Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley

JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY AND ETHNOMEDICINE

Khan et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:4http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/4

RESEARCH Open Access

Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledgein the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, PakistanShujaul M Khan1*, Sue Page2, Habib Ahmad3, Hamayun Shaheen4, Zahid Ullah4, Mushtaq Ahmad4

and David M Harper5

Abstract

Background: Mountain ecosystems all over the world support a high biological diversity and provide home andservices to some 12% of the global human population, who use their traditional ecological knowledge to utilise localnatural resources. The Himalayas are the world's youngest, highest and largest mountain range and support a highplant biodiversity. In this remote mountainous region of the Himalaya, people depend upon local plant resources tosupply a range of goods and services, including grazing for livestock and medicinal supplies for themselves. Due totheir remote location, harsh climate, rough terrain and topography, many areas within this region still remain poorlyknown for its floristic diversity, plant species distribution and vegetation ecosystem service.

Methods: The Naran valley in the north-western Pakistan is among such valleys and occupies a distinctive geographicallocation on the edge of the Western Himalaya range, close to the Hindu Kush range to the west and the KarakorumMountains to the north. It is also located on climatic and geological divides, which further add to its botanical interest.In the present project 120 informants were interviewed at 12 main localities along the 60 km long valley. This paperfocuses on assessment of medicinal plant species valued by local communities using their traditional knowledge.

Results: Results revealed that 101 species belonging to 52 families (51.5% of the total plants) were used for 97prominent therapeutic purposes. The largest number of ailments cured with medicinal plants were associated with thedigestive system (32.76% responses) followed by those associated with the respiratory and urinary systems (13.72% and9.13% respectively). The ailments associated with the blood circulatory and reproductive systems and the skin were7.37%, 7.04% and 7.03%, respectively. The results also indicate that whole plants were used in 54% of recipes followed byrhizomes (21%), fruits (9.5%) and roots (5.5%).

Conclusion: Our findings demonstrate the range of ecosystem services that are provided by the vegetation and assesshow utilisation of plants will impact on future resource sustainability. The study not only contributes to an improvedunderstanding of traditional ethno-ecological knowledge amongst the peoples of the Western Himalaya but alsoidentifies priorities at species and habitat level for local and regional plant conservation strategies.

Keywords: Biodiversity conservation, Ecosystem services, Medicinal plants, Vegetation

IntroductionThe benefits obtained by humans from nature aretermed as Ecosystem Services [1,2]. Natural ecosystemsprovide human societies with vital supporting services,such as air and water purification, climate regulation,waste decomposition, soil fertility & regeneration andcontinuation of biodiversity. The Millennium EcosystemAssessment (2003) and few other studies of ecosystem

* Correspondence: [email protected] of Botany, Hazara University Mansehra, PakistanFull list of author information is available at the end of the article

© 2013 Khan et al.; licensee BioMed Central LtCommons Attribution License (http://creativecreproduction in any medium, provided the or

services have classified these services into four broad cat-egories – provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural[3-8]. These services are produced by complex interactionsbetween the biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems.All kinds of ecosystem services, whether provisioning, regu-lating, supporting or cultural, are closely allied to plant bio-diversity [9,10]. All sort of these services ultimatelycontribute to agricultural, socio economic and industrial ac-tivities [11-13]. Plant biodiversity on slope surfaces of themountains regulates supply of good quality water andprevents soil erosion and floods. It also enhances soil

d. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creativeommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, andiginal work is properly cited.

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Khan et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013, 9:4 Page 2 of 13http://www.ethnobiomed.com/content/9/1/4

formation, fertility, nutrient and other biogeochemical cyc-ling. Provisioning services provided by plant biodiversityare in the form of food, grazing land and fodder for theirlivestock, fuel wood, timber wood, and medicinal pro-ducts. Culturally, people utilize plants in number ofways like aesthetics, religion, education, naming etc.People extensively utilize the predominant herb-

aceous flora of mountainous ecosystems by keeping cat-tle and multipurpose collection, both of which causeover-exploitation of the vegetation and risks to the con-tinuation of plant biodiversity. In order to developappropriate systems for the sustainable use of plantresources, it is crucial to understand how traditional usesof plants influence biodiversity in these ecosystems. Aplant that possesses therapeutic properties or exerts bene-ficial pharmacological effects on the human or animalbody is generally designated as “medicinal plant”. It hasalso been recognized that these plants naturally synthesizeand accumulate some secondary metabolites, like alka-loids, glycosides, tannins, volatile oils, minerals and vita-mins, possess medicinal properties [14,15]. A number ofmedicinal plants possess some special characteristics thatmake them special in those mountainous regions of theHimalayas and adjacent ranges [16,17]. Medicinal plantsconstitute an important natural wealth of that region andultimately at national level. They play a significant role inproviding primary health care services to rural people

Figure 1 Physiographic map (produced through Arch GIS) of the Narathe River Kunhar, originating lake (the Lake Lulusar) and the tributaryof METI and NASA).

[18]. They serve as healing agents as well as importantraw materials for the manufacturing of traditional andmodern medicine [19]. Similarly a substantial amount offoreign exchange can be earned through exporting medi-cinal plants to other countries. In this way indigenous me-dicinal plants play significant role of an economy of acountry. This paper therefore, sought to, not only studiesthe natural vegetation of the Naran Valley, but also to theindigenous people of the valley in an assessment and iden-tification of the plant species of therapeutic uses.

Study areaThe Naran Valley, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistanis isabout 60 km long valley and can be located at 34°54.26’N to 35° 08.76’ N latitude and 73° 38.90’ E to 74°01.30’ E longitude; elevation between 2450 to 4100 mabove mean sea level. The entire area is formed by highspurs of mountains on either side of the River Kunharwhich flows in a northeast to southwest direction downthe valley to the town of Naran. Geographically, the val-ley is located on the extreme western boundary of theHimalayan range, after which the Hindu Kush range ofmountains starts to the west of the River Indus. Geologic-ally, the valley is situated on the margin of the Indian Platewhere it is still colliding against the Eurasian plate(Figure 1). Floristically, the valley has been recognised asan important part of the Western Himalayan province

n Valley; elevation zones, location of its main settlements (A-L),streams. (Elevation data obtained from the ASTER GDEM, a product


[20], while climatically, it has a dry temperate climate withdistinct seasonal variations.

Methodology for ethnobotanical data collection andanalysesAn ethno-ecological study was carried out to explorehow the local people interact with natural plant bio-diversity. Interviews using questionnaires were organizedduring summer (May-September) 2010. Data was col-lected in two phases i.e., field survey and questionnairesurvey.

a) Observations of local people during first fieldwork(summer, 2009) about the utilization of plantbiodiversity for various purposes were used for thequestionnaire preparation. A mixture of qualitativeand quantitative methods of data collection wasadopted in preparing a questionnaire for collectingindigenous knowledge about plant species. Localnames of plants were listed along with the botanicalnames of the recorded 198 plant species [21,22].Plant species photographed during the first fieldcampaign were shown to the interviewees where andwhen it was felt necessary.

b) Each of the main 12 localities (A-L) in the projectarea (at an interval of about 5 km each), wherevegetation transects had been taken, were revisited(Figure 1). Meetings were arranged with villageheads or councillors and permission as well asguidance was obtained. Ethnic groups including theGujars, Syeds, Swati and Kashmiri inhabit the valley.The most important among these are the Gujars(descendents of the Indian Arians) who are famousfor their unique culture, way of life, rituals andbravery. The Gujars are concentrated in the upperparts of most valleys in Pakistan where they cultivaterain-fed slopes, and are generally more aware oftraditional knowledge, of plant use and local ecology.A local community member of these tribes wastaken as a guide who knew the norms and traditionsof that indigenous society [23,24]. Ten houses ateach of the 12 main localities of the Valley (a total of120) were selected randomly for the interviews,using a random number table. Each village wasvisited from one side; a coin was tossed in front ofeach 5th house and if it fall head side up, then aninterview was requested from that family [24,25]. Ifwilling, one member in the household wasinterviewed about their uses of plants, preferences,therapeutic application and plant part that wereused. Informants were asked about their general usesof plant species, e.g. as food, fodder, grazing, timber,fuel, aesthetic, medicinal and others. Respondentwere then asked about their species preference if

they utilised a species for several purposes – food,fodder, grazing, fuel, timber or medicinal purposes.As there was much preference for medicinal uses ofplants and hence informants were further asked fordetails about the plant part(s) that were used, thediseases it cured and the recipe of use.

Questionnaire data was initially analyzed for basiccategorization of the respondents’ gender, age groupsand literacy ratio etc. This data was additionally analyzedfor use preferences, plants parts used, recipes and treat-ment categorization with slight changes to the method-ology adopted by [26-28].

ResultsPreliminary information about the respondentsThe questionnaire respondents represented a diverse arrayof people including farmers, women, literate, illiterate,young and elders. Among the 120 informants, 87 weremale and 33 were female. The largest proportion of therespondents was of elderly, above 40 years old (81.6%)(Table 1). More than half of the respondents were illiterate(51.7%), whilst, most of those with an education hadmerely primary which reflect the unavailability of educa-tional institution in the area (30%) (Table 1). These verybasic results also reflect the reality that indigenous know-ledge is well established but seems to be decreasing in theyounger generation.

Preference analysisMany of the recorded species (83%) provide a number ofprovisioning services and hence the respondents wereasked what preference they gave for a specific servicecategory. The results of preference analysis showed thehighest priority of local people for medicinal use of plantspecies (56.9% responses) followed by grazing and food(13.1% and 10.8% respectively) (Figure 2). The high pri-ority given to medicinal use illustrates the high level oftraditional knowledge about plants in the communityand the lack of basic health facilities. It can also beattributed to the high market value of medicinal species.As people of the region preferred the plants for thera-

peutic purposes and hence detailed analyses were carriedout on medicinal services.

Ethnomedicinal plant resourcesPeople in the valley use 101 species belonging to 51families (51% of the total plants) for medicinal purposes(55.4% of the used species). Lamiaceae, with 9 species,was the most represented medicinal family followed byPolygonaceae and Rosaceae with 8 species each.

Table 1 Age group and literacy level frequencies of the interviewed people in the region

Age group No. of Individuals Percentage Literacy Level No. of Individuals Percentage

14-30 6 5.0 Illiterate 62 51.7

31-40 16 13.3 Primary 36 30.0

41-50 41 34.2 Middle 11 9.2

51-60 43 35.8 Secondary 10 8.3

61-70 + 14 11.7 University 1 0.8


Important medicinal plant speciesEach medicinal species found in the region is note-worthy but a few of them got much importance in thelocal health care system e.g., Dioscorea deltoidea is lo-cally used in urinary tract problems, as tonic and anthel-mintic. Local hakeems (experts in traditional medicine)use Podophyllum hexandrum) in digestive troubles andtreating cancer. Powdered bark of Berberis pseudoumbel-lata is locally utilized for the treatment of fever, back-ache, jaundice and urinary tract infection whilst its fruitis valued as a tonic. Orchid species i.e., Cypripedium cor-digerum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea are considered asaphrodisiacs and as nerve tonics. Other noteworthy me-dicinal species are Cedrus deodara and Aesculus indica.Oils extracted from Cedrus deodara are used in skin dis-eases while powder of the dried fruit nuts of Aesculusindica are used in colic and also as worm expeller.Among other species, Aconitum heterophyllum, Aconitumviolaceum, Ephedra gerardiana, Eremurus himalaicus, Hy-pericum perforatum, Indigofera heterantha, Geraniumwallichianum, Iris hookeriana, Nepeta laevigata, Ori-ganum vulgare, Paeonia emodi, Rheum austral, Thymuslinearis and Ulmus wallichiana are also of great import-ance in the traditional health care. For detailed use of eachspecies see Table 2.

Plants’ parts used and their preparationThe interview results indicate that whole plants are usedin 54% of treatments followed by rhizomes (21%), fruits(9.5%) and roots (5.5%). Bark, flowers and seeds were

Preference of uses

Medicinal

Grazing

Food

Fuel

Timber

Fodder

Figure 2 Preferences mentioned by the informants for thespecies having more than one local use.

used less frequently. Most of the plants used are hemi-cryptophytes and geophytes and fewer are woody (pha-nerophytes and chamaephytes) or therophytes (Figure 3).Whole plants or plant parts are utilized in various formsin traditional herbal recipes. In the majority of recipes,they are in the form of powder (19%) followed by decoc-tion + infusion (10.5%) (Figure 4).

Therapeutic usesThe results of the questionnaires analysis reveal 97prominent remedial uses of medicinal plants, whichwere divided into 15 major categories based on the ail-ment of a specific human system, being treated with.The largest number of ailments cured with medicinalplants are associated with the digestive system (32.76%responses) followed by those associated with the respira-tory and urinary systems (13.72% and 9.13% respect-ively). The percentage of ailments associated with theblood circulatory and reproductive systems and the skinwere 7.37%, 7.04% and 7.03%, respectively. In terms of asingle problem of a specific system, the urinary tract in-fection (UTI) was mentioned on top; treated with medi-cinal plants followed by asthma and gastric problems.The other diseases related with general body, endocrinesystem, nervous system, mouth and eyes etc. were con-sidered each by 5% or less than 5% respondents. Figure 5and 6 visualise the results of the specific diseases of thehuman system cured with medicinal plants as mentionedby interviewees, whilst a detailed summary of the speciesalong with a list of the specific diseases is presented inTable 2.

DiscussionRole of native plants in supporting human livelihoodsand well beingFindings of this paper signify the relationship betweenthe provisioning ecosystem services of vegetation andhuman well-being in the study area. The questionnaireanalyses indicate that the people of the Naran Valleypossess valuable knowledge of natural plant biodiversityand the services it can provide are immensely importantto them. There was a variation in knowledge at individ-ual level depending upon the relation between the per-son and the specific plants species or group which he/she prioritizes for certain uses which is reported in

Table 2 Plant species with their local names, part used and traditional medicinal uses

S. N Botanical Name Family Name Altitude(m)

Locality Local Name Part used Uses

1 Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae 2840 Bans Birangesif/Jarri

Wholeplant

Less concentrated decoction mixed withmilk is taken in stomach disorders anddiarrhoea.

2 Aconitumheterophyllum Wall.

Ranunculaceae 3250 Besal Patris/Sarbavala

Rhizome Pills of rhizome powder coated in localbutter are used as aphrodisiac and generalbody tonic.

3 Aconitum violaceumJacq. ex Stapf

Ranunculaceae 3310 Serrian Atees/Zahar Pairedroots

Powders are used in sciatica and as painkiller.

4 Actaea spicata L. Rosaceae 3130 Lalazar Beenakae Root,berries

Berries are used as sedative; Extract isapplied externally for the treatment of jointpains.

5 Adiantum venustum D.Don

Adiantaceae 3020 UpperBatakundi

Sumbal Wholeplant

Infusion is taken orally for lungs disorders.

6 Aesculus indica (Wall.ex Camb) Hook.

Hippocastanceae 2460 Damdama Bankhore/Javaz

Fruit Powder of the dried fruit is used inindigestion.

7 Allium humile Kunth. Alliaceae 3570 LalazarPeak

Jangali piaz Wholeplant

Fresh plant is taken as salad forgastrointestinal disorders and UTI.

8 Angelica glaucaEdgew.

Apiaceae 3410 Lalazar Chora chora Driedroots

Powdered roots are taken with milk forgastrointestinal disorders.

9 Artemisia absinthium L Asteraceae 2800 Lalazar Chahu/Tarkha Floweringtops

Crushed powders are used to enhancedigestion as well as worm problems.

10 Artemisia vulgaris L. Asteraceae 2630 BatakundiR. Station

Chahu/Javkey youngshoots

Extract of its young shoots is used toregulate monthly cycle.

11 Asparagus racemosusWilld.

Asparagaceae 2770 Barrawae Nanoor/Shalgvatey

Root &stem

Paste of powder is applied for woundshealing (Antiseptic); powders are takenorally to stimulates sexual desire and treatdysentery.

12 BerberispseudoumbellataParker

Berberidaceae 2900 Batakundi Sumbal/Kvarey

Root, bark& fruit

Powder of roots bark is used in fever,backache, jaundice, and UTI. Fruit isconsidered as tonic.

13 Bergenia ciliata (Haw.)Sternb.

Saxifragaceae 2940 UpperBatakundi

But pewa/Zakhmehayat

Latex &Rhizome

Latex is applied externally for gum diseasesand decoction of rhizome is used in kidneystones.

14 Bergenia strachyei(Hook. f. & Thoms)Engl

Saxifragaceae 3190 Such Peak But pewa/Zakhmehayat

Rhizome,Latex

Latex is applied externally for gum diseases;Decoction of rhizome is used in kidneystones and for contraction of tissues.

15 Betula utilis D. Don Betulaceae 3250 Such Braj Leaves,bark

Tea made up of young leaves is used asdiuretic and joints pain; rarely used for gallbladder stone.

16 Bistorta affinis (D.Don) Green

Polygonaceae 3350 LowerBatakundi

Anjabar Rhizome Powders prepared from rhizome taken withmilk in fever, body pains & musclescontraction.

17 Bistorta amplexicaulis(D. Don)

Polygonaceae 2680 BatakundiR. Station

Masloon Rhizome Powder mixed with little salt is used for sorethroat, swelling of mouth and tongue.

18 Caltha alba Jack. exComb

Ranunculaceae 2960 Khora Baringu Roots &airial parts

Roots infusion is used as mouth wash;young shoots and leaves are cooked asvegetable for and considered as digestive.

19 Capsella bursa-pastoris(L.) Medic.

Brassicaceae 2540 LowerBatakundi

Chambraka Aerialparts,seeds

Aerial parts are cooked and used indiarrhoea; Seeds powder is taken with waterto cure high blood pressure.

20 Cedrus deodara (Roxb.ex Lamb.) G. Don

Pinaceae 2700 Naran Diar/Ranzrra oil Oil are extracted from wood throughburning and used to cure skin disorders.

21 Chenopodium albumL.

Chenopodiaceae 2460 Naran Sarmay Leaves &shoots

Leaves and shoots are cooked and taken toexpel worms also to promote evacuation ofbowels and urine.

22 Ranunculaceae 2820 Lalazar Zelae


Table 2 Plant species with their local names, part used and traditional medicinal uses (Continued)

Clematis montanaBuch.-Ham. ex DC

Flowers &Fruits

Flowers and fruits powder is taken fortreating the diarrhoea & dysentery.

23 Colchicum luteumBaker

Colchicaceae 3230 Bans Qaimat-guley/Suranjanetalkh

Driedcorms

Very small amount of powder is given byHakims (specialist people) in local oils asaphrodisiac and in joint pains, spleen & liverdiseases.

24 Convolulus arvensis L. Convolulaceae 2940 UpperBatakundi

Sahar gulay Roots Powder is considered as purgative & used inevacuation of bowels.

25 Corydalis govanianaWall.

Fumariaceae 3310 Damdama Desi mamera Wholeplant

Juice o the plant is used as diuretic powdersof flowers are used in treating eye diseases.

26 Cotoneastermicrophyllus Wall. exLindl

Rosaceae 2720 DadarNalah

Mamanna/Kharava

Leavesandshoots

Tea prepared from leaves is used to stopbleeding and peep.

27 Crataegus oxycanthaL.

Rosaceae 2410 Naran Tampasa Fruits andflowers

Fruit and flowers are considered as hearttonic.

28 Cypripediumcordigerum D. Don

Orchidaceae 3050 Batakundi Shakalkal Rhizome Powders are used by experts relieve spasmand as nerve stimulant

29 Dactylorhiza hatagirea(D. Don) Soo

Orchidaceae 2760 SaifalmalukNalah

Salap Tubers Tubers powders are used by hakims as sexstimulant & nerve tonic.

30 Dioscorea deltoideaWall.

Dioscoreaceae 2820 Damdama Kirtha Tubers Tubers are crushed to powder form anduses as enhancer of excretion and wormexpulsion; Also used in butter as tonic.

31 Dryopteris juxtapostiaChrist

Pteridaceae 2910 UpperBatakundi

Kwanjay Youngshoots

Young shoots are cooked as pot herb andconsidered as digestive that help inevacuation of bowel more drastically.

32 Ephedra gerardianaWall. ex Stapf

Ephedraceae 2570 BatakundiR. Station

Ephedra Wholeplant

Powder of the crushed plant and some timeits tea is used for TB, asthma, astringent,relaxation of bronchial muscles.

33 Equisetum arvense L. Equisetaceae 2600 BatakundiR. Station

Nari/Bandakey

Aerialparts

Powder prepare from aerial parts are usedfor bone strengthening, hairs and naildevelopment and weakness caused by TB.

34 Eremurus himalaicusBaker

Asphodelaceae 2700 Barrawae Sheela Youngshoots

Young shoots are cooked and used asdigestive.

35 Euphorbia wallichiiHook. f.

Euphorbiaceae 3250 Such Arghamala/Shangla

Latex Latex is extracted and mixed with milk insmall amount and used against worms, toaccelerate defecation, promotes circulationand bowel evacuation.

36 Euphrasia himalayicaWetts.

Lamiaceae 3170 Lalazar WholePlant

Local people cook and use it against cold,cough, sore throat

37 Fragaria nubicolaLindl. ex Lacaita

Rosaceae 3200 Jalkhad Katalmewa Fruits Juice of it is considered as anti diarrhoeal,anti dysenteric. Also used in diabetes andsexual diseases.

38 Fritillaria roylei Hook. f. Liliaceae 2950 DadarNalah

Bulb Powder of the dry bulb or in fresh formmixed with butter is used in UTI and tosoften and soothe the skin.

39 Galium aparine L. Rubiaceae 3110 Damdama Goose grass Wholeplant

Its decoction is used in urinary tractinfection.

40 Gentiana kurro Royle Gentianaceae 3290 Dabukan Linkath Root Powdered root is used in stomach-ache, astonic and muscles contraction.

41 Gentianamoorcroftiana (Wall.ex G. Don) Airy Shaw

Gentianaceae 3050 Khora Bhangara Rhizome Powder is used to stimulant appetite.

42 Gentianodes argentiaOmer, Ali & Qaiser

Gentianaceae 3300 Saifalmalukmountain

Linkathi Root Decoction is used in urinary problems.

43 Geranium nepalenseSweet.

Geraniaceae 3000 Lalazar Lijaharri Wholeplant

Rhizome’s powder and decoction of aerialparts are used for the treatment of renalinfections and as contraction of uterinemuscles.



44 Geraniumwallichianum D. Donex. Sweet

Geraniaceae 2920 Barrawae Lijaahari/Ratan jog/srazela

Rhizome Boiled powder is used in high bloodpressure, uterine diseases and stomachdisorders. Also considered as tonic.

45 Hyoscyamus niger L. Solanaceae 2730 UpperBatakundi

Khurasaniajwain

Leaves/seeds

Decoction extracted from boiled leaves indiluted form is used as sedative, and painkiller. Powders of the seeds are used to treatwhooping cough.

46 Hypericum perforatumL.

Hypericaceae 2540 Naran Balsana/Shinchae

Wholeplnt

Tea prepared of young shoots is used ingastric disorders, respiratory and urinarydifficulties. Roots powders are used inirregular menstruation.

47 Impatiens bicolorRoyle

Balsaminaceae 2700 LowerBatakundi

Gulemehendi/Atraangey

Wholeplant

Paste of leaves is used in joint pains. Extractof the plant is regarded as cooling agentand in speeding defecation.

48 Indigofera heteranthaWall. ex Brand

Papilionaceae 2680 SaifulmalukNalah

Kainthi/Ghvareja

Wholeplant

Powder of the root bark and also is used inhepatitis, whooping cough. Its extract isused as dye for blackening of hairs.

49 Inula grandiflora Willd. Asteraceae 2870 UpperBatakundi

Kuth Rhizome Both powdered and fresh rhizome is used ingastric disorders, in appetite and as diuretic

50 Iris hookeriana Foster Iridaceae 3340 Besal Gandechar Rhizome Minute amount of powder of dried rhizomeis used as speeding defecation andurination and in gall bladder diseases.

51 Juglans regia L. Juglandaceae 2450 Akhor/Ghuz Fruits,bark

Nuts are believed to use as brain tonic, barkin toothache.

52 Juniperus communis L. Juniperaceae 3550 Such Gugarr/Bhentri

Berries Berry powder is considered as enhancer ofurination, gas expulsion and stimulant.

53 Juniperus excelsa M.Bieb

Juniperaceae 3460 Getidas Gugarr Fruits Fruits are used as urinary, venereal, uterineand digestive troubles as well as gleets.

54 Leucas cephalotes(Roth) Spreng.

Papilionaceae 2880 Dabukan Gomma Wholeplant

Extraction of the plant is used to dispelfever and chills and also used in scabies,cough and cold.

55 Malva neglecta Wall. Malvaceae 2620 Serrian Sonchal/Panerak

Wholeplant

As a local vegetable believed to relinquishbowel and treat dilated veins in swollenanal tissue.

56 Mentha longifolia (L.)Hudson.

Lamiaceae 2480 UpperBatakundi

Safid Podina Wholeplant

Fresh leaves and shoots and also its powderare used in sauces with belief of gasexpeller and anti diarrhoeal.

57 Mentha royleanaBenth.

Lamiaceae 2590 BatakundiR. Station

Podina Leaves Mixed in green teas and are used invomiting, as cooling agent and gas expeller.

58 Nepeta laevigata (D.Don) Hand.-Mazz.

Lamiaceae 2910 DadarNalah

Deijalbhanga/Peesho butay

Wholeplant

Powders of the dried plant are used to curecold, fever and headache.

59 Onosma bracteatumWall.

Boraginaceae 2710 Jakhad Gowzoban Wholeplant

Powders are taken with water as heartstimulant while decoction is used as antidandruff.

60 Origanum vulgare L. Lamiaceae 2800 Bans Jangalimajorum

Wholeplant

Powder mixed with milk is taken instomach-ache, antispasmodic. Also takenwith milk as antimicrobial and flavouringagent.

61 Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. Polygonaceae 2940 Khora Tarwakay Aerialparts

Young leaves and aerial parts are used assource of vitamin C.

62 Oxytropiscachemiriana Camb.

Papilionaceae 3120 Batakundi Rhizome Rhizome of the plant is traditionally used asa tooth brush to prevent toothache.

63 Paeonia emodi Wall.ex Royle

Paeoniaceae 2730 Naran Mamekh Seeds &tubers

Paste prepared from seeds is used inrheumatism. Powdered rhizome is mixedwith sweet dishes and used for thetreatment of UTI and backache.

64 Parnassia nubicolaWall.

Parnassiaceae 3110 Lalazar Wholeplant

Whole plant is cooked as a vegetable (potherb) and is exercised in digestive disorders.



65 Pimpinella diversifolia(Wall.) DC

Apiaceae 2800 LowerBatakundi

Tarpakhi/Watani kaga

Wholeplant

Dried plant is crushed to powdered formand used for gas and bowel expulsion. Alsoused for flavour.

66 Pinus wallichianaJackson

Pinaceae 2720 LowerBatakundi

Sraf Resin,woods

Resin is considered as diaphoretic, alsoapplied to the cracked (wounded) heels.

67 Plantago himalaicaPilger

Plantaginaceae 3230 Barrawae Jabae Leaves Paste prepare from fresh leaves is used inskin problems especially soured feet.

68 Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae 2950 UpperBatakundi

Ispeghol/Jabae

Leave/seeds

Decoction of boiled leaves is used inrespiratory problems. Seeds are taken withmilk to ease digestion.

69 Plantago major L. Plantaginaceae 3000 Dabukan Ipeghol/Jabae

Root,seeds,leaves

Leaves are cooked and taken orally to cureseasonal fevers. Chopped leaves are used aspoultice to cure wounds. Seeds areconsidered as tonic. Root decoction &infusion is taken as anti dysenteric andleaves decoction in breathing problems.

70 Podophllumhexandrum Royle

Podophyllaceae 3080 Khora Kakorra/Gangorra/

Rhizome& Fruits

A poisonous plant but expert healers use itin a minute amount in mixture with otherplants. Its fruit is used to ease bowelmovement whilst rhizome is used in thetreatment of cancer.

71 Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonaceae 2940 Damdama Bandakey Wholeplant

Aerial parts of the plant are cooked as potherb and considered as purgative andemetic

72 Polygonum plebeiumR. Br

Polygonaceae 3440 Such Baramol/Noorealam

Root Root is boiled and mixed with butter locallyfor stimulate mammary glands; It is alsoconsidered to soothes and protects thealimentary canal.

73 Potentilla anserina L. Rosaceae 2820 Lalazar Spangji Wholeplant

Whole plant is used as anti-diarrhoeal andalso in intestinal infections

74 Primula denticulataSmith

Primulaceae 3220 Serrian Mamera Rhizome Powdered rhizome mixed with honey isused to cure various eyes disorders.

75 Prunella vulgaris L. Lamiaceae 2910 UpperBatakundi

Ustakhdus Wholeplant

Whole plant both in fresh and dry form isused to relieve respiratory difficulties, intreating joint pains and easing gastricspasm.

76 Prunus cerasoides D.Don

Rosaceae 2670 Such Alubaloo Bark, fruit Decoction of the bark is taken in biting andfruit as nerve tonic

77 Rheum austral D. Don Polygonaceae 3450 Saifalmaluk Chotial Rhizome& shoots

Leaves and shoots are used as salad for tonormalize irregular heart beating, respiratoryproblems, sore eyes and body strength.Rhizome is cooked and used as woundhealing agent and to relive urinary tractdisorders.

78 Rhododendronhypenanthum Balf.f

Oleaceae 3610 Lalazarpeak

Tazak Tusum/Gul namer

Leaves Fresh leaves of it are used in spices asflavouring agent.

79 Ribes alpestre Decne Grassullariaceae 2720 BatakundiR. Station

Berries Berry fruits are considered as heart tonic.

80 Rosa webbiana Wall.ex Royle

Rosaceae 2900 Besal Jangali Gulab Flowerss,bark

Processed flowers (Arq) are used inrespiratory problems while bark is used inwounds healing as well as flavour.

81 Rubus sanctusSchreber

Rosaceae 3000 Khora Alish Wholeplant

Fruit is laxative and dysentery; Infusion ofleaves and young shoots is used inwhooping cough.

82 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae 2540 Lalazar Shalkhey Roots &leaves

Root powder is considered to overcomedryness and scaling of the skin.

83 Rumex nepalensisSprenge

Polygonaceae 2670 LowerBatakundi

Ambavati Roots &leaves

Leaves are used as substitute of Rheumaustral whilst its root is believed to easebowel evacuation.



84 Salvia lanata Roxb. Lamiaceae 2870 Such Kiyan Wholeplant

Aerial parts are used as vegetable and itsroot powders are considered to ease bowelevacuation; also used in cough & cold.

85 Salvia moorcroftianaWallich ex Benth

Lamiaceae 2910 Damdama Kalizarri Leaves,seeds,roots

Fresh leaves are put in hot ash for a whileand then used as poultice for abscesses.Cooked leaves are used in dysentery andcolic.

86 Sambucus weightianaWall. ex Wight & Arn

Sambucaceae 2460 Barrawae Mushkiara Wholeplant

Decoction and powder is used to relieverespiratory difficulties and inflammatory skinconditions.

87 Saussurea albescensHook. f. & Thoms

Asteraceae 3000 Serrian Kuth Roots Roots are cooked in local butters and usedas tonic, also use in treatment of stomach aswell as pain, and skin diseases.

88 Silene vulgaris Garck Caryophyllaceae 2780 Dabukan Barra takla Wholeplant

Juice of it is used as digestive, in eyediseases, and is also vaporized to kill or repelpests.

89 Swertia ciliata (D. Donex G. Don) B. L. Burtt

Gentianaceae 2850 Bans Chirita Wholeplant

Powders are used in irregularity orinfrequency of passing faeces as well asstomach burn.

90 Sysimbrium irio L. Brassicaceae 2940 Jalkhad Khubkalan Leaves &seeds

Seeds are used in throat & chest infection &ease breathing; Paste of leaves is applied tocure sunburn & enhance skin beauty

91 Taraxacum officinaleWeber

Asteraceae 2720 Naran Hand/Gulsag/Boodaboodae

Roots Roots decoction is taken to ease urinationand other kidney disorders whilst powdersare taken as tonic.

92 Thymus linearis Benth. Lamiaceae 3240 Besal Bazori/Sperkae/Banajwain

Wholeplant

Plant is used to make tea, drink, juice tocure stomach & liver complaints; Powder ofaerial parts is used in cough.

93 Trifolium repens L. Papilionaceae 2610 Dabukan Chapatra Wholeplant

Fresh plant is used as worms expulsion(Cattles poison)

94 Trillidium govanianum(Wall. ex D. Don)Kunth

Trilliaceae 3370 SaifalmalukLake

Tandhi jarri Roots Powdered plant is used as body and sexualtonic.

95 Tussilago farfara L. Asteraceae 2990 BatakundiHills

Funjiwam Wholeplant

Aerial parts are cooked and used inrespiratory infections.

96 Ulmus wallichianaPlanch.

Ulmaceae 2580 DamdamaNalah

Kahey Bark Considered highly medicinal for digestivetract diseases.

97 Valeriana pyrolifoliaDecne

Valerianaceae 3460 LalazarPeak

Mushkbala/Shangeetae

Rhizome Powdered rhizome is used to treat spasmand habitual constipation.

98 Verbascum thapsus L. Scrophulariaceae 2980 Naran Kharghvag/Jangalitamakoo

Wholeplant

Root’s powder is considered as aphrodisiac;leaves, paste is used in skin problems; leavesare also smoked to induce sedation byreducing irritability or excitement.

99 Viburnum cotinifoliumD. Don

Caprifoliaceae 2630 Naran Taliana Fruits Fruits are taken for reducing uterineirritability and stopping bleeding usually byfemale

100 Viburnumgrandiflorum Wall. exDC.

Caprifoliaceae 2680 Naran Guch Fruits Fruits are used to ease gastric spasms anduterine irritability.

101 Viola canescens Wall.ex Roxb.

Violaceae 3020 Jalkhad Gulebanafsha

Wholeplant

Young shoots are used to promotecirculation, dispels fever and chills, relievesmuscle tension whilst decoction & infusionis used in sore throat.


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number of other studies also [29,30]. Nevertheless, thisstudy has been able to demonstrate that plants are usedto support a wide range of livelihood activities in thestudy area, and particularly as a source of traditionalmedicines. Furthermore, plant biodiversity of the regionprovide timber, fuel, medicines, food, fodder, grazingand others services to the indigenous communities.However extensive uses of natural vegetation in the pasthave decreased the provisioning services. Local resi-dents especially the older generation prefer to live in thevalley because of the existing provisioning ecosystemservices and their traditional ethno-ecological know-ledge. However, the new generation tend to leave thoserural spaces in search of education, facilities and easymodern life [31].

Medicinal plant resourcesThe use of plants to cure diseases is as old as humanhistory. Around 20% of the plant species of the worldare estimated to be used in health care systems [32].

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Medicinal plants play an important role in the trad-itional health care systems of this region also. A few ofthe species found in the region, i.e. Dioscorea deltoidea,Podophyllum hexandrum, Berberis pseudoumbellata, Cypri-pedium cordigerum and Dactylorhiza hatagirea, are listedon the CITES appendix II (the Convention on Inter-national Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Faunaand Flora). One or more of these species were alsoreported in few other studies from other Himalayan andthe Hindu Kush areas [17,33]. Some other medicinalspecies are endemic to the Himalayas and hence shouldalso be given attention in order to ensure sustainableuse e.g., Cedrus deodara and Aesculus indica, whilstsome are rare in the region e.g., Aconitum heterophyl-lum, Aconitum violaceum, Ephedra gerardiana, Hyperi-cum perforatum, Indigofera heterantha, Paeonia emodi,and Ulmus wallichiana. In addition to medicinal uses,these species provide other services like timber fueland grazing etc. Numbers of the remote valleys in theHimalayas have not been studied specifically for the eco-system services and plant medicinal uses though indi-genous inhabitants of these areas have a long establishedsystem of health care and cure with available medicinalplant resources. The elder people have more accurateknowledge about the parts and recipes than the youngwhich improve the effectiveness of medicinal plants. Simi-lar trend was also reported by other ethnobotanists in theSouthern Ethiopia and Hindu Kush region [34,35]. It isimportant to recognise that unsustainable collection ofmedicinal plants is one of the main causes of plant popu-lation decline. Increasing human population, extensivegrazing, habitats losses, multipurpose collection and care-lessness are the other factors. All such ecological as wellas cultural matters need to be documented and addressed

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Figure 5 Medicinal use categories mentioned by respondents for the treatment of different categories of disease or other ailments.


while designing management, preservation and conserva-tion strategies. Results of this paper also demonstrate thatmost of the plants are either used as a whole or its partslike roots and rhizomes distinctively which are also alarm-ing signals against the sustainable use of this highly valuedplant biodiversity. In addition marketing of certain species

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Figure 6 Medicinal plant uses for treating different diseases & ailmenProblems; USP = Urinary System’s Problems; BCSP = Blood Circulatory SystemProblems; GBP = General Body Problems; Ton = Tonic; MP =Mouth ProblemSSP = Skeleton System’s problems; EP = Eyes problems; AC = Anti Cancer AB

indicate probable threats information about their conser-vation which also suggests that number of these eco-nomically important species can be domesticated andpropagated in protected places for marketing purposes.Interestingly, most of the less abundant species and fam-ilies are utilized frequently by the locals. For example, 31

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ts. DSP = Digestive System’s Problems; RSP = Respiratory System’s’s Problems; ReSP = Reproductive System’s Problems; SkP = Skins; ESP = Endocrine System Problems; NSP = Nervous System’s Problem;= Antibacterial.


small families with only 1 or 2 species are all used medi-cinally in the area. These findings not only prove that peo-ples utilize the plants according to their traditionalknowledge and not their abundance but also indicate therarity of such taxa in the near future.

Indigenous knowledge as a cultural assetRapid technological and economic development hasbrought ecological and social changes all over the world.Cultural changes even take place in remote rural soci-eties due to their increasing interactions with modernurban cities. Subsequently, knowledge about the use ofplant resources, as well as the plant wealth itself, is de-clining in a number of regions [36,37]. The present studyalso reveals a decrease in indigenous knowledge andchanges in attitudes regarding health-giving flora amongthe younger generation. This phenomenon is confirmedfrom the study of [38] on the Pakistani migrants inBradford UK. This and other similar studies, furthercommunicate the extinction of traditional knowledge inmodern societies. Indigenous people, although the pos-sessor of traditional knowledge have no proper trainingin sustainable ways of plant collection, post collectioncare and processing and usually waste a considerableamount of medicinal plants. Such sort of unwise prac-tices over a long time can cause a reduction in plant bio-diversity in general and of plant species providingprovisioning services in particular [39,40]. It is therefore,suggested to recruit ethno-ecologists and experts to trainthe local people for the sustainable utilization of medi-cinal plant resources. Some of the problems associatedwith medicinal plant resources can be overcome throughresearch on domestic growth of medicinal plants and de-velopment of processing techniques among the people.In this recent millennium, present and number of otherresearch studies suggest urgent call for the preservationof both long-established remedial knowledge and medi-cinal plant resources in the developing world, particu-larly in the Himalayas [17,41-44]. Furthermore, long-established knowledge about the medicinal values ofplants has contributed a lot in the past in productionand synthesis of synthetic drugs and market values. Ithas played and still plays a remarkable role in solvinghealth related problems especially in undeveloped andremote parts of the world. A number of issues wereidentified during the present project. These includedocumentation of the traditional knowledge; intellectualproperty rights of the locals, trainings about the sustain-able use of the available resources and use of thetraditional knowledge for conservation which can beaddressed in the future.

Authors’ contributionsThe authors articulate that they have no competing interest.

Competing interestsSMK involved in formulating study design, questionnaire, field work, datacollection and compilation of 1st draft of this paper. SP, HA and DMHplanned questionnaire and supervised the project. HS gathered relevantliterature. ZU identified most of the plant species in the field. MA processedand preserved the herbarium specimens. All the authors have read andapproved the final submission of the paper.

AcknowledgementsInhabitants of the Naran Valley are highly acknowledged for participation ininterviews and sharing their ethnomedicinal knowledge.

Author details1Department of Botany, Hazara University Mansehra, Pakistan. 2Departmentof Geography, University of Leicester, UK. 3Department of Genetics, HazaraUniversity Mansehra, Pakistan. 4Department of Plant Sciences, Quaid-e-AzamUniversity, Islamabad, Pakistan. 5Department of Biology, University ofLeicester, UK.

Received: 29 June 2012 Accepted: 7 January 2013Published: 10 January 2013

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doi:10.1186/1746-4269-9-4Cite this article as: Khan et al.: Medicinal flora and ethnoecologicalknowledge in the Naran Valley, Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Journal ofEthnobiology and Ethnomedicine 2013 9:4.

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Medicinal flora and ethnoecological knowledge in the Naran Valley