species Growth form Frequency (%) of preference by herbalistsfarmers Prunus africana Tree 5626 Warburgia ugandensis Tree 567 Aloe spp.* Herb 4945 Azadirachta indica Tree 4047 Olea europaea ssp africana Tree 5118 Strychnos henningsii Tree 269 Erythrina abyssinica Tree 3510 Myrsine melanophloeos Tree 2313 Caesalpinia volkensii Shrub 2614 Zanthoxylum chalybeum Tree 126 Senna didymobotrya Tree 9 Ocotea usambarensis Tree 19 Croton megalocarpus Tree 1211 18

Summary on farmers and herbalists perceptions Herbalists preferred trees that treat more diseases and are scarce farmers knowledge then markets Farmers in Mbeere influenced by germplasm availability than markets Multiple use of species not very important to influence both farmers and herbalists Cultivation technology rated low but factors such as appropriate niches and farm sizes important Women farmers rated knowledge, markets and multiple use higher than men Trees on farm correlated loosely with the frequency of species preference Usually one tree per household is enough for self treatment and neighbours can use 19

Most socio-economically important diseases DiseaseHerbalist s scoreHerb RankFarmers scoreFarm Rank Malaria10.7111.21 Typhoid5.778.52 Respiratory problems8.337.93 HIV/AIDS8.626.74 Pneumonia7.046.15 Hypertension5.295.06 Tuberculosis5.964.47 Diabetes6.154.28 Back/bones/joints aches3.6164.29 Cancers5.0114.010 Measles3.5183.911 Dental disorders5.382.820 Rheumatism4.8133.815 Amoeba4.8123.716 Asthma5.1102.624 20

Disease effect management by farmers Health management measurePercent (n =142) Preventive (ex ante risk minimising)232 Clean drinking water30 Contribute to development of community health facilities3 Good diets30 Immunization through vaccination3 Keep useful medicine in house19 Keeping warm4 Medicinal plant conservation51 Other preventive methods1 Other traditional health practices3 Personal and household hygiene57 Public health training and practices1 Use of mosquito nets31 Treatment (ex post risk coping)32 Off the counter medicine4 Seek conventional medicine assistance3 Use of herbal medicine25 Grand Total264* 21

Number of species used in treating important diseases 22

Highly ranked species in treatment of most important diseases 23 Amoebiasis Back/joint/ bone problems Cough/flu Dental problems Diabetes Malaria PneumoniaRheumatism Typhoid Aloe sp65103952788 Azadirachta indica2151222126101525 Caesalpinia volkensii5149112 Dalbergia melanoxylon63211 Erythrina abyssinica563125674 Moringa oleifera12 Myrsine melanophloeos1332 Olea europaea1432617173 Prunus africana41353111 Strychnos henningsii9212 Warburgia ugandensis22841021

Farmers sources of knowledge on use of medicinal plants for disease treatment Information sources Frequency (%) of mention as source number: (N=200) 123Total Herbalists2500 Nursery operators3003 Media (newspapers, radios )65010 Older relatives (parents, grandparents )5721482 Neighbours716932 Seminars1315 Exchange programmes by NGOs2416 No response25385 Total100 300 24 Most information passed through genealogy and herbalists contribution is low!

Who speaks about importance of medicinal tree cultivation to farmers? 1st2nd3rdTotal Herbalists1100 Tree nursery operators6107 Media (newspapers, radios)2214 Older relatives (parents, grandparents )6106 Neighbours24378 Development programmes (govt, NGOs167123 Medicinal tree product buyers*1101 Own initiative*143117 No response458495 25

So knowledge of medicinal tree species varies with socio-demographic categories Socio-economic factor123456P - value Gender12.613.2 0.551 Age8.410.112.914.9 12.7 0.002 Education level16.113.212.511.16.60.012 District9.215.113.90.000 First response to symptom of illness by family member 15.110.812.29.0 26 Key: Gender -1(Female), 2 (Male); Age in years 1 ( 65); Level of education attained 1 (not schooled), 2 (primary level), 3 (village polytechnic), 4 (secondary), 5 (post secondary); District 1 (Embu), 2 (Mbeere), 3 (Meru Central); First response to ailment - 1 (find a medicinal plant), 2 (buy an over the counter drug), 3(consult a medical clinic or hospital), 4 (consult a herbalist) Number of species known increased with age, district harshness, and use but decreased with education level attained by respondent

Does farmers knowledge influence cultivation 27

Summary on farmers knowledge on TM and its influence on med tree planting No difference in rating of disease economic importance between farmers and herbalists rate -same as hospitals Medicinal trees play role in household health Herbalists use more of wild species while farmers use agroforestry species more Farmers learn about medicinal trees from relatives and cultivation mainly own initiative The medicinal species present in farms influenced more by the species known little by the perception of the socioeconomic importance of diseases 28

Medicinal plant markets and cultivation of medicinal trees 29 Business categories Freq % (n=55) Av Trade period Av % annual growth Av no Species traded Av % volume purchased Av %of volume wild Final products361142476929 Herbal Clinic401715864559 Pre- processing241710053672 Grand Total1001524165351 Herbal clinics Pre-processors Final products

Sources of herbal materials in markets Species Growth habit Freq % (n=55) Av Trade period Av annual trade (Kg) Av annual growth % Av % from farm Demand trend Aloe sppShrub511428633355Rising Azadirachta indicaTree441469349688Rising Warburgia ugandensisTree241133323144Rising Eucalyptus sppTree221011760098Rising Prunus africanaTree221440825573Rising Urtica dioicaHerb208943112230Const Ekebergia capensisTree1322105325Rising Zanthoxylum gillettiiTree13151751090Rising Albizia anthelminticaTree92077750Rising Kigelia africanaTree9526921430Const Moringa oleiferaTree95463864100Rising Croton megalocarpusTree72016818995Rising Rhamnus prinoidesTree5610415033Rising Senna didymobotryaShrub5128019933Const The numbers show the average per trader for each parameter; n=55 30

Traders preference for source of medicinal plant materials 31 Preferred source Reason for preference% of respondents giving reason Procurement approach Farms (27% of respondents) Natural resource conservation5Own collection 39% Purchased 61% Good tree husbandry in farms11 Species authenticity in farms4 Species scarcity in the wild7 To create market / future sources2 Total29 Natural forests and woodlands (69% of respondents) Customary preference in practice2Own collection 51% Purchased 49% Mature plants and grown in rich substrate 16 Less contamination/interference15 Little or no cost of procurement7 Total76 No preference (4% of resp) Depends on distance and costs2Own collection 100% No reason given2 4

But farmers reported little connection to markets Species Number of farmers Plant part soldWhere sold Markhamia lutea1RootsHerbalist/neighbours (1) Myrsine melanophloeos3Seeds Vendors (1); Market (2); Neighbours (1) Olea europaea2CuttingsVendors (2) Osyris lanceolata1Whole plantVendors (1) Warburgia ugandensis1BarkHerbalist (1) 32 Trade in medicinal trees was rising but farmers were not participating in any significant manner Most of indigenous tree species were traded collected from the wild threats Two thirds of traders who purchased materials preferred farm sourced materials mostly in the final products category Getting materials at little or no costs contributes to more wild collection distance may discourage but not tested in this study Summary on trade

Focus on tree seedling sources DistrictNo of nurseries Av size (m) Space with trees (%) Embu2010393 Mbeere204794 Meru Central 2054479 Total/ Average 6023189 33 District Planted in garden Given away sold or given free Exclusiv ely sold Grand Total Embu775523 Mbeere30205 Meru Central522312 Total1588840 Herbalists with nurseries (numbers are % n = 60)

Presence of highly preferred species in nurseries Species Growt h habit Freq % (n = 60) Av no seedlin gs Av seedlings supplied before Av trend Demand Prunus africanaT252111111H Azadirachta indicaT133743H Olea europaeaT122921477H Aloe spp.H810161H Croton megalocarpusT8746C Juniperus proceraT84062223H Hagenia abyssinicaT74108H Croton macrostachyusT5087C Markhamia luteaT530593C Myrsinne melanophloeosT56683438H Acacia xanthophloeaT3533C Bridelia micranthaT3025H 34

Sources of medicinal trees in farms Species% farmsNRNeighboursTree nurseriesWildlings Aloe sp52176564 Azadirachta indica2794596 Croton macrostachyus244821729 Prunus africana232422250 Senna didymobotrya21672221 Croton megalocarpus20334835 Erythrina abyssinica20683325 Tithonia diversifolia19248062 Olea europaea174131235 Psidium guajava161034823 Solanum incanum1396004 Terminalia brownii11810514 Ocimum suave10805010 Zanthoxylum chalybeum10900010 35

Summary on seedling sources Farmers were mainly planting medicinal trees from wildlings Demand for medicinal species lower than timber and higher than fruits and fodder in Meru; lower than fruits and fodder in Mbeere and fruits in Embu Demand for medicinal seedlings higher than supply in nurseries but not all species Need investment in diversifying germplasm in both private and herbalist nurseries 36

Key species abundance surveys (focus on 30 most preferred) Forests and woodlands (herbalist in team) Species abundance Age/size distributions Evidence of harvesting method damage 37 Farms In twenty farms and ten herbalist gardens in each district Key species abundance Age/size class distributions relating to regeneration method Niche in the farm Other competing household or market uses of the species

Species abundance survey results The thirty species were whose abundance was measured include Albizia gummiferaFicus sycomorusRhamnus priniodes Aloe spFicus thonningiiRicinus communis Azadirachta indicaKigelia africanaSenna didymobotrya Brideria micranthaLeonotis mollissimaSolanum incanum Ceasalpinia volkensiiMoringa oleiferaStrychnos henningsii Cordia africanaOcotea usambarensisTithonia diversifolia Croton macrostachyus Myrsine melanophloeosVepris nobilis Croton megalocarpusOsyris lanceolataWarburgia ugandensis Dalbergia melanoxylon Olea europaea ssp africana Zanthoxylum chalybeum Erythrina abyssinicaPrunus africana Zanthoxylum usambarense 39

General abundance of species in surveyed farms, forests and herbalists gardens Ra nk Farms% Prop Herbalists gardens % Prop Forests % Pro p 1Eucalyptus spp11.3Lantana camara16.4Sizygium guinense8.7 2Grevillea robusta10.0Catha edulis9.2Mugiru7.8 3Catha edulis9.4Solanum incanum9.1Mwenyuka6.4 4Solanum incanum9.1Erythrina abyssinica6.8Mukwethe2.9 5Acacia tortilis6.0Leucaena spp6.4Mutengerethe2.9 6Acacia spp3.2Grevillea robusta3.2Aspilia africana2.7 7Acacia brevispica3.2Indigofera lupatana3.1Gnidia subcordata2.6 8Lantana camara2.9Acacia nilotica2.9Lantana camara2.4 9Tithonia diversifolia2.9Acacia tortilis2.6Murieni2.3 10Aloe spp2.6Maytenus senegalensis 2.6Ocimum suave1.8 40

30 top species accumulation curves 41 Forest and woodlands Mbeere Embu Meru Smallholder farms Mbeere Embu Meru Herbalist gardens/farms Mbeere Embu Meru More abundance in forests and woodlands in Mbeere than Embu and Meru Herbalists in Embu and Meru plant more response to scarcity Not much difference in abundance in smallholder farms in the three districts but smallholders generally plant less 20 25 20 10 20 Species richness Sites

30 top species Renyi profiles 42 Forests and districtsHerbalists and districtsFarms and districts Combined Forests and distance RP Forests and distance SAC >5 km from village

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Medicinal trees in smallholder agroforestry systems: Assessing some factors influencing cultivation by farmers East of Mt. Kenya Jonathan Muriuki Kiura