Medicinal Plants of Namibia

Item Type text; Electronic Thesis

Authors Brumbaugh, Michaela Amber

Publisher The University of Arizona.

Rights Copyright © is held by the author. Digital access to this materialis made possible by the University Libraries, University of Arizona.Further transmission, reproduction or presentation (such aspublic display or performance) of protected items is prohibitedexcept with permission of the author.

Download date 05/02/2021 12:57:10

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/578551

Abstract(((!This!field!guide!covering!20!plants!native!to!Namibia,!located!between!Angola!and!South!Africa!on!the!Atlantic!Coast,!with!medicinal!uses!by!indigenous!tribes,!was!written!to!help!preserve!the!traditional!knowledge!that!is!presently!passed!orally!from!generation!to!generation.!!As!indigenous!tribes!transition!from!a!nomadic,!pastoralist!lifestyle!this!traditional!knowledge!is!at!risk!of!being!lost.!!Thus,!the!purpose!of!this!field!guide!is!to!explain!the!medicinal!uses!of!20!selected!plants!by!the!indigenous!tribes!of!Namibia!and!present!botanical!and!ecological!information!about!these!plants.!!It!is!important!for!members!of!the!scientific!community!to!help!preserve!this!knowledge!and!this!field!guide!will!help!in!this!by!consolidating!research.!!The!Namibian!tribes!use!many!plants,!but!only!20!are!covered!in!this!field!guide!because!these!are!the!ones!that!have!been!seen!and!documented!by!the!author,!and!for!which!information!is!available!from!multiple!sources.!!The!format!will!include!each!plant!organized!alphabetically!by!genus!and!accompanied!by!photographs!taken!by!the!author.!!The!order!of!information!for!each!entry!will!follow:!Plant:!Genus&species,!Family,!Common!names,!Range,!Diagnostic!characteristics,!Governmental!protection!status,!and!Indigenous!medicinal!uses.!!!!!!!!(The(following(is(the(embedded(link(to(my(field(guide(that(contains(the(complete(final(thesis((video,(blog,(and(photos(included)(not(provided(in(this(space(due(to(size(digital(file(size(restrictions:(http://joom.ag/Oeip.((( (

Introduction!!!“To(appreciate(an(area(fully,(one(must(get(to(know(and(understand(it,(and(nowhere(is(this(truer(than(in(a(desert(environment.((At(first(glance(barren,(even(hostile,(the(desert(does(not(reveal(its(secrets(to(the(casual(observer.”!~Mary!Seely!in!The&Namib:&Natural&History&of&an&Ancient&Desert38&&!The!purpose!of!this!field!guide!is!to!explain!the!medicinal!uses!of!selected!plants!by!the!indigenous!tribes!of!Namibia!and!present!botanical!and!ecological!information!about!these!plants.!!The!transition!from!nomadic,!pastoralist!lifestyle!to!a!more!technologically!inclined!one!can!put!traditional!knowledge!at!risk.!!To!prevent!traditional!knowledge!from!being!lost!it!is!important!for!members!of!the!scientific!community!to!preserve!knowledge,!especially!in!rural!areas,!for!the!sake!of!biodiversity.!!Village!doctors,!elders,!and!other!members!of!the!Namibian!traditional!communities!were!once!able!to!identify!plants,!and!know!their!locations,!uses,!and!methods!of!preparation30.!!Many!in!the!scientific!community!have!already!begun!to!preserve!this!knowledge.!!Programs!such!as!the!Namibian!Tree!Atlas!Program,!the!Floristic!Namibian!Survey,!the!Spatial!and!Finite!Differentiation!of!Plants!in!the!Central!Namib,!SEPASAL,!and!NAMSPLACE!Project!have!contributed!to!information!about!the!plant!base!of!Namibia13,!14,!21,!23,!40.!!The!problem!is!not!research!or!consolidating!research,!but!in!consolidating!the!knowledge.!!Since!the!relevant!research!concerning!traditional!medicinal!plant!remedies!in!Namibia!is!not!consolidated,!I!wish!to!help!preserve!that!knowledge!through!this!field!guide.!!I!encourage!you!to!take!this!field!guide,!while!studying!the!ecology!of!the!Namibian!landscape,!to!explore!and!discover!what!these!plants!look!like,!many!of!them!found!in!no!other!place!in!the!world,!and!how!they!are!used!by!some!of!the!people!who!rely!on!them.!!!Namibia!is!located!between!Angola!and!South!Africa!on!the!Atlantic!Coast.!!Rainfall!across!the!country!varies!drastically,!increasing!from!0!mm!in!the!southwest!in!the!Namib!Desert!to!600!mm!to!the!northeast!in!the!Caprivi!Strip24.!!Rainfall!is!quite!unpredictable!as!marked!dry!periods!from!May!to!October!cause!intense!drought!across!various!biomes!in!the!country16,!18.!!In!some!regions!of!Namibia,!there!has!not!been!rainfall!in!almost!100!years16.!!In!Namibia,!convergent!evolution!promotes!plants!that!respond!to!the!lack!of!water!in!ways!that!are!similar!to!the!plants!in!arid!and!semiSarid!regions!around!the!world.!!Plants!in!this!environment!have!secondary!metabolites!to!defend!themselves!from!a!harsh!arid!environment!that!can!also!be!used!to!treat!ailments.!!The!Damara/Nama!live!in!central!Namibia49.!!It!has!been!proposed!that!the!Damara!were!the!first!to!migrate!from!West!Africa!to!Namibia!before!2000!B.C.15.!!Located!just!north!of!the!capital!Windhoek,!they!have!an!extensive!knowledge!of!herbal!medicine49.!!It!has!been!postulated!that!the!Damara!and!San!are!related,!although!it!is!not!clear!which!tribe!is!ancestral!especially!since!historically!the!Damara!have!been!settling!in!scattered!areas!across!the!country15,!18.!!!!

The!Ova!Herero!were!considered!to!be!Bantu!at!the!beginning!of!the!20th!century!but!were!often!referred!to!synonymously!as!Damara!due!to!their!rich!history!of!intermingling!culture18,!25.!!As!pastoralists!who!may!have!migrated!to!Namibia!during!the!midS1860s,!they!keep!their!herds!in!the!Northeast!where!water!is!most!abundant!by!way!of!rivers!and!rainfall!but!not!substantial!enough!for!rainfall!agriculture3,!17,!18.!!Their!tribal!history!was!markedly!disturbed!by!war!with!German!occupiers!during!the!late!1800s,!which!introduced!a!disease!epidemic!of!rinderpest!to!their!cattle!as!well!as!typhoid!and!small!pox!to!their!people3,!17,!18,!20.!!The!area!that!they!inhabit!would!mainly!be!considered!the!highlands!of!Central!Namibia,!which!is!bounded!on!either!side!by!the!Namib!and!Kalahari!deserts17.!!The!marked!water!availability!allows!for!access!a!diverse!set!of!plants!for!medicine.!!!!!!The!San,!also!known!as!!Kung!Bushmen,!are!some!of!the!oldest!residents!of!the!Kalahari!and!Namib!Deserts!and!they!possess!an!extensive!knowledge!of!the!flora!and!fauna!of!the!region3,!9,!20.!!There!are!three!groups!that!belong!to!the!San,!the!Ju\’hoansi,!Punguvlei,!and!Vasekele9,!20.!!Through!their!hunterSgatherer!lifestyle!this!tribe!uses!tubers!and!roots!for!treating!their!ailments9,!20.!!Because!of!the!aridity!of!the!environment!in!which!they!live,!leaves!are!used!often!when!conditions!favor!them!and!plant!roots!are!used!the!most9.!!The!environment!in!which!they!live!are!hospitable!to!the!medicinal!plants!Acacia&erioloba!and!Boscia&albitrunca41.!!They!practice!persistence!running!and!hunting,!an!endurance!process!that!has!been!theorized!by!human!physiologists!to!run!animals!into!heat!exhaustion!because!they!are!unable!to!thermoregulate28.!!This!tribe!is!the!only!to!practice!the!“live!for!today”!lifestyle!in!which!they!use!or!eat!food!each!day!rather!than!stockpiling!and!planning!for!the!future41.!!The!Himba!are!nomadic!pastoralists!who!have!wandered!the!land!since!the!16th!century3,!8,!11,!34.!!In!an!environment!that!is!so!harsh!and!unfertile,!the!nomadic!Himba!still!wander!the!country!of!Namibia!raising!cattle,!goats,!and!sheep!from!which!they!procure!many!resources!such!as!hide!for!clothes3,!11,!48.!!They!are!believed!by!some!to!be!the!most!beautiful!people!on!Earth!and!they!cover!their!skin!with!a!red!herbSbased!pigment3,!10,!26,!42.!!These!herbs!they!mix!with!their!butterfat!and!red!ochre,!which!they!cake!their!skin!in!for!environmental!protection!as!well!as!aesthetics3,!48.!!The!red!ochre!comes!from!iron!oxide!deposits,!which!are!mined!and!ground!up39.!!They!live!in!Kaokoland,!which!is!considered!Northern!Namibia!and!is!particularly!arid!and!displays!marked!use!of!plants!like!hoodia!and!some!of!the!pachycauls!listed!in!this!field!guide3,!8,!11,!34.!!

The!Kwanyama!and!Ndonga!live!in!Owamboland4.!!Also!called!Ovambos,!their!migration!route!into!South!West!Africa!around!1550!A.D.!has!been!documented!from!East!Central!Africa35.!!The!NamibiaSAngola!border!splits!the!Kwanyama’s!current!historical!territory4.!!This!is!also!the!location!of!the!Cuvelai!system,!which!is!characterized!by!the!Kunene!River!in!the!west!and!the!Okavango!River!in!the!east4.!!With!access!to!terrestrial!and!riparian!areas!their!plant!use!is!quite!varied!from!use!of!wood!for!utensils!to!plant!roots!for!dental!hygiene27.!!Hyphaene&petersiana,!Colophospermum&mopane,!Ficus&sycomorus,!and!Pterocarpus&angolensis!are!among!

the!most!frequently!used!medicinal!plants!in!the!region!by!the!Kwanyama35.!!In!fact,!their!use!of!medicinal!plants!in!the!area—both!diverse!and!innovative—seems!to!be!the!best!documented!by!ethnobotanists!of!all!the!Nambian!tribes35.!!In!addition,!since!the!19th!century!they!have!been!raising!cattle4.!!!!The!Gciriku,!Kwangali,!Mbukushu,!and!Shambyu!all!live!in!the!Kavango!alongside!the!Okavango!River,!which!has!provided!many!resources!for!them!to!live!by32.!!!Located!in!the!north!of!Namibia,!the!area!gets!the!most!rainfall!in!the!entire!country32.!!The!plants!that!they!utilize!would!thus!be!the!plants!that!require!a!lot!of!water.!!These!tribes!used!this!rare!surface!water!to!cultivate!crops32.!!This!sedentary!lifestyle!is!quite!a!contrast!to!the!other!tribes!of!Namibia.!!!!!!The!Namibian!tribes!use!many!plants,!but!only!20!plants!will!be!covered!in!this!field!guide!because!these!are!the!ones!I!have!seen!and!documented,!and!for!which!information!is!available!from!multiple!sources.!!!The!format!of!the!field!guide!will!be!as!follows!with!each!plant!organized!alphabetically!accompanied!by!photographs!taken!by!the!author:!!Plant:!Genus&species!

! Family!

Common!names!

Range!

Diagnostic!characteristics!!

Governmental!protection!status!

Indigenous!medicinal!use! !

!( (

Plant:!Acacia&erioloba!(formerly!known!as!Acacia&giraffae13)!!Family:!Fabaceae13!!

Common(names:!! !||Ganab22!!||Ganas22!!Camel!thorn6!!CamelSthorn22!!Camelthorn!tree22!!Giraffe!thorn47!!Grootdoring35!!Kameelboom22!!Kameeldoring22!!Kameeldoringboom22!!KamelSdoorn22!!Kameldorn22!!Kameldornbaum22!!Kanaap22!!Muhoto22!!Muntu22!!Musu22!!Olifantsdoring35!!Omumbonde22!!Omuonde22,!35!!Omusija22!!Omuthiya22!!!Range:(Specimens!of!A.&erioloba!can!be!seen!in!central!Namibia!in!the!drier!biomes!such!as!the!Namib!Desert!and!the!savanna6.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(Nicknamed!for!some!of!its!defining!characteristics,!this!plant!is!a!favorite!food!for!giraffes13.!!The!pods!resemble!a!human!ear!and!can!be!present!all!year!but!flower!mostly!from!August!to!November13,!31.!The!fruit!of!the!plant!also!has!a!velvety!soft!texture6.!!The!exterior!of!the!pod!is!gray!in!appearance6.!!The!leaves!are!quite!typical!of!Acacia&spp.!with!pinnate!leaves!that!are!green47.!!In!the!dry!winter!season,!from!May!to!August,!they!may!be!difficult!to!distinguish!without!leaves,!pods,!or!flowers13.!!Their!flowers!are!yellow!balls!and!typically!occur!from!August!to!May!although!it!has!been!known!to!flower!sporadically6,!13,!31.!!The!bark!of!the!tree!is!dark!grey!and!rough13.!!!Governmental(protection(status:((Acacia&erioloba!is!protected!under!the!Forest!Ordinance5.!!There!is!extensive!legislation!including!the!Forestry!Ordinance!Number!37,!which!protects!the!tree,!“[however],!there!is!insufficient!enforcement!of!the!regulations,!and!the!wood!from!

supposedly!protected!species!such!as!camelSthorn!(Acacia&erioloba)!is!collected!and!sold!as!firewood”13.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!!Acacia&erioloba,!a!tree!central!to!traditional!medicine!in!Namibia,!is!unusually!distinct!amongst!the!Acacia!genera!because!Namibians!regard!this!tree!alone!as!emblematic!of!their!country.!!!This!tree,!coined!as!the!“symbol!of!Namibia”,!has!a!diverse!range!of!medicinal!uses47.!!The!most!typically!utilized!plant!parts!include!“roots,!leaves,!bark!from!young!twigs,!inner!bark!from!stem,!gum,![and]!pods”44.!!The!Herero!use!this!plant!to!cure!lung!conditions!and!coughs47.!!The!Herero!also!use!the!pods!to!treat!headache!and!ear!inflammation47.!!The!heated!pod!is!used!by!the!Kwanyama!to!reduce!bodily!swelling35.!!The!bark!decoction!is!most!used!for!diarrhea47.!!The!Damara!create!a!decoction!(a!tea)!to!ease!pain!and!stop!blood!excretion47.!!The!Kwanyama!have!used!the!decoction!as!a!bee!repellent35.!!!The!Himba!use!the!resin!of!the!plant!to!“ease!stomach!complaints”13,!50,!and!it!is!edible!when!fresh13,!35.!!The!roots!are!“boiled!in!water!to!produce!cough!syrup”!or!“ground![to!a]!powder![that]!prevents!nose!bleeds”!or!“finely!ground!and!blunt![to!be]!used!for!headaches”50.!!Again!an!extract!from!the!bark!can!be!diluted!with!water!to!treat!diarrhea50.!!Traditionally!the!Himba!use!the!plant!leaves!to!heal!abrasions!and!scrapes50.!!When!individuals!are!exhibiting!signs!of!the!flu!the!tree!gum!can!be!“dissolved!in!hot!water”!and!used!to!treat!flu!symptoms!like!fever!and!upset!stomach50.!!The!Himba!also!use!the!“pulp”!within!the!pods!“to!treat!ear!infections”50.!!The!traditional!infusions!or!decoctions!have!been!employed!by!tribal!people!to!treat!coughs,!tuberculosis,!colds,!diarrhea,!nosebleeds,!and!lung!disease!(specifically!when!coughing!blood)44.!!Seeds!have!been!used!traditionally!as!an!alternative!to!coffee13.!!The!seeds!have!also!been!used!to!make!oil!used!in!the!red!ochre!of!the!Kwanyama!that!can!be!applied!as!cosmetic!to!the!skin!or!as!a!protectant35.!!Locals!also!boil!roots!in!water!until!they!are!blackened!to!use!as!a!cough!cure,!a!teaspoon!dose!is!prescribed!for!the!morning!and!evening13,!30.!!Wounds!and!ear!inflammation!may!also!be!treated!by!powdered!bark,!pods!or!ash44.!!Ground!ash!of!the!wood!has!also!been!employed!by!the!Kwanayama!to!heal!leg,!arm,!and!feet!wounds35.!!As!an!important!side!note,!ripe!pods!are!edible!but!green!pods!are!extremely!poisonous44.!!!! !

!Plant:!Acanthosicyos&horridus&!

Family:!Cucurbitaceae6!!

Common(names:(!Nara22!!!Narab22!!Bolterpitte22!!Butternut47!!Nara!melon22!!Naras47!!Narra22!!Omungaraha22!!(Range:((This!plant!is!rare,!occurring!most!commonly!in!dune!environments!of!the!Namib!Desert13.!!The!Namib!dunes!are!relatively!unusual!because!they!are!a!coastal!fog!desert!where!water!can!be!obtained!from!the!fog!that!rolls!in!from!the!Atlantic!Ocean!along!the!Skeleton!Coast33.!!In!fact!as!a!result!of!its!uniqueness,!in!2013,!this!Namib!Sand!Sea!became!a!United!Nations!Educational,!Scientific,!and!Cultural!Organization!(UNESCO)!World!Heritage!Site33.!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(This!shrub!does!not!develop!leaves;!instead!it!has!fleshy!branches!that!develop!curved!spines,!which!help!direct!water!from!rain!or!condensed!fog!towards!its!base6.!!!Nara’s!leafless!structure!is!well!suited!for!its!sand!dune!environment,!usually!sprawling!out!5!m!high!with!long!taproots!twice!its!height6.!!These!lengthy!taproots!sustain!the!!nara!shrub!by!extending!in!the!ground!in!search!of!scarce!water6,!38.!!This!plant!develops!dioecious!flowers!in!which!the!male!and!female!reproductive!parts!live!on!separate!flowers6.!!These!bellSshaped!flowers,!that!blossom!every!October,!eventually!become!spiny!spherical!fruit!that!can!grow!as!large!as!a!grapefruit13.!!The!fruit,!interestingly!enough,!can!be!found!on!the!plant!yearSround13.!!The!fruit,!also!called!melons,!can!grow!to!be!a!diameter!of!15!cm38.!!!!!Governmental(protection(status:((As!an!endemic!species,!A.&horridus!is!protected!by!the!Forestry!Ordinance6.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!Root!sap,!in!combination!with!something!sweet!to!offset!bitterness,!helps!relieve!digestive!pain47.!!Decoction!of!taproot!releases!excess!fluid!retention!in!the!urinary!tract47.!!The!San!use!the!melon!of!!nara!to!access!water!to!mix!with!their!herbal!treatments20.!!The!Bushmen!also!rely!on!it!as!a!food!source!so!they!follow!the!plant’s!seasonal!development20.!!( (

(Plant:!Adansonia&digitata&&

Family:!Malaceae45!!Common(names:(||Aurib22!!|Ums22!!Affenbrotbaum22!!Ape!breadfruit35!!Baobab22!!CreamSofStartar!tree35!!Divuyu22!!Dorsboom22!!Euyu22!Kremetartboom22,!35!!Monkey!bread19!Mubuyu22!!Omikwa35!!Omukua22!!Omukwa22!!Omuzu22!!Uyu22!!(Range:((Adansonia&digitata’s!habitat!is!the!savanna!woodland22.!!The!baobab!is!uncommon,!appearing!most!often!in!the!north!and!northwest!as!well!as!the!Cuvelai!that!is!north!of!21°S13.!!Its!range!is!not!restricted!to!Namibia!as!it!occurs!in!other!dry!regions!of!Africa!as!well1.!!!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(The!baobab!is!a!deciduous!tree!dropping!its!leaves!from!July!to!September!during!the!winter!months13.!!The!baobab!has!a!distinct!leaf!shape!featuring!palmately!compound!structure!between!five!and!seven!sections!per!leaf13.!!Elaborate!downwardSfacing!white!flowers!generally!decorate!the!tree!during!November,!December!and!February13.!!These!large!flowers!have!five!petals!that!are!folded!back!with!stamens!combining!into!a!column!in!the!center13.!!These!stamen!attach!on!long!stalks!to!flowers,!giving!way!to!large!olive!green,!oblong!fruit!from!January!until!April13.!!Trunks!are!massive,!larger!than!1!m!in!diameter!and!their!width!increases!with!age13.!!With!age!the!trunks!of!the!baobab!will!naturally!hollow!out13.!!Bark!of!this!magnificent!tree!tends!to!be!smooth!and!in!various!hues!of!grey!or!brown13.!!Fissures!disturbing!the!smoothness!are!common!on!bark13.!!!!Governmental(protection(status:((The!forestry!legislation!has!this!tree!under!its!protection13.!(

Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!The!most!widely!used!parts!of!the!baobab!are!the!pulp!of!the!fruit!or!the!bark45.!!Both!can!be!used!individually;!dried!and!mixed!with!water!for!medicine45.!!Dried!pulp!mixed!with!water!has!lots!of!tartaric!and!citric!acid45.!!As!a!result!of!its!high!nutrient!content,!baobab!fruit!is!good!for!treating!scurvySlike!ailments47.!!This!waterSpulp!mix!is!traditionally!ingested!to!help!with!fever,!diarrhea,!and!coughing!up!blood45.!!Juice!of!the!fruit!alone!can!help!with!coughing!up!blood!or!vomiting!blood47.!!Decoction!of!dried!root!bark!has!been!used!to!treat!inflammation,!urinary!issues,!and!diarrhea45.!!Leaf!decoctions!are!used!to!prevent!malaria!and!to!reduce!profuse!sweating47.!!Crushed!leaves,!like!in!C.&mopane,!can!be!used!to!improve!wound!healing!if!smeared!externally47.!!Eating!boiled!fruit!is!traditionally!used!to!bring!down!fever!or!battle!colds47.!!Since!resin!of!the!tree!has!an!antipyretic!effect,!it!taken!for!malaria!prevention47.!!Fresh!leaves!or!a!decoction!made!from!them,!are!taken!orally!for!pains!of!the!chest,!coughs,!and!asthma47.!!!!Ingesting!leaves!variegated!with!fruit!pulp!has!also!been!used!to!treat!malaria47.!!The!fruits!of!the!baobab!are!high!in!vitamin!C!and!B1!as!well!as!calcium3,!19,!35.!!Additionally!these!fruits!have!a!lot!of!malic!acid19.!!Note!that!the!seeds!are!also!edible!because!they!do!not!have!any!alkaloids19.!!!!!!!!!

Plant:!Aloe&littoralis!!Family:!Aloaceae13!or!Asphodelaceae5!!

Common(names:!!Aukoreb47!!Bergaalwyn22!!Bergaalwyn47!!Bergaloe22!!Endobo22!!Koreb22!!Mopane!aloe12!MopanieSaalwyn47!!Oshindombo22!!Otjindombo22!!WindhoekSaalwyn22!!Windhoek!Aloe5!!Windhuk!Aloe47!!!Range:(This!plant!can!be!found!most!in!the!north!as!well!as!in!the!central!highlands!of!Namibia5.!!Aloe&littoralis!has!a!variable!habitat!including!outcrops,!hilltops,!and!plains!but!occurs!most!prominently!on!rocky!hill!slopes5,!22.!!!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(Windhoek!Aloe!can!grow!up!to!4!m!in!height.!!Its!leaves!can!grow!to!be!0.7!m!long!and!30!mm!thick12.!!The!plant!has!long!swordSlike!leaves!that!narrow!at!the!ends!with!toothed!margins12.!!Also,!this!succulent!does!not!drop!its!leaves!during!a!particular!season12.!!Depicting!a!central!stalk!that!is!very!typical!of!other!aloes,!it!is!distinguished!by!its!large!size!and!tall!form5.!!!!The!Windhoek!aloe!has!long!tubular!inflorescences!that!will!usually!reach!1.5!m!at!most5.!!These!flowers!range!from!yellow!to!pink!or!even!red5.!!Usually!these!flowers!develop!from!April!to!June,!giving!way!to!fruit!from!June!to!August12.!!A.&littoralis!has!small!capsule!fruits!with!black!seeds!that!are!thin,!delicate,!and!winged12.!!(Governmental(protection(status:((This!succulent!is!protected!under!the!Nature!Conservation!Ordinance5.!!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!

Schistosomiasis!can!be!treated!with!a!decoction!of!dry!leaves9.!!The!Himba!use!the!sap!of!the!plant!to!treat!nipple!soreness!from!newborn!feeding50.!!The!sap,!if!added!to!the!eyes,!has!cleansing!and!healing!properties50.!!A!decoction!of!plant!material!can!treat!fever!and!stomachache50.!!To!process!the!plant!material!some!tribes,!like!the!San,!use!a!mortar!and!pestle!to!crush!the!plant!material41.!!The!Kwanyama!use!a!topical!application!of!the!juice!from!the!leaves!of!the!plant!to!treat!burns35.!!!!!!!

Plant:!Boscia&albitrunca!(! Family:!Capparaceae13!!!Common(names:!!/hunihaib47!!/hunis47!!||Opolhunib22!!|Hunib22!!|Hunis22!!|Hûnis22!!Hirtenbaum22!!Muhepu47!!Munkundi22!!Omundjere47!!Omunghudi22!!Omunkunzi47!!Omunkuzi22!Omutendeereti22!!Omutendereti22!!Shepherd’s!Tree22!!Weissstamm22!!Witgat22!!Witgat!boom22!!Zû47!!(Range:(This!plant!can!be!found!all!across!Namibia!but!especially!in!the!northern!and!central!highland!regions5,!7.!!Boscia&albitrunca!has!a!preferred!habitat!of!floodplains!although!it!can!also!proliferate!on!hill!slopes,!rivers,!and!dunes13.!!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:!Small!offSwhite!flowers!and!yellow!berries!will!grace!this!tree!during!the!wet!season5,!typically!flowering!from!August!to!October!and!then!fruiting!from!October!to!December13.!!Meanwhile!dark!green!leaves!crown!this!tree,!which!might!reach!7!m!in!height!depending!on!the!conditions!of!where!it!is!growing5.!B.&albitrunca!does!not!drop!its!long,!elliptical!leaves13.!!The!whiteSbarked!shepherd’s!tree!can!live!in!a!wide!variety!of!biomes!except!sand!dunes5.!!!(Governmental(protection(status:((This!tree!is!protected!under!the!Forestry!Ordinance5.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!

The!Himba!of!the!Kaokoveld!employ!a!decoction!of!leaves!and!branches!to!treat!lower!and!upper!respiratory!tract!infections.!!Consumption!of!the!sap!of!the!sheperd’s!tree!can!also!be!used!for!those!infections.!!Headaches!can!be!helped!from!

a!steam!bath!of!branches!and!leaves47.!!The!Kavango!use!fresh!leaves!of!the!tree!for!two!days!straight!to!treat!chicken!pox9,!47.!

“Concoctions”!of!the!leaves,!pale!yellow!berries,!and!roots!has!been!used!culturally!as!a!treatment!for!epilepsy!and!hemorrhoids5.!!The!roots!are!special!because!they!are!accompanied!by!rhizomes!that!serve!as!storage!for!the!plant’s!water!and!nutrients!to!survive!during!drought,!consequently!this!makes!them!more!widely!available!for!use!by!people!like!the!San!who!might!not!have!another!alternative!in!the!dry!season!of!their!harsh!environments41.!!!!( (

Plant:!Colophospermum&mopane!Family:!Fabaceae9!!!

Common(names:!!!Oenis22!!||Gâihes22!!||Gâis22!!Ironwood47!!Mopane22!!Mopanebaum22!Mopani22!!Mopanie22!!Mupani22!!Mupânyi22!!Omufyati35!!Omusati9!!Omutati22!!Pana22!!Tsaura!hais22!!Tsaurahais22!!Turpentine!tree47!!(Range:(Colophospermum&Mopane!grows!in!Kaokoveld,!which!is!bordered!by!the!Kunene!River!to!the!north!in!Northwestern!Namibia2,!13.!!C.&mopane!typically!lives!in!conditions!that!are!indicative!of!poor!soil!conditions!with!an!annual!rainfall!of!60!mm!to!200!mm13.!!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:!The!most!prominent!diagnostic!feature!of!this!tree!is!the!butterfly!shaped!leaf5.!!During!the!winter!C.&mopane!has!bright!colored!leaves47.!!The!young!leaves!are!red,!turning!green!with!age47.!!The!smell!of!crushed!leaves!resembles!turpentine13.!!!!Those!unfamiliar!with!the!mopane!might!mistake!it!for!the!false!mopane,!Gouibourtia&coleosperma,!which!is!the!only!other!tree!in!the!immediate!area!to!have!similarly!shaped!bifolate!leaves13.!!A!prime!distinction,!however,!from!the!false!mopane!is!the!ocher!(redSbrown)!color!of!the!mopane!fruit!that!has!a!sappy!seed!coat47.!!This!species!is!an!excellent!survivor!of!drought,!often!being!the!only!woody!species!in!the!dry!conditions!of!the!area!it!is!most!common!in5,!13.!!!Flowers!are!small,!greenishSyellow!with!around!twoSdozen!downward!facing!stamen13.!!C.&mopane!has!a!“kidneySshaped!bean”13.!!This!woody!species!flowers!mainly!December!to!March,!with!occasional!sporadic!flowering13.!!The!fruit!might!be!found!all!year,!most!especially!during!the!period!February!to!May13.!!Mopane!has!leaves!from!November!to!June!dropping!leaves!from!July!to!October12.!((

Governmental(protection(status:(This!species!is!protected!under!the!Forestry!Ordinance5.((Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!A!bark!decoction!can!be!prescribed!for!diarrhea!and!stomach!complaints47.!!Crushed!fruit,!root,!and!leaves!combined!can!be!used!as!a!skin!cream47.!!Resin!brought!about!from!heated!wood!“heal[s]!the!most!persistent!of!wounds”47.!!The!Kwanyama!also!heat!the!resin,!let!it!cool,!and!apply!several!times!to!a!wound!until!it!heals35.!!The!wood!may!be!utilized!to!help!heal!syphilis!and!eye!irritation47.!!A!traditional!treatment!for!swollen!legs!involves!fresh!leaves!from!which!an!individual!may!recover!from!in!just!one!week9.!!The!Himba!regard!mopane!as!sacred!to!their!culture13.!!The!Himba!are!particularly!adept!at!utilizing!a!variety!of!C.&mopane&plant!parts.!!Leaves!are!used!to!clean!wounds!and!as!bandages50.!!Fibers!of!the!leaves!“absorb!blood!and!promote!clotting”.!!Consuming!boiled!leaves!helps!with!coughs!and!stomachaches13,!50.!!Chewing!leaves!relieves!nausea,!acting!as!an!emetic13,!50.!!For!headaches!“soft!bark!is!used![by!wrapping!around]!the!head”13,!50.!!!The!Himba!use!the!leaves!more!than!any!other!part!of!the!plant2.!!For!example,!they!use!the!leaves!of!the!plant!as!a!remedy!for!stomach!problems2.!!The!leaves!are!ground!up!using!two!stones!to!create!a!paste2.!!The!paste!is!then!boiled!in!water!to!create!tea.!!The!leaves,!tea!and!paste!have!multiple!purposes2.!!It!is!prescribed!to!clean!out!a!recent!mother’s!body!post!childbirth2.!!Additionally,!the!paste!is!put!on!a!newborn’s!belly!button!to!separate!umbilical!cord2.!!The!leaves!have!been!postulated!to!“relieve!pain”!as!well!as!the!clotting!and!blood2.!!To!help!reduce!pain!from!snakebites,!white!fibers!in!the!leaves!are!chewed,!spat!on!the!wound,!and!rubbed!in2.!!The!same!process!is!used!for!healing!post!circumcision!at!a!coming!of!age!ceremony2.!!The!same!remedy!is!also!used!for!healing!from!incisor!removal2.!!( (

Plant(name:!Combretum&collinum&! Family:!Combretaceae13!!!Common(names:!!g≠oa47!!Kalahari!boswilg47!!Mupupu22!!Mutobo22!!Omupupuwaheke47!!Omupupwaheke22,!35!!Otjindanda22!!!Range:(The!distribution!of!the!several!subspecies!of!this!plant!range!from!western!areas!like!Ruacana!and!central!areas!in!the!north!like!Waterberg13.!!Not!many!can!be!found!in!the!Caprivi!Strip,!nor!are!there!recorded!specimens!occurring!below!23°!S13.!!Most!C.&collinum!can!be!found!in!the!savanna!woodland!habitat13.!!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(The!grey!bark!of!this!tree!can!chip,!revealing!red!cork!cambium!underneath13.!!C.&collinum!has!dark!green!to!yellowSgreen!leaves!that!vary!greatly!in!size!up!to!130!mm13.!!Some!plants!drop!their!leaves!from!July!to!October13.!!Like!Boscia&albitrunca,!this!shrub!has!creamScolored!flowers!but!they!are!much!smaller!and!can!vary!into!yellow!hues!and!tend!to!grow!in!clusters13.!!Flowers!bloom!from!August!to!September!while!fruit!tends!to!be!most!abundant!from!February!to!May13.!!The!tree!has!distinct!fourSwinged!fruit!whose!colors!can!range!from!yellowishSbrown!to!reddishSbrown!yielding!a!maximum!size!of!50!mm13.!!There!are!three!subspecies!of!this!tree!that!can!be!difficult!to!identify!without!the!winged!fruit!as!an!aide13.!!Fruit!can!also!be!hairy!or!hairless!depending!on!the!subspecies13.!!This!tree!is!also!easily!subjected!to!termite!damage35.&!(Governmental(protection(status:((The!government!does!not!currently!protect!this!tree!for!conservation!purposes13.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!The!Kwanyama!of!Owamboland!treat!coughs!with!a!decoction!of!the!roots47.!The!root!can!also!be!chewed!in!the!mouth,!but!not!swallowed,!to!achieve!the!same!end13,!47.!!A!decoction!of!dry!or!fresh!bark!is!used!for!one!week!by!the!Kavango!to!treat!coughing9.!!(( (

Plant:!Combretum&imberbe!!Family:!Combretaceae7!!!

Common(names:((!Hāb22!!!Has22!!Ahnenbaum7!!Hardekool7,!35!!Leadwood7,!35!!Leadwood!Tree22!!Menshout35!Munyondo22!!Muzwili22!!Omukuku22,!35!!Omum!borombonga7,!35!!Omumbolombongo22!!(Range:((This!tree!prefers!widely!available!water!access!to!support!its!growth!so!it!is!found!in!the!regions!of!the!north!where!ephemeral!rivers!are!in!more!abundance!and!also!where!it!is!more!common!to!find!areas!of!higher!rainfall!like!further!east13.!!Combretum&imberbe’s!habitat!is!a!savanna!bushveld22.!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(There!are!21!species!and!subspecies!of!Combretum,!which!can!be!hard!to!distinguish!between7.!!The!C.&imberbe!has!uniquely!small!fourSwinged!seedpods.!!SweetSsmelling!flowers!are!tiny!umbical!inflorescences!with!a!color!range!from!green!to!yellow7.!!The!C.&imberbe!tends!to!grow!along!dry!riverbeds!where!water!is!plentiful!underground7.!!The!tree’s!maximum!height!can!be!up!to!12!m7!!!Featuring!greySbrown!bark!rough!in!texture,!it’s!easy!to!confuse!with!other!species!by!structure!alone7.!!C.&imberbe!has!dark!green!elliptical!leaves!that!have!flaky!layers7.!!These!narrow!leaves!measure!30!to!80!mm!in!length!with!rippled!margins13.!!Its!distribution!is!specific!to!northern!Namibia!and!the!Caprivi13.!!!!!Governmental(protection(status:(The!Forestry!Ordinance!has!protected!this!species!of!Combretum7.!!!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!Schistosomiasis,!colds!and!diarrhea!can!be!treated!using!leaves!and!roots!of!this!tree7.!!It!also!has!an!edible!gum7,!35.!!C.&imberbe!can!treat!a!goiter!through!chewing!fresh!roots9.!!To!help!with!fertility!and!impotency!take!the!roots!and!whole!plant,!either!fresh!or!dry,!for!one!day9.!!To!treat!gonorrhea!use!root!or!bark!of!the!tree,!again!use!plant!matter!fresh!or!dry,!for!two!to!seven!days!depending!on!the!severity!of!the!condition9.!!The!Kwanyama!pulverize!the!root!to!develop!a!sap!that!can!be!mixed!with!water!that!is!often!used!to!treat!stomachaches35.!!The!smoke!can!also!be!used!to!treat!colds!and!coughs13.!!!!!!

Plant:!Faidherbia&albida!(Family:!Fabaceae7!!!

Common(names:!Ana!tree22,!47!!Anabaum22,!47!!Anaboom22,!47!!Anahais22,!47!!Anas22,!47!!Mbunga22!!Omue22!!Omutele47!!Omuyele22,!47!!WinterSthorn22!!!Range:((Faidherbia&albida’s!habitat!tends!to!be!in!areas!of!shallow!water!tables!like!dry!rivers!and!flood!plains!and!along!roadside!trenches!where!animal!traffic!has!dispersed!seed13,!22.!!In!Namibia!these!plants!can!be!found!in!highest!concentrations!centrally!as!well!as!in!the!northwest!as!along!the!Caprivi!Strip7.!!The!Ana!tree!is!also!common!in!the!dry!ephemeral!riverbeds!of!Northern!Namibia7,!13.!!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(These!tall!trees!grow!up!to!15m!in!height13.!!Ana!trees!have!bipinnate!leaves!that!are!produced!in!the!winter!and!dropped!in!the!summer13.!!This!leaf!cycle!is!very!unusual!and!specific!to!Faidherbia,!distinguishing!it!from!Acacia13.!!Branches!have!short!pairs!of!spines13.!!Whitish!stems!with!grey!to!white!bark!occur!on!the!Ana!tree,!the!bark!darkens!with!age13.!!OrangeSred!seedpods!mature!on!Ana!tree!that!are!distinctly!twisted!in!shape7.!!Yellow!flowers!occur!in!spike!forms!in!most!abundance!during!the!months!March!and!September13.!!!!!(Governmental(protection(status:((The!Forestry!Ordinance!has!issued!protective!status!for!F.&albida13.((Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!A!remedy!for!diarrhea,!fever,!colds,!and!rheumatism!can!be!created!from!boiled!bark!of!the!anaboom!but!it!is!slightly!toxic7,!13,!50.!!The!Damara!employ!this!bark!decoction47.!!Seeds!can!be!baked!and!added!to!a!liquid!to!produce!a!stimulant!drink!similar!to!coffee13,!47.!!The!Himba!also!use!a!tea!made!from!the!bark,!after!stripping!it!of!its!most!external!shell,!to!help!with!urinary!ailments47.!!The!resin!is!also!used!in!combination!with!bark!and!leaves!to!help!eye!inflammation47.!!!!!!!!&( (

Plant:!Ficus&sycomorus&Family:!Moraceae9!!!

Common(names:((|Nomas22,!47!!Ghukuyu47!!Geelstamvy22!!Muchaba22!!Omukuiju22!!Omukuju22!!Omukuu22!!Omukuyu22,!47!!Omukwiyu22,!35,!47!!Sycamore!Fig22!!Sykomore22,!47!!Ukuzu22,!47!!Waterbergfeige22!!Wild!fig35,!47!!Wildevy35,!47!!!Range:((With!the!exception!of!the!Caprivi!Strip,!specimens!of!F.&sycomorus!are!concentrated!in!the!west!and!north!although!it!does!not!occur!past!the!25°S!line13.!!Ficus&sycomorous’s!habitat!is!also!terrestrial!and!tends!to!be!in!habitats!like!hill!slopes!and!plains!but!mostly!along!riverbanks13.!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:!This!tree,!like!the!baobab,!grows!to!an!astounding!size!with!trunk!diameter!up!to!2!m13!!!Buttressing!of!the!trunk!is!common13.!!Yellow!bark!tends!to!be!smooth!with!the!exception!of!grey!blotches!that!drop!off!with!weathering13.!!Rough!dark!green!leaves!that!are!80!mm!long!cultivate!on!F.&sycomorus,!often!having!striking!venation!on!its!heartSshaped!leaves13.!!The!semiSdeciduous!F.&sycomorus!produces!new!leaves!from!September!to!February13.!!The!tree!can!grow!more!than!8!m!high13.!!True!to!one!of!its!common!names,!yellow!figs!propagate!on!F.&sycomorus!measuring!15!to!30!mm!in!diameter13.!!Figs!usually!have!two!peaks!in!growth,!February!to!March!and!October!to!November13.!!Since!this!tree!produces!figs!rather!than!fruit,!flowers!are!not!apart!of!its!phenology.!!!!!!Governmental(protection(status:((F.&sycomorus!is!protected!by!the!Forestry!Ordinance13.!!!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!The!Kwanyama!have!distilled!the!raw!fig!in!water!and!allowed!it!to!ferment!to!produce!an!alcoholic!beverage35.!!This!beverage!is!more!potent!than&H.&petersiana&wine!so!it!has!been!termed!brandy35.!!The!fruit!are!edible!but!excessive!consumption!of!the!raw!fruit!can!lead!to!digestive!upset47.!!The!bark!and!latex!have!

been!used!by!the!Kwanayama!to!treat!illnesses35,!47.!!A!combination!of!the!gum!and!pulverized!bark!in!a!decoction!can!help!chest!congestion35.!!This!combination!treats!diarrhea!as!well47.!!The!Kwanyama!have!also!employed!topical!application!of!the!gum!to!inflammation35.!!Reportedly!has!been!use!as!topical!application!of!decoction!of!both!fresh!and!dry!Ficus!leaves!to!treat!dermatitis!for!one!month9.!!According!to!the!Kwanyama!an!infusion!of!the!leaves!can!be!consumed!for!sore!throat35.((( (

Plant:!Hoodia&spp.!Family:!Apocynaceae,!formerly!Ascelpiadaceae45!!

Since!the!Hoodia!genus!has!a!uniform!appearance!and!structure,!individual!species!are!typically!identified!when!in!flower.!!As!a!result,!the!entire!genus!will!be!addressed!for!medicinal!purposes!since!there!are!indications!that!several!species!have!the!same!medicinal!properties5,!7,!45,!46.!!!(Common(names:!!!Khobagu!(biodiversity.org.na)!Hoodias!(biodiversity.org.na)!(Range:((Hoodia!species!can!be!found!in!sand!plains,!coastal!Namib!Desert,!Mopane!shrubland,!and!on!rocky!slopes!of!Namibia’s!large!mountains!such!as!Brandberg,!the!Sperrgebiet,!in!the!Kunene,!toward!the!Great!Karas!Mountains,!along!the!Swakop!River!and!Tiras!Mountains!that!occur!in!the!northwest,!west!and!south!of!Namibia37.!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:!A!usual!attribute!of!most!Hoodia!spp.,!Hoodia&gordonii!has!“partly!fused!bases”45.!!Hoodia&currorii&can!reach!up!to!1m!in!height!from!its!basal,!fleshy!stems6.!!Hoodia&parviflora&prefers!the!shelter!of!other!plants45.!!Their!flowers!range!in!size,!tending!to!be!no!bigger!(and!similar!in!shape)!than!the!palm!of!a!hand6.!!They!also!range!in!color,!from!yellows!and!pinks!to!purples6,!7.!!These!flowers,!blooming!after!periods!of!rain,!smell!of!rotting!flesh!to!attract!flies!as!pollinators6.!!!Governmental(protection(status:(Hoodia&parviflora!is!protected!by!the!Namibian!government7.!!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!For!medicinal!uses,!“fleshy!stems!are!sliced!and!dried”7.!!Interestingly,!however,!“wildSharvesting!is!not!sustainable!and!largeSscale!cultivation!has!been!initiated”7.!Hoodia&parviflora!and!Hoodia&gordonii!are!also!used!as!appetite!suppressants7.!!!Hoodia&gordonii,!in!addition!to!being!an!appetite!suppressant,!also!suppresses!thirst.!!This!species!has!been!used!to!treat!“hemorrhoids,!tuberculosis,!diabetes,!indigestion,!hypertension,![and]!stomachaches”45.!!!!The!Himba!use!the!Hoodia!plant!by!taking!off!the!thorns50.!!The!interior!of!the!plant!is!consumed!to!manage!“fever,!headache,!and!other!common!sickness”50.!!&Hoodia&currori!has!a!stem!that!“is!edible!and!very!refreshing”43,!47.!For!a!diabetes!treatment,!the!plant’s!outer!skin!and!spines!must!first!be!taken!off47.!!!Pencil!shape!and!sized!pieces!are!cut!for!daily!use!from!the!internal!parts!of!the!plant,!but!split!equally!between!three!meals!to!be!eaten!entirely47.!!The!H.&currori!flower!has!the!ability!to!treat!high!blood!pressure,!stomach!pains,!indigestion,!colds,!and!an!overactive!appetite7,!43.!

!Unlike!the!other!plants!profiled!in!this!study,!Hoodia!is!commercially!developed!for!its!medicinal!properties46.!!Hoodia&is!available!in!the!United!States!as!a!colloidal!as!well!as!a!capsule46.!!Recommended!use!for!the!colloidal!form!is!orally.!!The!extract!comes!with!a!dropper!and!instructions!to!take!five!drops!at!a!time!on!an!empty!stomach!or!with!food46.!!Users!should!use!two!to!three!times!a!day,!before,!during,!or!instead!of!a!meal46.!!A!previous!consumer!of!three!months!had!this!to!say!about!the!experience!when!asked!how!effective!Hoodia!had!been,!“In!that!time!that!I!was!able!to!regulate!my!eating!pattern!better”46.!!The!user!lost!twenty!pounds!during!her!use!of!Hoodia46.!!Additionally,!her!usual!stomach!pain!stopped!and!she!did!not!experience!any!colds46.!!She!stopped!using!it!because!she!felt!she!had!achieved!what!she!wanted,!which!was!to!stop!overeating,!and!the!relative!expensiveness!of!the!drug!also!played!a!contributing!role!in!her!ultimate!discontinued!use!of!the!plant46.!!!( (

Plant:!Hyphaene&petersiana&(previously!known!as!Hyphaene&bengullensis!and&Hyphaene!ventricosa)12!!

Family:!Arecaceae12!!!

Common(names:(!UniShais22!!!Unihaias22!!!Unihais22!!Makalani22!!Makalani!palm22!!Makalani!palme22!!Munganda22!!Ngone22!!Omulunga22!!Omurunga22!!Oshiyale22!!!Range:((H.&petersiana!is!most!common!in!the!extreme!northern!region!of!Namibia,!especially!in!areas!north!of!20°!S12.!!H.&petersiana’s!habitat!is!quite!variable,!it!can!be!found!on!flood!plains,!pans,!and!dunes!but!occurs!most!frequently!in!dry!river!beds12,!22.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(Distributed!mostly!in!Northern!Namibia,!the!Makalani!palm!has!large,!palmate!leaves!of!varying!size!concentrated!at!the!top!of!its!stem12.!!The!petioles!connecting!the!green!leaves!in!an!almost!whorledSlike!fashion!atop!the!meristem!of!the!palm!measure!1!m!and!have!sharp,!black!thorns12.!!Bark!of!H.&petersiana&is!very!dark!brown!to!black12.!!Leaves!are!present!yearSround12.!!Inflorescent!flowers!can!grow!up!to!1!m!and!are!dioecious!just!like!A.&horridus12.!!Flowers!blossom!in!December!before!fruiting!from!December!to!May12.!!Fruits!are!brown!spheres!spanning!50!mm!in!diameter!containing!a!single!seed12.!!Within!the!brown!outer!shell!layering!is!a!durable!creamScolored!layer12.!!!(Governmental(protection(status:((The!Makalani!palm!is!not!currently!under!special!conservation!status!despite!its!exploitation!as!a!souvenir!for!the!tourist!trade12.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!Leaf!fibers!are!separated!for!use!in!flossing!teeth12.!!The!indigenous!also!use!the!fruit!of!the!palm!to!make!a!wine47.!!Fresh!or!dried!fruit!are!crushed!and!fermented!to!make!this!wine35.!!Historically!the!wine!was!made!from!the!terminal!buds!of!the!tree35.!!However!this!harvest!of!the!buds!was!not!sustainable!as!it!prevented!new!growth!so!this!method!has!been!forbidden35.!!An!alternative!form!of!harvesting!the!sap!is!to!make!a!cut!on!the!trunk!of!the!tree!and!deepen!it!each!day!to!drain!the!sap35.!!In!order!for!the!wine!to!earn!the!name!brandy!comparable!to!F.&sycomorus,!it!

must!be!fermented!for!at!least!three!months35.!!This!tapping!process,!however,!will!kill!the!tree!in!a!month’s!time47.!!!!!!!!!!!!The!Himba!rely!on!these!plants!as!a!source!of!nutrition3.!!The!fruit!fleshes!provide!fiber,!calcium,!magnesium,!iron,!sodium,!potassium,!copper,!zinc,!manganese,!thiamin!(B1),!phosphorous,!riboflavin!(B2),!vitamin!C,!and!carotene3.!!!!!( (

Plant:!Kigelia&africana!!Family:!Bignoniaceae45!!!

Common(names:!!|Tollo22!!!Divunguvungu22!!Ghuvunguvungu47!!Kazungula22!!Leberwurstbaum22!!Mupolata22!!Mupolota22!!Mupungupungu22!!Sausage!tree22,!47!!Uvhunguvhungu22,!47!!Vugurungu22!!Vunguvungu22!!Worsboom22,!47!!Wurstbaum22,!47!!!Range:((K.&africana!occurs!in!a!savanna!woodland!habitat!of!Namibia!along!the!Okavango!River!and!east!Caprivi!where!above!ground!water!in!the!form!of!rivers!are!prevalent13,!22.!!!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(These!trees!can!grow!more!than!8!m!high13.!!Being!semiSdeciduous,!the!tree!seemingly!always!has!leaves!with!newer!leaves!appearing!in!August13.!!The!huge!leaves!of!the!sausage!tree!are!compound!with!three!to!four!leaflet!pairs13.!!These!elliptical!broad!dark!green!leaves!are!shiny!on!the!surface!but!pale!and!softly!downed!underneath13.!!Margins!tend!to!be!entire!on!these!stiff!leaves13.!!!!!Large!upward!facing!flowers!with!deep!burgundy!petals!and!showy!yellow!stamen!occur!from!August!to!December13.!!These!beautiful!flowers!produce!large,!heavy!fruits!shaped!like!slim!baobab!fruits13.!!The!fruit!hang!downward!from!a!stalk!that!is!nearly!1m!in!length13.!!From!October!to!March!and!May!to!June,!these!fruits!resembling!sausage!develop!from!flowers13.!!!(Governmental(protection(status:((Legally!these!trees!are!not!protected!but!since!they!tend!to!be!distributed!in!protected!areas!like!national!parks!or!enclosed!by!fences!they!are!not!threatened13.!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!Fruit!is!dried!and!ground!up!into!a!powder!before!being!applied!externally13,!45.!!The!external!application!can!be!used!to!treat!a!variety!of!ailments!including!ulcers,!sores,!syphilis!and!rheumatism45,!47.!!The!topical!treatment!can!also!help!disinfect!and!heal!bites!and!stings47.!!Fruit!that!has!not!ripened!is!poisonous!and!causes!vomiting47.!!

Thus!ingestion!of!the!unripe!fruit!also!has!emetic!properties!but!this!is!accompanied!by!internal!and!external!blistering45,!47.!!Bark!decoctions!can!be!used!to!relieve!bloody!diarrhea!or!mixed!with!fruit!as!a!stomach!enema!or!to!treat!dysentery13,!45,!47.!!Additionally,!the!roasted!seeds!can!be!eaten13.!!!( (

Plant:!Pachypodium&lealii!Family:!Apocynaceae13!!!

Common(names:!!Bottelboom13,!22!!Bottle!tree22!!Flaschenbaum13,!22!!Ohuanga22!!Ohwanga13,!22!!(Habitat:((This!species!of!Pachypodium!occurs!in!the!Karstveld!19°E!and!21°S!in!the!northwestern!highlands13.!!The!bottle!tree!grows!in!savanna!bushveld22.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:!(The!trunk!from!the!base!is!often!swollen!from!water!storage,!a!typical!trait!of!these!pachycauls13.!!This!consequent!tree!shape!gives!it!its!common!name!bottleStree13.!!Bark!of!the!trees!is!thick!and!tends!to!range!from!brown!to!grey7.!!A!figment!of!rocky!areas,!the!bottle!tree!has!distinct!white!flowers7.!!They!are!huge,!some!spanning!the!size!of!a!human!palm13.!!Their!petal!edges!are!ruffled!and!upward!facing7.!!The!plant!can!reach!up!to!8!m!in!height!at!maturity7,!13.!!These!flowers,!which!are!pink!at!the!center,!beautify!from!May!to!November!with!fruits!budding!from!July!through!December13.!!These!cylindrical!fruit!are!brown!once!fully!grown!and!tend!to!reach!a!maximum!of!100!mm!in!size13.!!!Leaves,!clustered!at!spine!axils,!can!reach!close!to!the!size!of!the!fruit13.!!Distinctly!wavy!margins!and!short!petioles!characterize!these!elliptical!leaves!that!occur!on!the!tree!from!November!to!April13.!!Branches!occur!at!the!apical!meristem!of!each!specimen!with!prominent!trios!of!white!thorns!that!get!darker!towards!the!ends13.!!!!(Governmental(protection(status:(P.&lealii!is!protected!by!the!Nature!Conservation!Ordinance!and!listed!on!CITES!appendix!II13.!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!Sap!of!this!tree!is!rich!in!a!chemical!compound!called!pachypodin7,!13.!!The!sap!of!this!plant!has!been!used!to!heal!wounds!showing!signs!of!infection50.!!This!compound!can!be!used!as!poison!but!helps!to!calm!inflammation!of!epidermal!abrasions!when!applied!to!humans!and!animals7,!13.!!An!application!that!highlights!the!toxic!form!of!this!compound!is!in!arrow!poison,!a!method!employed!mostly!by!the!Bushmen47.!!It!is!important!to!keep!in!mind!that!secondary!metabolites!like!these!were!created!originally!by!the!plant!to!protect!itself!from!predation,!consequently!it!can!be!harmful.!!The!plant!is!also!medicinal!for!the!Himba!of!the!Kaokoveld47.!!The!Himba!use!a!sap!from!the!tree’s!pith!for!wounds47.!!The!same!sap!based!extract!can!be!used!for!ear!drops47.!!!

!Plant:!Parkinsonia&africana(

Family:!Fabaceae:!Caesalpinioideae13!!!

Common(names:!!!Khâs13,!22,!47!!!GreenShair!tree22,!47!!Grünhwarbaum22!!Langnadelstrauch13,!22,!47!!Lemoendoring13,!22,!47!!Omuombamenje22,!47!!!Range:((With!the!exception!of!in!the!Caprivi,!the!greenShair!tree!is!abundant!in!most!of!Namibia13.!!Parkinsonia&africana’s!habitat!is!the!desert!including!the!NamaSKaroo,!Namib!and!Damaraland13.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(Reminiscent!of!the!Mexican!Palo!Verde!tree!(Parkinsonia&aculeata)!native!to!the!Sonoran!Desert!of!the!southwest!United!States!and!northwest!Mexico,!Parkinsonia&africana!has!yellowSgreen!and!pale!brown!bark13.!!Thorns!of!this!tree!are!straight!and!share!the!color!of!the!bark.!!Some!tiny!compound!yellowSgreen!leaves!decorate!a!rachis13.!!Since!this!deciduous!tree!tends!to!drop!leaves!October!to!December,!these!extensions!of!the!petiole!often!resemble!green!hairs!earning!its!common!names13.!!!!!Small!mustard!yellow!flowers!getting!no!bigger!than!15!mm!wide!will!adorn!this!thinSstemmed!tree!from!October!to!April13.!!Slender,!flat!brown!seedpods!are!the!fruit!of!this!tree!and!although!they!can!be!found!year!round,!they!occur!in!the!greatest!amounts!from!December!to!April13.!!The!green!hair!tree!typically!has!multiple!stems!and!gets!no!taller!than!8!m13.!!!(Governmental(protection(status:(This!tree!is!protected!by!the!Forestry!legislation13.!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!This!is!an!important!traditional!remedy!for!the!Damara47.!!Leaves,!shoots,!and!bark!boiled!into!a!decoction!have!been!used!by!the!Damara!to!treat!coughs13,!47,!50.!!The!baked!seeds,!similar!to!F.&albida!and!others,!can!be!used!as!a!substitute!for!coffee36.!!!!!( (

Plant:!PecheulELoeschea&leubnitziae!Family:!Asteraceae7!!

(Common(names:!(Autsi!khanneb22!!Auxan!khâb22!!Bitter!bush7!!Bitterbos22,!35!!Ezimbab22!!Grauer7!!Omunḓumba22!!Oshis̭uimba22! Oshizimba22!!Stinkbusch7,!35!!(Range:((This!shrub!is!widely!distributed!across!Namibia!in!ephemeral!riverbeds7,!13.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(!Stinkbusch!(also!known!as!bitterbos)!gets!its!names!from!its!pungent!smell!(and!consequent!taste)7.!!Despite!being!a!woody!shrub,!it!can!get!as!tall!as!2!m7.!!Leaves!are!small,!linear!and!tend!to!be!most!abundant7,!13.!!Fruits!and!flowers!are!present!all!year!long12.!!Flowers!are!purple!diskSheads!and!get!white!and!more!spherical!(like!dandelions)!with!age7.!!!(Governmental(protection(status:(There’s!no!governmental!protection!of!this!species!even!though!it’s!the!only!one!of!the!genera!to!take!residence!in!Namibia7.!!(Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!This!plant!has!a!more!obscure!application!than!most!others!in!this!field!guide.!!The!Ovambo!used!P.&leubnitziae!to!treat!issues!with!the!gluteus!maximus47.!!The!leaves!should!be!crushed!and!placed!into!the!anus!to!calm!swelling47.!!Similarly!an!enema!can!also!be!created!from!an!infusion!in!water!with!the!ground!leaves13.!!The!Ovambo!also!use!the!vapor!of!this!plant!to!treat!headaches47.!!The!Himba!have!found!this!plant!useful!in!clarifying!the!skin!as!well!as!for!sexually!transmitted!diseases!including!gonorrhea47.!!To!use!the!plant!in!this!manner,!collect!the!roots!and!boil!them!to!create!a!tea47.!!The!Himba!also!use!this!plant!to!help!with!gastrointestinal!issues!but!using!the!ground!leaf!material!as!an!enema47.!!If!worms!inside!of!their!nose!should!ail!a!person,!crushed!leaves!inserted!within!are!said!to!help!the!Kwanyama47.!!The!Kwanyama!also!use!the!smoke!of!this!plant!to!treat!colds!as!well!as!a!tea!from!the!minced!leaves!to!help!bring!down!fevers35,!47.!!The!leaves!can!be!used!as!a!mosquito!repellent13.!!The!ground!roots!of!the!plant!are!also!used!by!the!Himba!in!their!red!ochre!cosmetics13.!!!!!

Plant:!Pterocarpus&angolensis&&Family:!Fabaceae:!Papilionoideae13!!

Common(names:!!|Naob22!!|Naohais22!!African!teak22,!35!Bloodwood!tree35!Dolf22!!Dolfholzbaum22!!Dolfhout22!!Ghughuwa22!!Kiaat22!!Kiaatboom35!!Mukwa22!!Mulombe22!!Omuguya22!!Omuuva22,!35!!Transvaal!teak22!Uguva22!!!Range:((Juvenile!P.&angolensis!are!rare,!but!the!mature!specimens!are!abundant!in!the!Caprivi!in!addition!to!the!central!and!eastern!areas!of!the!north!with!sand!and!rainfall!between!400!and!450!mm13.!!The!African!Teak!lives!in!a!habitat!called!the!savanna!woodland13.!!Diagnostic(characteristics:(It!is!a!giant!tree!that!can!reach!up!to!20!m!tall13.!!Bark!of!the!African!teak!is!fissured,!appears!“dark”!and!“rough”13.!!Compound!leaves!measuring!300!mm!in!length!decorate!the!tree!from!October!to!April13.!!These!dark!green!leaflets!are!waxy!and!occur!on!the!leaf!in!biSpinnate!sets!of!2013.!!Typically!P.&angolensis’s!yellow!sweetly!aromatic!flowers!bloom!from!October!to!December,!giving!way!to!unique!pods!unlike!any!others!in!this!field!guide!from!December!to!May13.!!These!round,!brown!pods!are!the!size!of!a!palm!at!maturity,!central!bristles!flanked!along!the!circumference!by!a!thing!paper!wing13.!!!!(Governmental(protection(status:(The!forestry!legislation!protects!this!species,!in!addition!to!the!International!Union!for!Conservation!of!Nature!designation!of!‘near!threatened’13,!29.!!This!current!status!of!the!species!may!be!due!to!lack!of!P.&angolensis!juveniles13,!29.!!As!of!1973!a!sawmill!in!Oshikati!processed!the!wood!to!make!furniture!for!schools!and!governmental!office!buildings!that!also!may!have!played!a!role!in!its!current!lack!of!abundance35.!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!(

The!dry!and!fresh!roots,!stem,!pod,!and!leaves!can!all!be!used!to!help!bleeding!if!used!between!one!and!four!days9.!!Dry!or!fresh!bark!decoctions!can!help!with!coughing9.!!!The!sap!of!P.&angolensis&has!also!been!used!to!cease!nosebleeds47.!!Maternal!milk!can!be!produced!through!a!bark!decoction!mixed!with!the!fig!fruit!if!applied!externally47.!!Chronic!hives!can!be!treated!with!a!bark!extract47.!!This!extract!has!also!been!effective!in!treating!digestive!issues,!migraines,!and!canker!sores47.!!!!Ulcers!in!the!eye!can!be!helped!with!an!eyewash!made!from!a!root!extract!but!roots!need!to!be!cleaned!extensively!and!this!extract!needs!to!soak!for!six!hours!in!water!before!being!applied47.!!Malaria!as!well!as!complications!of!malaria,!including!blackwater!fever,!could!be!cured!by!ingesting!a!tea!from!the!root!of!this!plant47.!!Boiling!of!the!flowers!of!this!plant!and!using!the!vapor!can!also!help!with!eye!issues47.!!A!compress!of!the!plant!material!can!also!be!used!for!retina!ailments47.!!!!The!red!sap,!harbored!in!the!layer!just!below!the!bark,!can!be!used!on!the!outside!for!wounds!and!ringworm!as!well!as!though!ingestion!to!treat!intestinal!parasites47.!!The!roots!of!the!tree!are!red!and!can!be!ground!to!create!a!red!dye,!as!could!the!heartwood,!used!by!the!Kwanyama!in!combination!with!butterfat!to!produce!red!ochre!for!the!skin35.!!The!Kwanyama!are!more!accustomed!to!the!Western!style!of!dress!now!and!have!mostly!abandoned!the!use!of!the!red!ochre35.!!!!!!!!!

( (

Plant:!Salvadora&persica&!Family:!Salvadoraceae13!!!

Common(names:!!Currybos35!!Enghadu47!!Kerriebos22,!35,!47!!Khambis22!!Khōris22!!Khoris22,!47!Löwenbusch22,!47!Mugwamutembeza22!!Mustard!bush22!!Okatunduya47!!Omumkavu47!!Omungambu22,!47!!Otjingambu22!!Pfefferstrauch22!!Real!mustard!tree47!!Salt!bush35!!ToothSbrush!tree35,!47!!Xōris22!!(Range:((S.&persica!grows!in!the!floodplains!of!the!Caprivi!and!in!the!central!and!western!parts!of!the!northern!region!!centered!around!25°S!and!17°E!with!some!record!of!specimens!growing!along!the!Caprivi!Strip!and!closer!to!South!African!border13.!!The!mustard!bush!occurs!in!dry!riverbeds!and!plains!that!are!sandy!but!can!also!grow!on!clays!and!rocky!surfaces13.!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(Small,!yet!bright!redSpurple!berries!can!be!found!on!this!specimen!from!August!to!December,!these!berries!taste!like!mustard!and!are!the!reason!for!its!common!names6,!13.!!The!berries!develop!from!small!greenishSyellow!flowers,!which!can!be!found!from!July!to!October13.!!Its!oblong!green!leaves!are!leathery,!occur!year!round,!and!develop!to!be!80!mm!in!length13.!!This!shrub!tends!to!grow!more!outwardly—in!width!rather!than!height—if!trained!to!grow!as!a!tree!through!landscape!trimming,!it!could!grow!as!tall!as!8!m13.!!!!!!!Governmental(protection(status:(This!shrub!is!not!currently!protected!by!any!legislation13.!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!The!Kwanyama!mash!the!leaves!of!the!plant!and!mix!it!with!water!to!produce!a!topical!treatment!for!rashes!and!symptoms!like!those!of!scarlet!fever35,!47.!!The!Damara!make!a!tea!from!the!compressed!roots!of!the!mustard!bush!to!help!

infections,!digestive!issues,!diarrhea,!bloody!stools,!and!external!bleeding47,!50.!!The!Himba!utilize!the!plant!to!help!with!chest!congestion47.!!Juvenile!branches!of!S.&persica&in!addition!to!roots!can!be!used!to!maintain!dental!hygiene!and!treat!toothaches13,!35,!47.!!Parasites!can!be!treated!with!ingestion!of!mashed!and!dried!root!added!to!water47.!!!!!!!!!( (

Plant:!Sesamothamnus&guerichii&(Family:!Pedaliaceae13!

!Common(names:!!Herero!sesameSbush22,!47!Hererosesambos47!!Hoeb22!!Ongumbati22,!47!!(Range:((Occurs!in!Namibia!in!a!large!area!located!northwest!of!22°S!and!15°E13.!!Sesamothamnus&guerichii&grows!in!the!savanna!bushveld!habitat13.!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(S.&guerichii!has!an!engorged!trunk!similar!to!the!pachycaul!form!of!Pachypodium&lealii7.!!Another!similarity!to!P.&lealii!is!its!pale!grey!bark!and!tendency!to!grow!in!rocky!places13.!!Wooly!greySgreen!leaves!of!this!plant!occur!in!clusters!and!range!from!20!to!30!mm!long13.!!Leaves!tend!to!be!present!only!during!and!after!wet!season!from!the!months!March!to!May13.!!Flowers,!budding!from!September!to!December!are!bight!yellow!corrollas!measuring!up!to!65!mm!in!length!at!maturity13.!!Capsule!fruit!is!brown!and!papery!measuring!60!mm!in!length!and!35!mm!in!width13.!!These!fruits,!propagating!from!December!to!June,!open!into!pieces!when!fully!matured7.!!!!!Governmental(protection(status:(The!Herero!sesameSbush!is!not!currently!under!any!form!of!governmental!protection13.!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!In!tribes!of!the!northwest,!including!the!Himba,!venereal!disease!symptoms!are!subsided!by!a!root!decoction7,!47.!!Chewing!these!roots!can!serve!as!a!treatment!of!cough!or!cold13.!!!!!

!( (

Plant:!Sterculia&africana&!Family:!Sterculiaceae13!!!

Common(names:!!‡GâugaSammes22!!‡GûgeSammes22!!‡GûugeSanmes22!!Bosluisboom22!!Huinas22,!47!!Mukosa22!!Omuhako22,!47!Omumbambahako47!!Sterculia22!!Sterkastaaiing47!!Sterkulie22!!Tick!tree22!!!Range:(!This!special!tree!grows!in!the!western!regions!of!Namibia,!mostly!in!the!north!and!center!of!the!country13.!!Sterculia&africana!is!most!abundant!in!the!savanna!bushveld22.!!!(Diagnostic(characteristics:(S.&africana!has!a!wide!stem13.!!Its!white!bark!peels!to!show!the!green!underneath13.!!SimpleSmargined!leaves!that!are!lobe!and!have!seven!veins!are!characteristic!of!this!tree13.!!These!oliveSgreen!leaves!embellish!the!tree!from!November!to!June13.!!!!GreenSyellow!flowers!adorned!in!red!striations!and!shaped!like!a!cup!will!form!throughout!the!year!depending!on!local!conditions13.!!Distinct!brown,!hairy!fruit!will!also!be!present!general!through!the!year13.!!These!dry!wooly!fruit!will!occur!in!clusters!and!upon!cracking!open!release!blueSgrey!seeds.!!These!seeds!tend!to!look!like!ticks,!earning!it!the!name!of!tick!tree13.!!!!(Governmental(protection(status:(The!forestry!legislation!is!currently!sheltering!this!species13.!!!Indigenous(medicinal(use:!!The!Himba!ingest!a!decoction!made!from!the!boiled!root!of!this!plant!to!help!treat!indigestion!and!abdominal!pains!after!childbirth47.!!The!plant!should!not!be!used!if!pregnant!or!menstruating!because!it!thins!the!blood47.!!!!!!!!!!!

!References:

1. Adansonia Digitata Linn. [family BOMBACACEAE]. (2015) On JSTOR. Global Plants.

2. Bainbridge, H. (2012) “Indigenous use of Mopane (Colophospermum mopane) in

Northwestern Namibia”. Desert Plants. Vol. 28: 23-26.

3. Bollig, M. & Gewald, J-B. (2000) People, Cattle and Land: Transformations of a

Pastoral Society in Southwestern Africa. Köln: R. Köppe.

4. Brambilla, C. (2007) Borders and identities/border identities: The Angola-Namibia

border and the plurivocality of the Kwanyama identity. Journal of Borderlands Studies.

Vol. 22: 21-38.

5. Burke, A. (2007) Wildflowers of the Central Highlands. Windhoek: Namibia Scientific

Society. 120p.

6. Burke, A. (2009) Wildflowers of Central Namibia. Windhoek: Namibia Scientific

Society. 112p.

7. Burke, A. (2009) Wildflowers of Northern Namib. Windhoek: Namibia Scientific

Society. 112p.

8. Caminata, S. & La Cecla, F. (1997) Himba. Milano: F. Motta.

9. Cheikhyoussef, A. Mapaure, I. Shapi, M. (2011) “The use of some indigenous plants for

medicinal and other purposes by local communities in Namibia with emphasis on

Oshikoto region: a review”. Research Journal of Medicinal Plants. Vol. 5: 406-419.

10. Cole, J. (2003) "Himba in the Mix: The "Catwalk Politics" of Culture in

Namibia." ProQuest. Women's Studies Quarterly.

11. Crandall, D. (2000) The Place of Stunted Ironwood Trees: A Year in the Lives of the

Cattle-Herding Himba of Namibia. New York: Continuum, 269 pp.

12. Curtis, B., and C. Mannheimer. (2005) "Tree Atlas of Namibia." Tree Atlas of Namibia -

Official Web Page. National Botanical Research Institute. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

13. Curtis, B.A. Mannhemier, C.A. (2005) Tree Atlas of Namibia. Windhoek: The National

Botanical Research Institute. 672p.

14. da Fonseca, G.AB. (2013) “SPAN’s success spreads beyond Namibia”. Conservation and

the Environment in Namibia. Vol. 1:7.

15. “Damara." (2013) Namibia Tourism. Namibia Tourism Board. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

16. Encyclopedia of the Nations. (2009) Namibia - Climate. Advageg, Inc. <http://

www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Africa/Namibia-CLIMATE. html>

17. Gewald, J-B. (1999) Herero Heroes: A Socio-political History of the Herero of Namibia,

1890-1923. Oxford: James Currey.

18. Green, R.H., Kiljunen, K. Kiljunen, M-L. (1981) Namibia, the Last Colony. Burnt Mill,

Harlow, Essex: Longman.

19. Greene, R.A. (1932) "Composition of the Pulp and Seeds of Adansonia

Digitata." Botanical Gazette 94.1: 215-20. JSTOR. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

20. Guenther, M.G. (2005) Kalahari and Namib Bushmen in German South West Africa:

Ethnographic Reports by Colonial Soldiers and Settlers. Köln: Rüdiger Köppe.

21. Herunga, U. (2013) “Message from the minister: One of the best in the world”.

Conservation and the Environment in Namibia. Vol. 1: 4-5.

22. Irish, J. (2015) "Namibia Biodiversity Database." Namibian Biodiversity Database. Web.

14 Apr. 2015.

23. Juergens, N. Oldeland, J. Hachfeld, B. Erb, E. Schultz, C. (2013) “Ecology of spatial

patterns large-scale vegetation units within the central Namib Desert”. Journal of Arid

Land Environments. Vol. 93:59-79.

24. Kathrin. (2014) "Climate and Weather of Namibia." Climate and Weather of Namibia.

Treasure Hunt Design and Travel CC. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

25. Kidd, D. (1904) The Essential Kafir, by Dudley Kidd.. London: A. and C. Black.

26. Lange, K.E. (2004) "Himba: consulting the past divining the future." National

Geographic. Biography in Context. Web. 30 Mar. 2015.

27. Lewis, W.H. (1985) "Book Review." Economic Botany 39.3: 345. Web.

28. Liebenberg, L. (2006) "Persistence Hunting by Modern Hunter-Gatherers." Current

Anthropology 47.6: 1017-026. JSTOR. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

29. Loots, S. (2005) A Red Data Book of Namibian Plants. Southern African Botanical

Diversity Network Report 38. SABONET, Pretoria.

30. Lumpkin, T.W. (1994) Traditional healers and community use of traditional medicine in

Namibia. Ministry of Health and Social Services and UNICEF, Windhoek, Namibia.

31. Mannheimer, C.A. & Curtis, B.A. (eds) (2009) Le Roux and Muller’s Field Guide to the

Trees and Shrubs of Namibia. Windhoek: Macmillan Education Namibia. 526p.

32. McKittrick, M. (2008) Landscapes of Power: Ownership and Identity on the Middle

Kavango River, Namibia, Journal of Southern African Studies, 34:4, 785-802

33. “Namib Sand Sea." UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations, 2015. Web. 14

Apr. 2015.

34. Nelson, J. (2015) "BEFORE THEY." BEFORE THEY. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

35. Rodin, R.J. (1985) The Ethnobotany of the Kwanyama Ovambos. St. Louis: Missouri

Botanical Garden.

36. Roux, J. P., Dr. (2003) "Parkinsonia Africana [family FABACEAE]." On JSTOR. Flora

of South Africa. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

37. Rügheimer, S. Klaassen, E.S. Kwembeya, E.G. (2010) Hoodia in Namibia. Windhoek:

The National Botanical Research Institute. 14p.

38. Seely, M. (2004) The Namib: Natural History of an Ancient Desert. Windhoek: Desert

Research Foundation of Namibia. 107 pp.

39. Sherman, R. (2008) Keep the Dance Alive. Perf. Ovahimba Tribal Members of Namibia,

Africa. Documentary Educational Resources. Music Online: Dance in Video.

<http://flon.alexanderstreet.com.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/View/1652612>

40. Sibalatani, M. (2013) “Conservation of biodiversity: Namibia one of the world leaders”.

Conservation and the Environment in Namibia. Vol. 1:11-13.

41. Tanaka, J. (1980) The San, Hunter-gatherers of the Kalahari: A Study in Ecological

Anthropology. Tokyo: U of Tokyo.

42. “Tribal Art Finder." Tribal Art Finder. Web. 14 Apr. 2015.

43. Unpublished data, Gobabeb Research Institute 2013

44. Unpublished data, Swakopmund Museum 2013

45. van Wyk, B-E. van Oudtshoorn, B. Gericke, N. (2009) Medicinal Plants of South Africa.

Pretoria: Briza Publications. 336p.

46. Volpe, J. "Processed Hoodia Use." Personal interview. 10 June 2013.

47. von Koenen, E. (2001) Medicinal, Poisonous and Edible Plants in Namibia. Windhoek:

Klaus Hess Publishers. 335p.

48. Vorster, A. & Vorster, A.R. (1995) The Ocre People: Nomads of Namibia. Perf. The

Himba from Kaokoland. Filmakers Library. Filmakers Library Online Video.

<http://daiv.alexanderstreet.com.ezproxy2.library.arizona.edu/View/764856>

49. Wallace, M. (2003) “'Making Tradition': Healing, History and Ethnic Identity among

Otjiherero-Speakers in Namibia, C. 1850-1950." Journal of Southern African

Studies 29.2 355-72. Web.

50. Wilson, T.B. Butler, G.J. Liang, I. Sussman, S. (2010) “Floral survey of central and

northern Namibia”. Desert Plants. Vol. 26: 23-33.

!